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Yellow fever

This is microbiology class is the second part of research paper I attack the first paper there so you can have a ideas

Dear students,

Some suggestions for term paper part 2:

Global impacts of the disease

· any change in government policy and healthcare system

· public awareness (e.g. World AIDS day, World TB day)

· social issues arisen from the disease (e.g. unemployment, economy shock, psychological problem

What are the causes/driving forces of this disease (e.g. global warming, antibiotic misuse, change in lifestyle, etc)

Public health emergency preparedness and allocation/distribution of resources during outbreak

New drug development (vaccine research, clinical trials, more NIH funding?)

Any response from WHO, CDC and NIH (or other global organization)

Your perspective/understanding about the social impact of the disease

https

://

www.who.int/health-topics/ethics

https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fimmu.2019.00549/full

Format:

Font: Times New Roman Size 12

Pages: at least 3 pages, not including the cover page and references page)

Margins: 1”

Space: instead of double space (Chicago), follow 1.5

Here are some useful links for Term paper part II (due on 11/10/2020):

https://www.who.int/health-topics/ethics

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5618832/

https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fimmu.2019.00549/full

Global aspects of the disease (news, healthcare system, public awareness, government policy, social issues arisen from the disease)
Your perspective/understanding about the social impact of the disease
Your experience about the disease

References (refer to sample term paper)

Please click this link for Chicago style writing.
https://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/turabian/Student-Tip-Sheets.html

Providing an opportunity of a lifetime
Yellow Fever Initiative

O n e i n j e c t i O n , f u l l p r O t e c t i O n

A T A N G I B L E T H R E A T T O P U B L I C H E A LT H

Once a major threat to industrial economies, yellow fever strikes an

estimated 200 000 people every year, causing an estimated 30 000 deaths.

Deforestation, urbanization, climate change and low population immunity

have contributed to its re-emergence since the 1980’s. Cases are now

occurring in areas that have not previously had outbreaks (southern Brazil,

northern Argentina, central Paraguay), or had not confirmed cases

in decades (Central African Republic, Chad, Congo, Liberia, Sierra Leone).

An acute viral haemorrhagic disease transmitted by mosquitoes, yellow

fever can cause devastating epidemics in areas where infected mosquitoes

can come in contact with non-immunized humans. Densely populated

cities are particularly vulnerable, as stagnant water collected in water

containers or peri-domestic refuse (cans, tires, etc.) provides conditions

for mosquito larvae to thrive.

There is no cure – up to 50% of persons severely affected by yellow fever

will die – but yellow fever can be prevented by a safe, affordable and highly

effective vaccine. One injection offers full protection.

m I n I m I Z I n G G l O b A l r I s K O f O u T b r e A K s ,

O n e V A c c I n e A T A T I m e

The Yellow Fever Initiative works to secure global vaccine supply and boost
population immunity by vaccinating people at high risk. The goal of the
partnership is to prevent yellow fever epidemics in targeted countries
across Africa and Latin America. At the heart of its strategy lies the inclusion
of the yellow fever vaccine in national childhood routine immunization,
implementation of preventive mass vaccination campaigns in high-risk
areas, maintaining surveillance and outbreak response capacity, and
boosting vaccine production to meet global demand. A comprehensive
risk assessment allows countries to identify population groups for
prioritized vaccination.

Each year, the global emergency vaccine stockpile has 6 million doses
available to any country for emergency response. The stockpile has been
instrumental in controlling yellow fever outbreaks in Africa and the
Americas and averting large-scale epidemics.

In addition, more than 230 million doses are being procured for preventive

campaigns in the low-income countries at highest risk in Africa – Benin,

Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana,

Guinea, Liberia, Mali, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone and Togo. Flexibility is

needed to respond to outbreaks and changing risk profiles, so other

countries may benefit if needed. Additional resources will allow the

preventive strategy to extend to other countries.

A c O m m I T T e d P A r T n e r s H I P

The Yellow Fever Initiative is a joint collaboration of the World Health

Organization (WHO) and UNICEF, with the participation of national governments

and supported by the GAVI Alliance. Key partners include the Agence de

Médecine Préventive, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (USA),

the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC),

YELLOW FEVER INITIATIVE:
REDUCING THE RISK OF OUTBREAKS

Risk assessment and surveillance

• Identify populations at risk
• Detect outbreaks early

Vaccination and outbreak response

• Contain outbreaks through emergency response
• Prevent outbreaks through mass vaccination
• Protect children through routine immunization

Securing vaccine supply

• Maintain the emergency stockpile
• Forecast vaccine requirements
• Support emerging manufacturers

Monitoring quality and effectiveness

• Ensure high vaccination coverage
• Monitor vaccine quality and safety
• Strengthen disease surveillance
• Support operational research and innovation

An adequate global vaccine supply is critical for maintaining yellow fever control for the world’s most vulnerable populations. The yellow fever virus poses
the greatest threat in 45 endemic countries, 32 in Africa and 13 in Central and South America, where altogether almost 900 million people are at risk.

A global stockpile of yellow fever vaccine is reserved for use in emergencies
and replenished every year to ensure ability to rapidly respond to outbreaks.
As outbreaks continue to occur, the world is faced with a limited availability of
a life saving vaccine. Urban epidemics could overwhelm emergency response
capacity and jeopardize global health security. Without funding for preventive
campaigns, countries face the loss of life and social and economic disruption
that outbreaks inevitably cause.

Routine childhood immunization and preventive mass vaccination campaigns
protect populations at risk and lessen the need for emergency response.
Vaccine supply for preventive vaccination is dependent on commitment to
purchase. With upfront financial commitment, vaccine manufacturers can
increase production to meet global demand.

Action is needed now to offer the opportunity of a lifetime to people at risk.

P R O V I D I N G A N O P P O R T U N I T Y O F A L I F E T I M E

Data Source: World Health Organization/CDC

Map Production: Public Health Information and Geographic Information Systems (GIS),
World Health Organization

the Institut Pasteur in Dakar, Médecins sans Frontières (MSF), the Robert

Koch Institute (Berlin), vaccine manufacturers (Sanofi Pasteur,

BioManguinhos, Institut Pasteur Dakar, and Chumakov Institute) and others.

Allocation of vaccine to countries is approved by the long-standing

International Coordinating Group for Yellow Fever Vaccine Provision (ICG),

composed of WHO, UNICEF, MSF and IFRC. UNICEF Supply Division plays a

critical role in vaccine procurement for the Yellow Fever Initiative.

G A u G I n G P r O G r e s s

Building on existing efforts, the Yellow Fever Initiative has realized
impressive gains:

• Eight countries – Togo, Senegal, Mali, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Sierra
Leone, Liberia and Benin – conducted preventive vaccination campaigns
between January 2007 and December 2009 and vaccinated almost 41
million people. All campaigns have far exceeded their objective of
vaccinating 90% of eligible children and adults, protecting the
most vulnerable in countries at risk. No new epidemics have
occurred in areas covered by preventive vaccination. Most yellow
fever campaigns have offered an integrated package of interventions
for children, such as polio vaccine in Cameroon, measles vaccine in
Sierra Leone, and deworming in Liberia.

• In the same period, the ICG provided 14 million doses of yellow fever
vaccine from the emergency stockpile to contain outbreaks in 11
countries (9 in Africa, 2 in South America). The stockpile has been
critical to respond to outbreaks in known endemic areas and areas
where countries are reporting outbreaks for the first time.

• In Africa, 22 countries have introduced yellow fever vaccine in routine
childhood immunization. Routine vaccination coverage in countries at
risk in Africa has increased from 16% in 2000 (8 countries) to 43% in
2008. In the Americas, coverage rose from 64% to 91%.

• With investment in diagnostics, case-based yellow fever surveillance has
been established in 19 African countries, through building capacity of
national laboratories and the WHO regional reference laboratory at the
Institut Pasteur in Dakar, Senegal.

• Vaccine production capacity has increased from around 30 million doses

in 2000 to 75 million doses in 2009. Facilities have been upgraded to

meet international Good Manufacturing Practices (cGMP), offering

countries more vaccine choices.

−The Institut Pasteur (Dakar), the only yellow fever vaccine

manufacturer in Africa, is increasing production for the African region.

−WHO has prequalified new vaccine presentations. Thanks to the

Yellow Fever Initiative, the yellow fever vaccine is the first vaccine

produced in Russia to be prequalified.

F U N D I N G P A R T N E R S

The Yellow Fever Initiative is supported by the GAVI Alliance, the European
Commission Humanitarian Office (ECHO), the EuropeAid Cooperation
Office (AIDCO), the Government of Ireland, Ministries of Health, and
country-level partners.

GAVI as a key partner has ensured tremendous gains, helping to establish
the vaccine stockpile, fund vaccine procurement, support operational costs
of vaccination, conduct surveillance and risk assessment to identify
high-risk populations, and strengthen vaccine safety monitoring.

Country

Benin

Burkina Faso

Cameroon

Central African

Republic*

Côte d’Ivoire*

Ghana*

Guinea*

Liberia

Mali

Nigeria*

Senegal

Sierra Leone

Togo

Total

Target population
(x million)

6.33

7.55

7.47

Approx

15.4

Approx 22

6.0

2.91

5.94

Approx 104

3.13

4.11

3.64

192 million

Population
vaccinated
(x million)

6.32

7.57

7.51

–

–
–
–

2.89

5.87

–

3.11

3.98

3.59

40.84 million

Vaccine producer

Sanofi Pasteur
(France)

Institut Pasteur
(Senegal)

BioManguinhos
(Brazil)

Chumakov
Institute (Russia)

Presentations

10-dose

5-dose
10-dose
20-dose

5-dose
10-dose
50-dose

5 -dose

Date prequalified

1987

1999

2001

2009

securInG VAccIne suPPly: WHO PrequAlIfIes
VAccInes TO meeT GlObAl demAnd

PreVenTIVe VAccInATIOn cAmPAIGns: PrOGress TO dATe

*Campaigns planned, 2010-2013

ECHO finances emergency vaccination and outbreak investigations.
AIDCO supports surveillance of epidemic-prone diseases, including yellow
fever. Ministries of Health participate in covering operational costs for
preventive campaigns. WHO, UNICEF and numerous nongovernmental
organizations provide support to field operations.

s u s T A I n I n G T H e G A I n s A n d m O V I n G f O r W A r d : A c A l l

f O r f u n d I n G

The funds so far committed to the Yellow Fever Initiative have significantly
reduced the threat of yellow fever. To prevent outbreaks, vaccination
coverage must reach at least 60% to 80% of a population at risk. Only a
few countries in Africa can claim to have reached that milestone.

The global emergency vaccine stockpile of 6 million doses per year must
be sustained for rapid response to yellow fever outbreaks. Further funding
of USD 30 million will secure the vaccine stockpile for 2011 to 2015.

Funding for preventive vaccination in remaining high-risk countries in

Africa must be secured to protect 160 million people at risk. The

partnership urgently requires USD 190 million to complete the

campaigns scheduled. Risk assessments in other countries will identify

populations that can benefit from outbreak prevention strategies.

Health systems need strengthening to improve vaccination coverage, refine

alert and response strategies, develop vaccine regulatory capacity and

monitor immunization safety. To ensure high-quality campaigns, support

is needed for planning, social mobilization and waste management.

Vaccination cards, the key to campaign monitoring, must be distributed as

proof of vaccination. Developing strategies to improve risk assessment,

outbreak prevention, surveillance and rapid diagnosis will help

sustain the gains.

Countries that complete preventive campaigns must keep up high routine

coverage to maintain population immunity and protect the investments

made in yellow fever control.

Current yellow fever vaccine production of 75 million doses per year is

well below the global need for routine immunization, preventive campaigns

and outbreak control.

• Commitment of funding will allow industry to scale up production and

attract new suppliers.

• Increasing African vaccine production capacity will contribute to a lower

vaccine price and a healthy vaccine market.

• Gains will be sustained and countries able to plan for timely and

effective protection of their populations.

currenT fundInG needs TO 2015: 330 mIllIOn us
dOllArs, IncludInG cOunTry cOnTrIbuTIOns

• USD 30 million to maintain the vaccine stockpile for 2011

to 2015 and create a sustainable vaccine revolving fund.

• USD 190 million to complete the programme and protect

160 million people in 5 high-risk countries – Central African

Republic, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Guinea and Nigeria.

• USD 80 million: following risk assessments, an additional 60

million people at risk could be protected in other countries as

needed, such as Chad, Congo, Guinea Bissau, Sudan…

• USD 25 million: countries are expected to contribute to the

operational costs of preventive campaigns.

• USD 5 million can double African yellow fever vaccine

production capacity.

THe GAVI AllIAnce: A cATAlyTIc cOnTrIbuTIOn

•Funded the first yellow fever vaccine stockpile, 2004 – 2006

(~12 million doses).

• Supports countries to introduce and improve uptake of

yellow fever vaccine in routine immunization.

• Commissioned a yellow fever Investment Case to prevent

epidemics and maintain the stockpile. This was costed at

USD 400 million to vaccinate 200 million people in the 13

highest-risk African countries.

• Committed funding of USD 103 million to 2010.

• Created a healthier vaccine market by supporting vaccine

procurement for low-income countries.

• Supported country ownership through co-financing of

operational costs.

For more information, visit www.who.int/yellowfever

© World Health Organization 2010. All rights reserved. WHO/HSE/GAR/ERI/2010.3
The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the World Health Organization concerning
the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. Dotted lines on maps represent approximate border lines
for which there may not yet be full agreement.

All reasonable precautions have been taken by the World Health Organization to verify the information contained in this publication. However, the published material is being distributed without
warranty of any kind, either expressed or implied. The responsibility for the interpretation and use of the material lies with the reader. In no event shall the World Health Organization be liable
for damages arising from its use.

Photographs by WHO/Olivier Asselin. All photographs are WHO copyright.

Yellow Fever #2

Professor

SCB260 General Microbiology

Please add a short introduction at the beginning.

Changes in Government Policy and Healthcare System

The government has had a lot of strategies to prevent and controlling of the yellow fever disease. The strategies aimed to are include first to aiding in detection and controlling of the disease. There is at least one confirmed case of yellow favor daily. According to Cargo et al, the government has mechanisms as well that helps in aiding in early and immediate reporting in case there is any yellow fever case that has been identified, this will help in avoiding of spreading to other people. The suspected patients usually have their specimens collected and then taken to the lab so that there could be very well clearly stated results and not suspicion[footnoteRef:1]. When a person tests positive for the disease, there are some ways on how the medication is usually got. Emergency immunization response and activities are underway and through his (this), the government is ensuring that people will not be contacting the disease, even though they might contract it the impacts that it could have caused is always minimized. This is given to all people irrespective of the immunization history. The childhood immunization against the disease is automatic. The yellow fever surveillance has been improved by the government. This is because the government prioritizes the diseases to be surveyed when the disease has got a high number of deaths. Surveillance for this type of disease is very important because when some measures are taken, the outbreak of these disease can completely be prevented and controlled. [1: Camargo, Carolina, Yasir H. Ahmed-Braimah, I. Alexandra Amaro, Laura C. Harrington, Mariana F. Wolfner, and Frank W. Avila. “Mating and blood-feeding induce transcriptome changes in the spermathecae of the yellow fever mosquito Aedes aegypti.” Scientific Reports 10, no. 1 (2020): 1-13.
]

Public Awareness

The awareness campaigns have been on the rise about the yellow fever disease. This is known as the life saver and preventive campaigns. This was invented since 2011 and it is always organized in a quite number of countries across the globe. This makes so many people to be aware of the existence of the disease, their mode of transmission, their prevention and controlling mechanisms amongst so many things that are usually made public on this day. (references?)

Immunization and its importance against the disease also happens and through this many people tends to understand why especially the newborn kids should be immunized against the diseases, this makes them to be very receptive when the process is turned into a reality. However, there are some factors that makes the disease to shift its geography, for example urbanization and changes of environmental uses and land changes[footnoteRef:2]. The severe outbreak Yellow fever has made the countries and states to be more vigilant and also looking for medicines and vaccines that can help in the disease prevention. [2:

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2020. “Yellow Fever”. Cdc.Gov.

https://www.cdc.gov/yellowfever/

]

Add some info re Gavi-supported vaccine program https://www.gavi.org/types-support/vaccine-support/yellow-fever

There has been a stockpile in response to the disease outbreak this is through some countries being in a position to access the vaccines. Other countries as well are helping the third world countries to access the vaccines in case of an outbreak without having necessary to pay for them his is helpful in curbing the pandemic. There have been millions of the vaccines that are deployed globally so that there can be an inclusive light against the disease. This is through the international coordination groups[footnoteRef:3] [3: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2020. “Yellow Fever”. Cdc.Gov. https://www.cdc.gov/yellowfever/
]

The media plays a very important role in sensitizing about the yellow fever disease. When an outbreak is announced in a given country the people are always very keen to follow the news. and Through this public media, they are able to learn more about the disease and the most important thing is how the prevention procedure is always like. Having some advertisements on the dangers of yellow fever in the media and the social media platforms is always very educative and people are always accessing information which they might not have accessed.

Training of the community health volunteers in some part of the world happens about the disease. These people are mandated to go to the ground and educate the community members as well as sensitizing them on the importance of immunization and this in the long run will help in avoidance, controlling and prevention of diseases.

Social Issues From Yellow Fever

There are so many issues that have arisen as a result of outbreak of yellow fever disease. The very challenging effect of the disease is that it interferes with the psychological functioning of the body[footnoteRef:4]. This is for both the affected and the infected. There are a lot of problems that comes along with the disease for instance death may happen and the people that are left are always psychologically disturbed. [4:

]

When a person or a family member is spending most of the time in the hospital, there is a high probability that there will be a job loss. Unemployment means that the basic needs will be unmet and one will be struggling so much, at some point the person may engage in other crimes as well as committing suicide.

When there is a pandemic for example the outbreak of the yellow fever, the economy will spend most of its income in treating the patients and buying of the medicines, this might make a state to run into crisis and the economic status of the country maybe unstable after the pandemic.

There are a number of factors that are causing yellow fever disease for example weather and climatic conditions this is because the temperatures climate change plays a very important role in the occurrences and the incidences of yellow fever diseases. During warm conditions the type of interaction changes and this may make people to transmit the disease than ever before (not clear about “type of interaction”?) .

Human factors such as the behavior as well as factors of social economic in most cases it has a lot of impacts on the yellow fever contraction. The behavior and the attitude that one has towards a disease may make one vulnerable or resistance to diseases.

The ecosystem itself plays a very vital role in how the rate of the disease will spread. This is because the yellow fever literally can be spread through being bitten by a mosquito. There is a relationship between deforestation and how the mosquitoes are susceptible to people. Flooding and swampy areas might result in the right conditions for the breeding of the mosquitoes[footnoteRef:5]. When they have bred they will bite as many people whom they come across with and this in the long run is a factor that may aid in the spreading of the disease. [5:

Giovanetti, Marta, Marcos Cesar Lima de Mendonça, Vagner Fonseca, Maria Angélica Mares- Guia, Allison Fabri, Joilson Xavier, Jaqueline Goes de Jesus et al. “Yellow fever virus reemergence and spread in Southeast Brazil, 2016–2019.” Journal of virology 94, no. 1 (2019).

]

Transmission of the yellow fever can be linked to some travelling at some levels. This is because some parts of the world are prone to mosquitoes while other places there are no mosquitoes. When one travels to places where there is high number of mosquitoes and they happen to bite them the person who has travelled might contract the disease. (reference?)

Public Health Preparedness on Yellow Fever

Outbreak of yellow fever disease has made the public health emergency team to be very prepared in case an emergency arises. Although there is no specific medication for the yellow fever, there is always a very supportive early treatment systems that is done at the hospital level to make sure that the chances of survival for the patients are improved[footnoteRef:6]. The system is prepared with some specific drugs which helps in curing of very specific signs of yellow fever including drugs for treating dehydration, kidney and liver failures and fever. For example there is a drug to cure the dehydration levels, there is the cure and treatment for kidney and liver failures and how to manage fever for the patients. [6:

Reno, Elaine, Nicolas G. Quan, Carlos Franco-Paredes, Daniel B. Chastain, Lakshmi Chauhan, Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales, and Andrés F. Henao-Martínez. “Prevention of yellow fever in travellers: an update.” The Lancet Infectious Diseases (2020)

]

During the pandemic he resources that are given (provided) especially to the affected country/ or the region is the availing of the stockpile medicine for the patients without a pay especially for the third world countries.

My perspective about understanding the social impacts of Yellow fever

Yellow fever coms (comes) along with so many social impacts. The social impacts does not only affect the infected but also the affected. The psychological impacts affects the person who is sick and at the same time it has got negative impacts on the family members especially when their loved ones are spending a lot of time in the hospitals and incase a person passes away due to the disease. Unemployment and job losses happens when a pandemic strikes an economy. Some people will have to go home due to the economic crises, others is so that he can take care of the patient and others is a result of being into the hospital for so long.

FYI (you can find useful info from this WHO article)

https://www.who.int/csr/disease/yellowfev/YFIbrochure ?ua=1#:~:text=A%20TANGIBLE%20THREAT%20TO%20PUBLIC,re%2Demergence%20since%20the%201980’s.

Reference

Camargo, Carolina, Yasir H. Ahmed-Braimah, I. Alexandra Amaro, Laura C. Harrington, Mariana F. Wolfner, and Frank W. Avila. “Mating and blood-feeding induce transcriptome changes in the spermathecae of the yellow fever mosquito Aedes aegypti.” Scientific Reports 10, no. 1 (2020): 1-13.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2020. “Yellow Fever”. Cdc.Gov. https://www.cdc.gov/yellowfever/

World Health Organization. 2020. “Yellow Fever”. Who.Int.

https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/yellow-fever

Diniz, Lilian Martins Oliveira, Roberta Maia de Castro Romanelli, Aline Almeida Bentes, Nara Lúcia Carvalho da Silva, Flávia Ribeiro Soares Cruzeiro, Tânia Maria Marcial, and José Geraldo Leite Ribeiro. “Yellow fever in children and adolescents previously immunized in Minas Gerais State, Brazil.” Vaccine (2020).
Giovanetti, Marta, Marcos Cesar Lima de Mendonça, Vagner Fonseca, Maria Angélica Mares- Guia, Allison Fabri, Joilson Xavier, Jaqueline Goes de Jesus et al. “Yellow fever virus reemergence and spread in Southeast Brazil, 2016–2019.” Journal of virology 94, no. 1 (2019).
Reno, Elaine, Nicolas G. Quan, Carlos Franco-Paredes, Daniel B. Chastain, Lakshmi Chauhan, Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales, and Andrés F. Henao-Martínez. “Prevention of yellow fever in travellers: an update.” The Lancet Infectious Diseases (2020)

Yellow Fever #2

Professor

SCB260 General Microbiology

Introduction

Yellow fever virus (YFV) is currently a worldwide problem that requires urgent attention for its effects to be mitigated since the 18th century. Following the rampant epidemics, mass production and global supply of the vaccine is essential for control of yellow fever to the vulnerable population in the world. There is limited availability of the vaccine where the cases of outbreak continue to be on a rise. There is a need to push the campaign in the fight against this disease which has impacted the society negatively in many ways.

Changes in Government Policy and Healthcare System

The government has had a lot of strategies to prevent and control the yellow fever disease. The strategies include first aiding in detection and control of the disease. There is at least one confirmed case of yellow fever daily in the United States. According to Camargo et al, the government has mechanisms as well that helps in aiding in early and immediate reporting in case there is any yellow fever case that has been identified. This will help in avoiding spreading to other people. The suspected patients usually have their specimens collected and then taken to the lab so that there could be very well clearly stated results and not suspicion[footnoteRef:1]. [1: Camargo, Carolina, Yasir H. Ahmed-Braimah, I. Alexandra Amaro, Laura C. Harrington, Mariana F. Wolfner, and Frank W. Avila. “Mating and blood-feeding induce transcriptome changes in the spermathecae of the yellow fever mosquito Aedes aegypti.” Scientific Reports 10, no. 1 (2020): 1-13.
]

When a person tests positive for the disease, there are some ways on how the medication is usually got. Emergency immunization response and activities are underway and through this, the government is ensuring that people will not be contacting the disease, even though they might contract it the impacts that it could have caused is always minimized. This is given to all people irrespective of the immunization history. The childhood immunization against the disease is automatic. The yellow fever surveillance has been improved by the government. This is because the government prioritizes the diseases to be surveyed when the disease has got a high number of deaths. Surveillance for this type of disease is very important because when some measures are taken, the outbreak of these diseases can completely be prevented and controlled.

Public Awareness

The awareness campaigns have been on the rise about the yellow fever disease. This is known as the life saver and preventive campaigns. This was invented in 2011 and it is always organized in a quite number of countries across the globe. This makes so many people to be aware of the existence of the disease, their mode of transmission, their prevention and controlling mechanisms amongst so many things that are usually made public on this day. (need reference for the campaign)

Immunization and its importance against the disease also happens and through this many people tend to understand why especially the newborn kids should be immunized against the diseases; this makes them to be very receptive when the process is turned into a reality. However, there are some factors that makes the disease to shift its geography, for example urbanization and changes of environmental uses and land changes[footnoteRef:2]. The severe outbreak of Yellow fever has made the countries and states to be more vigilant and also looking for medicines and vaccines that can help in disease prevention. The development of Gavi-supported countries which experience yellow fever outbreak have received over 62 million doses which were reserved for emergency stockpiles. According to the research that was conducted, the vaccine is effective since it provides a life-long immunity of up to 99% (need reference) [2:

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2020. “Yellow Fever”. Cdc.Gov.

https://www.cdc.gov/yellowfever/
]

There has been a stockpile in response to the disease outbreak this is through some countries being in a position to access the vaccines. Other countries as well are helping third world countries to access the vaccines in case of an outbreak without having to pay for them. This is helpful in curbing the pandemic. There have been millions of the vaccines that are deployed globally so that there can be an inclusive light against the disease. This is through the international coordination groups[footnoteRef:3] [3: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2020. “Yellow Fever”. Cdc.Gov. https://www.cdc.gov/yellowfever/
]

The media plays a very important role in sensitizing people about the yellow fever disease. When an outbreak is announced in a given country the people are always very keen to follow the news. Through public media, they are able to learn more about the disease and the prevention procedure. Having some advertisements on the dangers of yellow fever in the media and the social media platforms is always very educative and people are always accessing information which they might not have accessed. Training of community health volunteers in some part of the world happens about the disease. These people are mandated to go to the ground and educate the community members as well as sensitizing them on the importance of immunization and this in the long run will help in avoidance, controlling and prevention of diseases.

Social Issues from Yellow Fever

There are so many issues that have arisen as a result of the outbreak of yellow fever disease. The very challenging effect of the disease is that it interferes with the psychological functioning of the body[footnoteRef:4]. This is for both the affected and the infected. There are a lot of problems that come along with the disease for instance death may happen and the people that are left are always psychologically disturbed. When a person or a family member is spending most of the time in the hospital, there is a high probability that there will be a job loss. Unemployment means that the basic needs will be unmet and one will be struggling so much, at some point the person may engage in other crimes as well as committing suicide. [4:

]

When there is a pandemic for example the outbreak of the yellow fever, the government will spend most of its income in treating the patients and buying medicines, this might make a state run into crisis and the economic status of the country may be unstable after the pandemic.

There are a number of factors that are causing yellow fever disease for example weather and climatic conditions this is because climate change plays a very important role in the occurrences and the incidences of yellow fever diseases. During warm conditions the type of interaction changes since most people tend to engage themselves in social activities like travelling and playing games together. The interactions may make people more likely to transmit the disease than ever before. Human factors such as the behavior as well as factors of social economic in most cases have a lot of impacts on the yellow fever contraction. The behavior and the attitude that one has towards a disease may make one vulnerable or resistance to diseases.

The ecosystem itself plays a very vital role in how the rate of the disease will spread. This is because the yellow fever literally can be spread through being bitten by a mosquito. There is a relationship between deforestation and how the mosquitoes are susceptible to people. Flooding and swampy areas might result in the right conditions for the breeding of the mosquitoes[footnoteRef:5]. When they have bred, they will bite as many people whom they come across with and this in the long run is a factor that may aid in the spreading of the disease. [5:

]

Transmission of the yellow fever can be linked to some travelling at some levels. This is because some parts of the world are prone to mosquitoes while other places there are no mosquitoes. When one travels to places where there is a high number of mosquitoes and they happen to bite them the person who has travelled might contract the disease5.

Public Health Preparedness on Yellow Fever

Outbreak of yellow fever disease has made the public health emergency team to be very prepared in case an emergency arises. Although there is no specific medication for the yellow fever, there is always a very supportive early treatment systems that is done at the hospital level to make sure that the chances of survival for the patients are improved[footnoteRef:6]. The system is prepared with some specific drugs which help in curing very specific signs of yellow fever including drugs for treating dehydration, kidney, liver failures and fever. [6:

]

One way that the system is very prepared is the issue of having the yellow fever vaccines which is the most important means when it comes to prevention of yellow fever. Vaccination is done at different levels in the healthcare system, there is immunization for the infants and the young children, in case of an outbreak there is a mass vaccination for all the citizens. More so, Yellow Fever vaccination should be given to travelers who visit other countries and high-risk areas. During the pandemic, resources that are provided especially to the affected country/region is the availing of the stockpile medicine for the patients without a pay especially for the third world countries[footnoteRef:7]. [7: Yen, C., Hyde, T. B., Costa, A. J., Fernandez, K., Tam, J. S., Hugonnet, S., … & Burkholder, B. T. (2015). (incomplete citation)
]

My perspective about understanding the social impacts of Yellow fever

Yellow fever comes along with so many social impacts. The social impacts not only affect the infected but also the affected. The psychological impacts affect the person who is sick and at the same time it has got negative impacts on the family members especially when their loved ones are spending a lot of time in the hospitals and incase a person passes away due to the disease[footnoteRef:8]. Unemployment and job losses happen when a pandemic strikes an economy. Some people will have to go home due to the economic crises; others are so that he can take care of the patient and others are a result of being hospitalized for so long. [8:

Rudolph, K. E., Lessler, J., Moloney, R. M., Kmush, B., & Cummings, D. A. (2014). Incubation periods of mosquito-borne viral infections: a systematic review. The American journal of tropical medicine and hygiene, 90(5), 882-891, from

(incomplete citation)]

Reference

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2020. “Yellow Fever”. Cdc.Gov.

https://www.cdc.gov/yellowfever/

https://www.who.int/csr/disease/yellowfev/YFIbrochure ?ua=1#:~:text=A%20TANGIBLE%20THREAT%20TO%20PUBLIC,re%2Demergence%20since%20the%201980’s

World Health Organization. 2020. “Yellow Fever”. Who.Int.

https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/yellow-fever

Yen, C., Hyde, T. B., Costa, A. J., Fernandez, K., Tam, J. S., Hugonnet, S., … & Burkholder, B. T. (2015). The development of global vaccine stockpiles. The Lancet Infectious Diseases, 15(3), 340-347, from
https://www.who.int/csr/disease/yellowfev/YFIbrochure ?ua=1#:~:text=A%20TANGIBLE%20THREAT%20TO%20PUBLIC,re%2Demergence%20since%20the%201980’s
.

Yellow Fever

Professor

SCB260 General Microbiology

Introduction

The Yellow fever virus (YFV) is currently a worldwide problem that requires urgent attention for its effects to be mitigated since the 18th century. Following the rampant epidemics, mass production and global supply of the vaccine is essential for control of yellow fever to the vulnerable population in the world. There is limited availability of the vaccine where the cases of outbreak continue to be on a rise.

Changes in Government Policy and Healthcare System

Public Awareness

The awareness campaigns have been on the rise about the yellow fever disease. This is known as the life saver and preventive campaigns[footnoteRef:2]. This was invented in 2011 and it is always organized in a quite number of countries across the globe. This makes so many people to be aware of the existence of the disease, their mode of transmission, their prevention and controlling mechanisms amongst so many things that are usually made public on this day. [2:

Walldorf, J. A., Date, K. A., Sreenivasan, N., Harris, J. B., & Hyde, T. B. (2017). Lessons learned from emergency response vaccination efforts for cholera, typhoid, yellow fever, and Ebola. Emerging infectious diseases, 23(Suppl 1), S210, from https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&as_sdt=0%2C5&as_ylo=2016&q=yellow+fever+life+saver+and+preventive+campaigns&btnG=

]

Immunization and its importance against the disease also happens and through this many people tend to understand why especially the newborn kids should be immunized against the diseases; this makes them to be very receptive when the process is turned into a reality. However, there are some factors that makes the disease to shift its geography, for example urbanization and changes of environmental uses and land changes[footnoteRef:3]. The severe outbreak of Yellow fever has made the countries and states to be more vigilant and also looking for medicines and vaccines that can help in disease prevention. The development of Gavi-supported countries which experience yellow fever outbreak have received over 62 million doses which were reserved for emergency stockpiles. According to the research that was conducted, the vaccine is effective since it provides a life-long immunity of up to 99%[footnoteRef:4] [3:

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2020. “Yellow Fever”. Cdc.Gov.

https://www.cdc.gov/yellowfever/
] [4:

https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&as_sdt=0%2C5&as_ylo=2016&q=yellow+fever+of+Gavi-supported+countries&btnG

]

There has been a stockpile in response to the disease outbreak this is through some countries being in a position to access the vaccines. Other countries as well are helping third world countries to access the vaccines in case of an outbreak without having to pay for them. This is helpful in curbing the pandemic. There have been millions of the vaccines that are deployed globally so that there can be an inclusive light against the disease. This is through the international coordination groups[footnoteRef:5] [5: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2020. “Yellow Fever”. Cdc.Gov. https://www.cdc.gov/yellowfever/
]

Social Issues from Yellow Fever Disease

There are so many issues that have arisen as a result of the outbreak of yellow fever disease. The very challenging effect of the disease is that it interferes with the psychological functioning of the body[footnoteRef:6]. This is for both the affected and the infected. There are a lot of problems that come along with the disease for instance death may happen and the people that are left are always psychologically disturbed. When a person or a family member is spending most of the time in the hospital, there is a high probability that there will be a job loss. Unemployment means that the basic needs will be unmet and one will be struggling so much, at some point the person may engage in other crimes as well as committing suicide. (reference?) [6:

]

The ecosystem itself plays a very vital role in how the rate of the disease will spread. This is because the yellow fever literally can be spread through being bitten by a mosquito. There is a relationship between deforestation and how the mosquitoes are susceptible to people. Flooding and swampy areas might result in the right conditions for the breeding of the mosquitoes[footnoteRef:7]. When they have bred, they will bite as many people whom they come across with and this in the long run is a factor that may aid in the spreading of the disease. [7:

]

Transmission of the yellow fever can be linked to some travelling at some levels. This is because some parts of the world are prone to mosquitoes while other places there are no mosquitoes. When one travels to places where there is a high number of mosquitoes and they happen to bite them the person who has travelled might contract the disease5.

Public Health Preparedness on Yellow Fever

Outbreak of yellow fever disease has made the public health emergency team to be very prepared in case an emergency arises. Although there is no specific medication for the yellow fever, there is always a very supportive early treatment systems that is done at the hospital level to make sure that the chances of survival for the patients are improved[footnoteRef:8]. The system is prepared with some specific drugs which help in curing very specific signs of yellow fever including drugs for treating dehydration, kidney, liver failures and fever. [8:

]

One way that the system is very prepared is the issue of having the yellow fever vaccines which is the most important means when it comes to prevention of yellow fever. Vaccination is done at different levels in the healthcare system, there is immunization for the infants and the young children, in case of an outbreak there is a mass vaccination for all the citizens. More so, Yellow Fever vaccination should be given to travelers who visit other countries and high-risk areas. During the pandemic, resources that are provided especially to the affected country/region is the availing of the stockpile medicine for the patients without a pay especially for the third world countries[footnoteRef:9]. [9: Yen, C., Hyde, T. B., Costa, A. J., Fernandez, K., Tam, J. S., Hugonnet, S., … & Burkholder, B. T. (2015). The development of global vaccine stockpiles. The Lancet Infectious Diseases, 15(3), 340-347, from https://www.who.int/csr/disease/yellowfev/YFIbrochure ?ua=1#:~:text=A%20TANGIBLE%20THREAT%20TO%20PUBLIC,re%2Demergence%20since%20the%201980’s.
]

My perspective about understanding the social impacts of Yellow fever

Yellow fever comes with many social impacts. The social impacts not only affect the infected but also the affected. The psychological impacts affect the person who is sick and at the same time it has got negative impacts on the family members especially when their loved ones are spending a lot of time in the hospitals and incase a person passes away due to the disease[footnoteRef:10]. Unemployment and job losses happen when a pandemic strikes an economy. Some people will have to go home due to the economic crises; others are so that he can take care of the patient and others are a result of being hospitalized for so long. [10: Rudolph, K. E., Lessler, J., Moloney, R. M., Kmush, B., & Cummings, D. A. (2014). Incubation periods of mosquito-borne viral infections: a systematic review. The American journal of tropical medicine and hygiene, 90(5), 882-891, from https://www.who.int/csr/disease/yellowfev/YFIbrochure ?ua=1#:~:text=A%20TANGIBLE%20THREAT%20TO%20PUBLIC,re%2Demergence%20since%20the%201980’s]

FYI

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12152484/

https://www.who.int/csr/disease/yellowfev/YFIbrochure ?ua=1

(describe more about GAVI project)

Reference

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2020. “Yellow Fever”. Cdc.Gov.

https://www.cdc.gov/yellowfever/

Feikin, D. R., Flannery, B., Hamel, M. J., Stack, M., & Hansen, P. M. (2016). Table 10.1, Impact of Vaccination: Children Immunized and Deaths Averted in 73 Gavi-Supported Countries, Based on Strategic Demand Forecast Version 9, from https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&as_sdt=0%2C5&as_ylo=2016&q=yellow+fever+of+Gavi-supported+countries&btnG=
Giovanetti, Marta, Marcos Cesar Lima de Mendonça, Vagner Fonseca, Maria Angélica Mares- Guia, Allison Fabri, Joilson Xavier, Jaqueline Goes de Jesus et al. “Yellow fever virus reemergence and spread in Southeast Brazil, 2016–2019.” Journal of virology 94, no. 1 (2019).
Reno, Elaine, Nicolas G. Quan, Carlos Franco-Paredes, Daniel B. Chastain, Lakshmi Chauhan, Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales, and Andrés F. Henao-Martínez. “Prevention of yellow fever in travellers: an update.” The Lancet Infectious Diseases (2020)

https://www.who.int/csr/disease/yellowfev/YFIbrochure ?ua=1#:~:text=A%20TANGIBLE%20THREAT%20TO%20PUBLIC,re%2Demergence%20since%20the%201980’s

https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&as_sdt=0%2C5&as_ylo=2016&q=yellow+fever+life+saver+and+preventive+campaigns&btnG

World Health Organization. 2020. “Yellow Fever”. Who.Int.

https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/yellow-fever

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