Unit VIII Essay

 Please make sure that you follow all the professor instructions because it will affect the grade. Make sure it is our work and not copy and paste off someone else work. Please read the study guide. watch out for spelling errors and grammar errors. This sis a DBA course and needs to be done on this level. Use thte APA 7th edition format.

Book reference: Gliner, J. A., Morgan, G. A., Leech, N. L. (2017). Research methods in applied settings: An integrated approach to design and analysis (3rd ed.). Routledge. https://online.vitalsource.com/#/books/9781317526896 

 

Instructions

Write an essay that explains the importance of external validity to a research study. Include an explanation of the differences between internal and external validity and an analysis of the threats to both internal and external validity. Be sure to include an introduction, and support your essay with a minimum of three references.

Your paper should be two pages in length, not counting the title or reference pages. The paper must follow APA formatting.

Resources

The following resource(s) may help you with this assignment.

• Citation Guide
• Submit Writing Center Request

2020 Success Center

Citation Guide
Based on the Publication Manual of the American

Psychological Association—7th Edition

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Citation Guide – 7th Edition

This document covers certain citation formats addressed in the 7th edition of the
Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (APA) but is not a complete
guide. Should you have any questions, please contact the CSU Success Center by email at
teamsucceed@columbiasouthern.edu or by phone at (877) 875-0533.

For all rules and requirements of APA, please refer to the 7th edition of the Publication
Manual of the American Psychological Association, which can be purchased through the
American Psychological Association at https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-
7th-edition/.

The Writing Center also provides an accompanying tutorial for the CSU Citation

Guide. This tutorial provides further explanation on several APA formatting topics:

Citation Guide Tutorial.

mailto:teamsucceed@columbiasouthern.edu

https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition/

https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition/

http://columbiasouthern.adobeconnect.com/citationguidetutorial7/

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Contents

What is APA format and why is it used? ………………………………………………………………………………….. 4

Citing Sources …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 5

Citations in In-text …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 5

Examples of in-text citations ………………………………………………………………………………………………… 6

Example of block quote in-text citation …………………………………………………………………………………. 7

Reference List …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 7

Examples of reference list entries …………………………………………………………………………………………. 8

Selecting Appropriate Research Sources ………………………………………………………………………………….. 12

Formatting ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 12

Document formatting in APA style ………………………………………………………………………………………….. 12

Steps for document formatting ………………………………………………………………………………………………. 13

Specific formatting steps for documents …………………………………………………………………………………. 16

Library Resources and Services for CSU Students ……………………………………………………………………. 17

Sample Essay ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 18

Sample Research Paper ………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 19

References ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 20

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What is APA Format and Why is it Used?

The American Psychological Association is a professional organization representing

psychologists in the United

States.

APA format is a set of rules developed to assist with writing

and the citing of sources. Following the rules laid out in the Publication Manual helps to

prevent plagiarism and acknowledges the original author of the information used. It is meant

to provide a concise and standardized citation format for written assignments (such as essays,

research papers, and article critiques, among others) and is used for all Columbia Southern

University courses.

In educational institutions, academic integrity is an area of great concern. Academic

integrity refers to being intellectually honest by “avoiding… cheating, plagiarism, self-

plagiarism, and/or poor scholarship” (Columbia Southern University, 2019, p.28). Adhering to

APA guidelines can prevent academic integrity violations (especially plagiarism) by clearly

marking which words and ideas belong to outside sources. Committing an academic integrity

violation of any kind can have serious consequences.

Plagiarism is the act of stealing someone else’s work and passing it off as one’s own. It

can be deliberate or accidental; deliberate plagiarism includes directly copying, summarizing, or

paraphrasing a source without giving credit to the author or putting it in quotation marks. This

type of plagiarism also includes turning in a paper that has been bought, written by another

student, or copied from another source. Accidental plagiarism is when a writer uses another

author’s thoughts or ideas without realizing credit must be provided. This includes working in

groups and submitting the same answers as other students, forgetting to place quotation marks

around a direct quotation, omitting an in-text citation for a summary or a paraphrase, and

omitting an in-text citation for the ideas of another writer. Accidental plagiarism also includes

submitting an assignment that has already been previously submitted in another course.

Unfortunately, both types of plagiarism can result in a failing grade, suspension from the

university, or even expulsion.

There are a few ways APA can help students avoid plagiarism. The primary way to avoid

it is to cite any ideas that are not one’s own. Citations help readers to locate the sources used in

a paper. Citations should not only be used for direct quotes, but they should also be provided

when information is paraphrased or summarized from another author. Paraphrasing a source’s

material is a good way to avoid copying directly from an outside source and possibly being

reprimanded. If any questions or concerns about APA format, please feel free to contact the

CSU Success Center by email at teamsucceed@columbiasouthern.edu or by phone at (877) 875-

0533.

mailto:teamsucceed@columbiasouthern.edu

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Citing Sources

When writing a paper in APA 7th edition style, there are two specific ways to cite the
information that is used: within the text and in the reference list at the end of the paper.
Citations are utilized when a phrase, a piece of specific information, or a sequence of sentences
is drawn from an outside source. To meet APA requirements specified for CSU written essay
responses, in-text citations and a reference list must be included if any outside sources are
used. For formal papers, follow all guidelines listed in this handout. For all rules and
requirements of APA, please refer to the 7th edition of the Publication Manual of the American
Psychological Association, which can be purchased through the American Psychological
Association at https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition/.

In-text Citations

 An in-text citation should be used when a phrase, a piece of specific information, or an
idea is drawn from an outside source.

 In-text citations are also required when putting the author’s information in your own
words (paraphrasing).

 Citing helps to prevent plagiarism, and it acknowledges the original author of the
information used.

 In-text citations and reference citations must always correspond; each in-text citation
must have a matching reference citation and vice-versa. APA uses the author-year
method of citation.

 It is standard practice for the period at the end of the sentence to be placed after the
last parentheses of the in-text citation. An exception is made if inserting a direct quote
that contains more than 40 words; in this instance, the period is placed directly before
the in-text citation.

Paraphrased

Information

When paraphrasing or summarizing a source, provide the author’s last name and year of
publication (separated by a comma). Page and paragraph numbers are not required when you
are paraphrasing information. However, be sure to consult with your faculty member to
determine his or her preference on adding page numbers in citations.

Direct Quotations
If utilizing a direct quote, this must be indicated by placing the passage in quotation marks.
Further, the specific page or paragraph number is always required. If there is no page or
paragraph number, as is the case for many electronic sources, provide a section heading or
other label to indicate the passage the quote was borrowed from.

For additional information, please see the Writing Center’s In-text Citations Tutorial.

https://apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition/

http://columbiasouthern.adobeconnect.com/in-textcitations7/

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Examples of in-text citations

Reference
Type

Examples of in-text citations

Paraphrased
information from
one author

It has been found … can be concluded (Simpson, 2007).

According to Simpson (2007), … can cause problems.

Other people say… based on Simpson (2007).

Paraphrased
information from
two authors

There are … at this point (Stemmer & Tisdale, 2008).

Stemmer and Tisdale (2008) mention … a set of styles.

This plan will … according to Stemmer and Tisdale (2008).

Paraphrased
information from
three or more
authors

When stating…. can be located (Padgett et al., 2004).

Padgett et al. (2004) explain … is further noted.

Direct quotation less
than 40 words

“It is amazing…with confidence” (OSHA, 2010, p. 121).

According to Davis and Dudley (2005), “We are…to save” (para. 5).

“What is lost…come at all” (Ingram et al., 2001, pp. 8-9).

Paraphrased
information with no
author listed

When using data … can be seen (“Title of Document,” 2003).

If information is … was conquered (“Driving and Talking,” 2004).

According to “Leadership Versus Management” (2001), … is an art form.

Information from a
secondary source

It can be found … in Stemmer’s work (as cited in Pratt, 2008).

According to Stemmer’s work (as cited in Pratt, 2008), “…” (p. 65).

**Add the page number if you use a direct quote from Stemmer found in Pratt’s work.

Information via
personal
communication

J. M. Newsome (personal communication, May 30, 2008) expressed …

…of time (V. P. DeLuca, personal communication, November 9, 2007).

**Personal communication should only be listed in the in-text, not on the reference list.

Information found in
classical works

…will have everlasting life (King James Bible, 1769/2017, John 3:16).

…as read in the Bible in John 3:16 (King James Bible, 1769/2017).

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Direct Quotations of 40 or more words
Block quotations (quotes that contain 40 words or more) are formatted differently, as they
have no quotation marks. In formal writing, block quotations are acceptable, although their use
should not be in excess. While block quotes are accepted in formal writing, the use of them in
essay responses is not encouraged due to the length of the assignment. Block quotations are
indented an additional .5” and double spaced. The period is placed before the citation.

Block Quotation Example

The solutions proposed by a number of advocacy groups underscore this interest in

political and cultural change. A report outlined trends that may have contributed to the

childhood obesity crisis.

This includes food advertising for children as well as a reduction in physical

education classes and after-school athletic programs, an increase in the availability

of sodas and snacks in public schools, the growth in the number of fast-food outlets,

and the increasing number of highly processed high-calorie and high-fat grocery

products. (Kaiser, 2004, pp. 1-2)

Reference List

The reference list is of the utmost importance, as it allows the reader to access the sources
cited in the in-text and enables the student writer to give credit where credit is due. For this
reason, the references should contain accurate information, as well as proper punctuation and
spelling. References will follow the conclusion of any APA document. For each reference listed,
there will be at least one corresponding in-text citation in the document. Examples of reference
source formatting can be found on the following pages.

 If there is a digital object identifier (DOI) available, include that in the reference. The DOI
is precisely used to give the reader information about where the document can be
found on the Internet. The DOI is typically located near the copyright notice on the first
page of the electronic journal article. In the case that there is no DOI, provide the
homepage URL of the web page where you found the article. (Please note the DOI,
when available, is required in doctoral courses.)

 Multiple citations containing the same author and year should first be listed
chronologically by the specific date (with newer sources being listed first) and then
alphabetically by the title. A lowercase a, b, c, etc. should be placed after the year to
distinguish between the entries. This is also used in the in-text citations. For example:

Smith, J. (2013a, March 8). How to groom cats. Garden Press.

Smith, J. (2013b, January 20). How to groom dogs. Garden Press.

For additional information, please see the Writing Center’s References Tutorial.

http://columbiasouthern.adobeconnect.com/references7/

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Examples of reference list entries

Reference
List

What to Include Information and Examples

General
Referencing
Information

 When listing the author on the reference list, the

last name should be first, followed by the

author’s first and middle (if applicable) initials.

For example: Smith, J. R.

 References should be placed in alphabetical order

by the first author’s last name, by associates (if

the work is authorized by an organization), or by

anonymous. Anonymous should only be listed as

the author if it is signed as such.

 If a particular person did not create the document

being cited, use the organization that created the

document.

 The document title can be substituted as the

author if no author is provided. In this case, the

first word of the title will dictate the alphabetical

placement (“a,” “an,” and “the” notwithstanding).

 The letters “n.d.” (no date) can be utilized if the

source listed has no listed date. Substitute “n.d.”

where the date would normally go.

For example: Smith, R. T. (n.d.)…

 Professional credentials, such as Ph. D., should

not be used on

the reference page.

 References beginning with numerals should be

alphabetized based on the spelling of the numeral

 States should be identified with their two letter

abbreviations, such as AL, MS, and NY.

 Spell out cities and countries outside the United

States.

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Reference
List
What to Include Information and Examples

Books

 For titles on the reference list, only capitalize the

first word of the title, proper nouns, and the first

word after a colon or dash.

 Journal articles and books only require the year,

rather than the entire date.

 Book titles should be italicized within the

reference list.

Book

Author(s). (date of

publication). Book
title. Publisher.

Book Examples:

Erickson, C. K. (2007). The science of addiction: From

neurobiology to treatment. W.W. Norton &

Company.

Morenberg, M. (2014). Doing grammar (5th ed.).

Oxford University Press.

Periodicals:
Journals,
magazines,
and
newspaper
articles

 For the name of the actual publication the article

appears in (journal, magazine, or newspaper), use

standard title capitalization. Capitalize all words

with the exception of conjunctions, articles, and

short propositions; however, capitalize all words

that have four letters or more.

 Magazine articles, newsletters, and newspaper

articles require the listing of the entire date when

available (month or month and day).

For example: (2001, May) or (2001, May 2)

 Journal articles and books only require the year.

 For journal articles, there is no need to write out

the words volume, issue, p., or pp. The order of

the numbers indicate what they represent.

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Reference
List
What to Include Information and Examples

Periodicals:
Journals,
magazines,
and
newspaper
articles
continued

Author(s). (date of
publication). Article
title. Journal Title,
volume (issue), page
numbers.
Retrieval
information.

*Retrieval
information for
online sources can
be either a URL or a
DOI. If neither is
available, treat the
journal like a print
source.

Journal Examples:

Clark, L. B. (2019, April). Education as property.

Virginia Law Review, 105(2), 397-424.

Rouw, R., & Erfanian, M. (2018, March). A large-scale

study of misophonia. Journal of Clinical

Psychology, 74(3), 453-479.

doi:10.1002/jclp.22500.

Smith, J. E. (2003). Addiction and environmental

change. Journal of Personality and Social

Psychology, 66(3), 47-68.

http://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/psp/

Websites

 Do not add a period after the retrieval

information (URL or DOI). Otherwise, the

period might be mistaken as part of the URL.

 The URL can either be an active hyperlink

(blue and underlined), or the hyperlink

formatting can be removed.

 To ensure accuracy, always test the URL prior

to submission.

 Italicize the titles of webpages.

Author(s). (date of

publication). Title of

page. Retrieval

information

(including direct

URL)

Website Examples:

Cain, A., & Burris, M. (1999). Investigation of the use

of mobile phones while driving.

http://www.cutr.eng.usf.edu/oldpubs

/mobile_phone

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Reference
List
What to Include Information and Examples

Websites
continued

Starbucks Coffee Company. (n.d.). Starbucks social

impact. https://starbucks.com/responsibility

If there is not an author listed, you can use the

company that created the website as an

organizational author.

PowerPoint
slides

 The PowerPoint format description in brackets is

used because the format is something out of the

ordinary.

 The title of the PowerPoint should be italicized.

Author(s). (date of
publication). Title of
slideshow [Format
of document].
Retrieval
information

PowerPoint Examples:

Sprott, J. C. (2000). Is global warming for real?

[PowerPoint slides].

http://sprott.physics.wisc.edu/

lectures.htm#warming

How to succeed in business [PowerPoint slides].

(n.d.). http://online.columbiasouthern.edu

/webapps.jsp

If there is no author, list the title of the document in

the author’s position.

Personal
conversations,
emails,
interviews,
and letters

Do not include on
the reference page.

Due to retrieval inability, personal conversations,
emails, interviews, and letters should not be listed on
the reference page. Instead, cite these as a personal
communication in the in-text. For an example, see
the chart on page 6 (information via personal
communication).

http://sprott.physics.wisc.edu/%20lectures.htm#warming

http://sprott.physics.wisc.edu/%20lectures.htm#warming

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Selecting Appropriate Research Sources

In academic writing, only certain types of resources are considered acceptable. All sources
mentioned in this guide are sources that are considered to be academic. If you have any
questions regarding acceptable and unacceptable sources or how different types of sources can
be used, please contact the CSU Library. Additional information about the CSU Library can be
found on page 17 of this guide.

Formatting

When writing any type of formal paper, the document should have in-text citations and a
reference list, and should be formatted in accordance to APA format. The following are specific
instructions on how to set up a document in APA format using Microsoft Word.

Document formatting in APA style

General
Formatting

Information

Margins  All margins (top, bottom, and sides) should be set at one inch.

 Microsoft Word allows the user to set the margin at a default of

one inch on all sides.

Page Numbers  Page numbers should be listed in the top right corner of the

document, beginning on the title page.

Alignment/
Line Spacing

 All documents following APA guidelines are required to be flush-left

style and double-spaced throughout the entire document.

 Additional spacing should not be used between headings and

paragraphs.

Font Type and
Size

 APA font options include the following:
o Times New Roman, size 12
o Calibri, size 11
o Arial, size 11
o Lucida Sans Unicode, size 10
o Georgia, size 11
o Computer Modern, size 10

Paragraph
Indention

 All papers typed in APA format require the first line of each

paragraph to be indented .5”.

 Pressing the Tab button on the keyboard automatically indents the

text .5”.

For additional information, please see the Writing Center’s Formatting Formal Assignments Tutorial.

http://columbiasouthern.adobeconnect.com/formattingformalassignment7/

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Steps for document formatting

Formatting Steps

Title

Page

NOTE: The title page of the document can be thought of as the paper’s first

impression. For this reason, it is important to pay attention to the format

required by APA.

1. The title of the paper (in bold) should be centered on the page and

followed by a single space. Then, also centered, list the student’s

name, the name of the university, the course, the name of the

instructor, and the due date.

Abstract

NOTE: All papers at CSU do not require an abstract. Please consult the

course syllabus or professor for specifications about this.

1. The abstract tells the audience why they should care about the

presented

topic.

2. It provides the methods that will be utilized in order to get the

results.

3. The word “Abstract” will be listed, centered and bold, one inch from

the top of the page as the heading for the abstract.

4. The abstract itself should be flush left and should not be indented.

5. The abstract should be an accurate and concise reflection of the

document’s content.

6. Typically, the abstract should only be one paragraph (150-250

words) in length, with no direct quotations, and be on a page of its

own directly after the title page.

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Formatting Steps

Headings 1. Headings are titles of different sections of a formal written

assignment.

2. They can be used to add structure, organize ideas, and tell the

reader what content to expect.

3. The following headings should be used when required:

For additional information, please see the Writing Center’s Level Headings Tutorial.

http://columbiasouthern.adobeconnect.com/levelheadings7/

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Formatting Steps

References

Page

NOTE: At the end of each APA document, there should be a references page

containing the sources used within the paper.

 Every reference cited in-text should be listed on the references

page(s), and every reference listed on the references page(s) should

be cited in the in-text.

 The exceptions to this are personal communications and secondary

sources.

 With secondary sources, only the original source should be cited on

the reference page.

 References are of the utmost importance, as they allow the reader to

access the sources cited in-text, and they enable the author of the

document to give credit where credit is due.

 The references should contain accurate information, as well as proper

punctuation and spelling.

 References will accompany the conclusion of any APA document.

 For each reference listed, there must be at least one corresponding in-

text citation in the document.

 All margins should be one inch.

 The word “References” should be used as the heading, and it should

be centered and bold.

 Double spacing should be used.

 With the exception of the first line of each reference, all lines are

indented .5”. This is called a hanging indention.

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Specific formatting steps for documents

Software Click the following icons to access formatting.

MS Word 2016

MS Word Office 365

MS Word for Mac

MS Word Online

Pages for Mac 2019

Google Docs

http://www.columbiasouthern.edu/downloads/pdf/success/apa-guide/google-docs-formatting-guide.aspx

http://www.columbiasouthern.edu/downloads/pdf/success/apa-guide/microsoft-word-2016-formatting-updated.aspx

http://www.columbiasouthern.edu/downloads/pdf/success/apa-guide/ms-word-office-365-formatting.aspx

http://www.columbiasouthern.edu/downloads/pdf/success/apa-guide/ms-word-for-mac-formatting.aspx

http://www.columbiasouthern.edu/downloads/pdf/success/apa-guide/ms-word-online-formatting.aspx

http://www.columbiasouthern.edu/downloads/pdf/success/apa-guide/pages-2019-mac-formatting.aspx

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Library Resources and Services for CSU Students

The CSU Library supports the CSU community with access to information and research

assistance. The online collection contains resources chosen to support the programs of study at

Columbia Southern University. Library resources such as journal articles or ebooks can be

accessed at any time through the library website.

The library resources include:

• Online databases that contain a wide variety of resources including journal, magazine,

and newspaper articles.

• A collection of over 180,000 online books in eBook Academic Collection.

• Electronic journal subscriptions in specialized fields of study.

• Video tutorials and research guides designed by CSU librarians.

Contact a librarian when you need to do the following:

• Brainstorm appropriate research strategies such as determining keywords for your

topic.

• Navigate library databases for journal articles and other library resources to support

your assignments.

• Locate and obtain specific articles or other resources assigned in your courses.

• Limit your search by article type (such as peer-reviewed), date of publication, or article

length.

The CSU Library is staffed by professional librarians available to help when you need them. The

three main avenues of library support are phone, email, and chat. To reach a CSU librarian

during regular business hours, call (877) 268-8046 or email library@columbiasouthern.edu.

Chat reference assistance is available via the library homepage 24 hours a day, 7 days a week,

including holidays. Students may also communicate with an individual member of the library

staff through the contact information provided on the library webpage.

mailto:library@columbiasouthern.edu

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Sample Essay
Click on the sample below to view an example of an APA style essay (this view is only the first page):

http://www.columbiasouthern.edu/downloads/pdf/success/apa-guide/sample-essay-updated.aspx

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Sample Research Paper
Click on the sample below to view an example of an APA style paper (this view is only the first page):

http://www.columbiasouthern.edu/downloads/pdf/success/apa-guide/sample-research-paper-2019-updated.aspx

2020 [COLUMBIA SOUTHERN UNIVERSITY] 20

References

American Psychological Association. (2020). Publication manual of the American Psychological

Association (7th ed.). https://doi.org/10.1037/0000165-000

Columbia Southern University. (2019). Student handbook.

https://www.columbiasouthern.edu/downloads/pdf/handbook/csustudenthandbook.aspx

RCH 8301, Quantitative Research Methods 1

Course Learning Outcomes for Unit VIII

Upon completion of this unit, students should be able to:

3. Explain the dimensions of research validity.
3.1 Examine the differences between internal and external validity.

4. Discriminate between components of internal and external validity.

4.1 Describe the threats to internal and external validity.

Course/Unit
Learning Outcomes

Learning Activity

3.1, 4.1

Unit Lesson

Chapter 23, pp. 417–431
Chapter 24, pp. 433–442
Unit VIII Essay

Required Unit Resources

Chapter 23: Evaluating Research Validity: Part I, pp. 417–431

Chapter 24: Evaluating Research Validity: Part II, pp. 433–442

Unit Lesson

Evaluating Research Validity

In this final unit, we will be reviewing many of the terms and concepts from previous chapters since our goal
will be to learn how to evaluate the quality of the design and analysis in a quantitative research study.

The quality of a research project may vary considerably. Since all research connections in any research or
related documents are disseminated in the field, there is a need to ensure that the design, methodology,
findings, and quality of the general content are standardized. It implies that the variations in the research
should be minimized through providing valid answers to the questions developed in the study. The validity in
this context includes construct, internal, and external validity. The validity of the research is important, but the
aspect of reliability bears equal measure. For the case of reliability, it is imperative that the constituency of the
measure is achieved over time, across items, and across various researchers. However, for this unit, the
focus is on the validity of the research and, specifically, the framework for the evaluation of the research (e.g.,
the Cook and Campbell framework) (Gliner et al., 2017).

In the evaluation of the research validity, the variables and their measurement levels must be taken into
consideration. Some of the questions that must be asked and answered involve appreciating the key
independent, antecedent, or predictor variables and the key dependents or outcome variables as well as their
level of measurement. Using the Cook and Campbell framework, the evaluation of external research validity
considers the following argument: A charge of neglecting external validity can be made against a researcher
who has invented construct validity.

Based on the aforementioned argument, it is evident that the threats to the external validity, also known as
the interaction effects, involve the variables in the research (both X and the other variables). The Cook and
Campbell framework has been widely used in the research design for quasi-experimental research where
concerns about internal validity and the treatment of the samples or groups are difficult to compare at the

UNIT VIII STUDY GUIDE

Evaluating Research Validity

RCH 8301, Quantitative Research Methods 2

UNIT x STUDY GUIDE

Title

baseline. The complications in the validity of the quasi-experimental research are compounded by the random
assignment, which is where each participant in the study has an equal chance to be assigned to the
comparison or intervention group (Campbell & Stanley, 1963). As a result, Cook and Campbell published their
work on quasi-experimental research; the primary messages in the text are to ensure that any form of bias is
minimized, generalizability is maximized, and the use of randomized designs consider the use of clusters
instead of the individual.

The Cook and Campbell framework, therefore, call for the estimation of validity in the research when a
deductive process must be used. The deductive approach requires that the researcher systematically think
through all of the internal and external validity threats and thereby minimize their influence on the data. In the
cases where these threats can be eliminated, it is important that the confident conclusions on any possible
relationship be said to be causal. Otherwise, in the case of quasi-experimental research, where there are high
chances of greater threats to the internal validity of the research, the validity can be achieved through
conducting randomized trials. Furthermore, in the deduction process, the aspects that must be considered
include the main research questions (hypotheses), the research approach, general classification of the
approach (randomized or quasi-experimental), and the specific experimental design name for the case of
quasi- or randomized experimental research.

Overall, the evaluation of the research validity considers various dimensions. They include the overall
measurement of reliability and statistics, which is where the overall rating of the measurement reliability and
that of the statistics used in the study are established. Also, for the internal validity, the researcher must
evaluate and establish the equivalence of the groups based on the characteristics of each participant as well
as establish the control of extraneous experience and those of the environment variables. Thus, upon
selecting the independent and dependent variables in the research, stating the research question, and
identifying the research approach, it is easier to rate the threats to the internal and external validity and
thereby rate the measurement of the validity and reliability of the research. Moreover, the other major steps
that must be appreciated in the measurement of the research validity include the systematic measurement of
the validity and reliability of each variable and the measurement of the validity of the constructs. Researchers
must also consider the reliability of the statics (i.e., instruments and measures, statistical techniques,
statistical results, and interpretation of the analysis) used in the study and thereby ascertain the validity of the
whole study.

The rating for the validity answers questions on whether the group participants were randomly assigned,
whether there were attempts made to check the similarity of key variables, and the level of retention during
the study and across the groups. Moreover, the coefficients below provide the guideline on the evaluation of
measurement of validity.

The overall measurement of the validity of
constructs is also important in the research,
which is where the evaluation of the validity of
the intervention is considered. Cronbach and
Meehl (1955) stated, “construct validation was
introduced in order to specify types of research
required in developing tests for which the
conventional views on validation are
inappropriate” (p. 299). Thus, in the measuring
of the construct validity, the objective is to
evaluate the degree to which the research and
its claims are appropriate while subsuming the
other types of evidence in the validity. The

researcher must appreciate the threats to the construct validity such as guessing the hypothesis, having
biases in the experimental design, having confounding variables, and having a narrow definition of the
predicted outcome; the expectations of the researcher can also be a threat. As a result, the evaluation of the
construct validity must be done so that there is an examination of the correlation of measures regarding
known variables or those variables that are related to the construct. Otherwise, the construct validity in a
research study should be treated as a judgment based on the accumulation of correlations from various
studies that have used the instrument under investigation. In this regard, pilot studies usually help in the
testing of construct validity prior to the main research.

(Gliner et al., 2017, p.425)

RCH 8301, Quantitative Research Methods 3

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Peer Review

Credible research includes peer-reviewed
journal articles. Peer review means that
the work was reviewed for accuracy by
experts in the respective field of study.
Peer review is an important part of the
quality control of scholarly writing and
ensures that there are no flaws in the
design or methodology of the research. A
peer reviewer also makes certain that the
work has been reported correctly and that
the results have been interpreted and
analyzed correctly. A peer reviewer
makes certain that the work is readable
and written at a high academic level, that
the work is truthful and accurate, and that
all citations and references are relevant. A
journal article that has been peer
reviewed and published is considered
credible and, therefore, improves the
reliability of the research.

Conclusively, the evaluation of research validity and reliability is not an individual researcher’s task but,
rather, is a joint of effort. In the peer-review process, the author’s work is subjected to scrutiny by other
experts in the same field to help evaluate and check the validity and reliability of the research findings and its
suitability for publication. Based on the approval of the peer reviewers, the researcher makes a judgment on
whether the findings and the overall content is suitable to contribute to his or her research topic.

References

Campbell, D. T., & Stanley, J. C. (1963). Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for research.
Houghton-Mifflin.

Cook, T. D., & Campbell, D. T. (1979). Quasi-experimentation: Design and analysis issues for field settings.

Houghton-Mifflin.

Cronbach, L. J., & Meehl, P. E. (1955). Construct validity in psychological tests. Psychological Bulletin, 52(4),

281–302. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1956-03730-001

Gliner, J. A., Morgan, G. A., & Leech, N. L. (2017). Research methods in applied settings: An integrated

approach to design and analysis (3rd ed.). Routledge.

Vaeenma. (n.d.). Standard model of the research process (ID 85620966) [Photograph]. Dreamstime.

https://www.dreamstime.com/stock-photo-standard-model-research-process-presenting-diagram-
image85620966

Learning Activities (Nongraded)

Nongraded Learning Activities are provided to aid students in their course of study. You do not have to submit
them. If you have questions, contact your instructor for further guidance and information.

Review the “Interpretation Questions” and “Application Problems” at the end of Chapters 23 and 24.

Vaeenma. (n.d.)

Course Learning Outcomes for Unit VIII
Unit Lesson
Evaluating Research Validity
Peer Review
References
Learning Activities (Nongraded)