Research Paper

topic –  How does weather affect the safety and operations of airports and aviation 

Research paper outline –  due Jan 24 

An outline is a “blueprint” or “plan” for your paper.  It helps you to organize your thoughts and arguments. A good outline can make conducting research and then writing the paper very efficient.  Your outline page must include your:

• Paper Title
• Thesis statement
• Major points/arguments indicated by Roman numerals (i.e., I, II, III, IV, V, etc.)
• Support for your major points, indicated by capital Arabic numerals (i.e., A, B, C, D, E, etc.)
• Roman numeral I should be your “Introduction”.  In the introduction portion of your paper, you’ll want to tell your reader what your paper is about and then tell what your paper hopes to prove (your thesis).  So an Introduction gives an overview of the topic and your thesis statement.
• The final Roman numeral should be your “Conclusion”.  In the conclusion, you summarize what you have told your reader.

Attached you will find 3 sample outlines. YOUR outline can be MORE detailed, or might be LESS detailed.  Remember that a good outline makes writing easier and more efficient.

The Research Paper Draft- due Feb 1

 The Draft must be more than a few pages. It must set forth what your topic and question are, why they are important, what you have done, and what you are planning to do for the final draft. It must be detailed enough so that we can give you really helpful comments and set you on the path to making a real discovery and advancing knowledge at least one small step. 

The Research Paper Final – due Feb 15

The research paper will allow you to develop a more complete understanding of the specific topical area that you have chosen. Although the way that you decide to convey the information is up to you, remember that these papers will be graded on content, style, grammar, writing ability, and thoroughness of research—so by following the  attached instructions you will save yourself a lot of frustration. Please have someone proofread your paper before handing it in. This will save you time and points. This is an upper level college course and you will be expected to write well. If you have any questions regarding the research paper please see me ahead of time. Coming to me at the last minute with problems is not a good idea. 

  Aviation Weather Accident Report – DUE 19

Purpose:

• Locate and research an aviation accident where weather was the primary cause of the accident. Write a report explaining the accident and detail how weather was the primary factor.

Requirements:

• Minimum 3 pages double-spaced. Use APA format.
• Accident must be weather related
• Be prepared to share your findings with the class

Research hints:

• Overall description of the accident
• Type of aircraft
• Location of accident
• Crew/ pilot information
• Weather information
• Could the accident have been avoided?
• Lesson learned
• Anything else you think is important

Suggested websites

NTSB Aviation Accident Database

Aircraft Accident Reports

Lessons Learned FAA

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/544/01/

The Purdue OWL: Sample Outlines

Alphanumeric Outline

THE COLLEGE APPLICATION PROCESS

I. CHOOSE DESIRED COLLEGES

A. Visit and evaluate college campuses

B. Visit and evaluate college websites

1. Look for interesting classes

2. Note important statistics

II. PREPARE APPLICATION

A. Write personal statement

1. Choose interesting topic

a. Describe an influential person in your life

(1) Favorite high school teacher

(2) Grandparent

b. Describe a challenging life event

2. Include important personal details

a. Volunteer work

b. Participation in varsity sports

B. Revise personal statement

III. COMPILE RÉSUMÉ

A. List relevant coursework

B. List work experience

C. List volunteer experience

1. Tutor at foreign language summer camp

2. Counselor for suicide prevention hotline

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/544/01/

Full Sentence Outline

I. Man-made pollution is the primary cause of global warming.

A. Greenhouse gas emissions are widely identified by the scientific community to be

harmful.

1. The burning of coal and fossil fuels are the primary releasers of hazardous

greenhouse gases.

Full sentence outlines are often accompanied with an APA reference list on a separate

page. Quotes within the outline must also utilize APA in-text citations.

Decimal Outline

1.0 Choose Desired College

1.1 Visit and evaluate college campuses

1.2 Visit and evaluate college websites

1.2.1 Look for interesting classes

1.2.2 Note important statistics

TheBasic Outline of a Paper

The following outline shows a basic format for most academic papers. No matter what length the paper

needs to be, it should still follow the format of having an introduction, body, and conclusion. Read over

what typically goes in each section of the paper. Use the back of this handout to outline information for

your specific paper.

I. Introduction

The introduction should have some of the following elements, depending on the type of paper:

� Start with an attention grabber: a short story, example, statistic, or historical
context that introduces the paper topic

� Give an overview of any issues involved with the subject
� Define of any key terminology need to understand the topic
� Quote or paraphrase sources revealing the controversial nature of the subject

(argumentative papers only)

� Highlight background information on the topic needed to understand the direction
of the paper

� Write an antithesis paragraph, presenting the primary opposing views
(argumentative paper only)

The introduction must end with a THESIS statement (a 1 to 2 sentences in length):

� Tell what the overall paper will focus on
� Briefly outline the main points in the paper

II. Body

� Clearly present the main points of the paper as listed in the thesis
� Give strong examples, details, and explanations to support each main points
� If an argumentative paper, address any counterarguments and refute those arguments
� If a research paper, use strong evidence from sources—paraphrases, summaries, and

quotations that support the main points

III. Conclusion

� Restate your thesis from the introduction in different words
� Briefly summarize each main point found in the body of the paper (avoid going over 2

sentences for each point)

� Give a statement of the consequences of not embracing the position (argumentative paper
only)

� End with a strong clincher statement: an appropriate, meaningful final sentence that ties the
whole point of the paper together (may refer back to the attention grabber)

Additional Tips

� Decide on the thesis and main points first
� You do not need to start writing your paper with the introduction
� Try writing the thesis and body first; then go back and figure out how to best introduce the body

and conclude the paper

� Use transitions between main points and between examples within the main points
� Always keep your thesis in the forefront of your mind while writing; everything in your paper

must point back to the thesis

� Use the back of this handout to make an outline of your paper

Paper Topic:____________________________________________________ Audience:__________

I. Introduction

Possible ideas for the introduction (see front side of handout for suggestions):

_______________________________

_______________________________
_______________________________

Thesis Statement (Usually the last sentence(s) in the introduction):

_________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________

II. Body (A paper may have a few or many main points; decide how many your paper will need)

Main Point: ___________________________________________________________________

Examples/Details/Explanations:

a. ______________________________________________________________________

b. ______________________________________________________________________

c. ______________________________________________________________________

Main Point: ___________________________________________________________________
Examples/Details/Explanations:
a. ______________________________________________________________________
b. ______________________________________________________________________
c. ______________________________________________________________________

Main Point: ___________________________________________________________________
Examples/Details/Explanations:
a. ______________________________________________________________________
b. ______________________________________________________________________
c. ______________________________________________________________________

Main Point: ___________________________________________________________________
Examples/Details/Explanations:
a. ______________________________________________________________________
b. ______________________________________________________________________
c. ______________________________________________________________________

III. Conclusion

Reworded Thesis (Usually found near the beginning of the conclusion):

_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

Other Ideas to Conclude:

________________________________

________________________________

Clincher Ideas: _________________________________________________________________

I. INTRODUCTION – (Brief comment leading into subject matter –

Thesis statement on Shakespeare)

II. BODY – Shakespeare’s Early Life, Marriage, Works, Later Years

A. Early life in Stratford

1. Shakespeare’s family

a. Shakespeare’s father

b. Shakespeare’s mother

2. Shakespeare’s marriage

a. Life of Anne Hathaway

b. Reference in Shakespeare’s Poems

B. Shakespeare’s works

1. Plays

a. Tragedies

i. Hamlet

ii. Romeo and Juliet

b. Comedies

i. The Tempest

ii. Much Ado About Nothing

c. Histories

i. King John

ii. Richard III

iii. Henry VIII

2. Sonnets

3. Other poems

C. Shakespeare’s Later Years

1. Last two plays

2. Retired to Stratford

a. Death

b. Burial

i. Epitaph on his tombstone

III. CONCLUSION

A. Analytical summary

1. Shakespeare’s early life

2. Shakespeare’s works

3. Shakespeare’s later years

B. Thesis reworded

C. Concluding statement

APAFormat Research Paper

Your paper should have 10 pages minimum:

1 title page

1 abstract page (to tell the reader what to expect within the paper)

7 pages of content (with a brief conclusion to sum up what your paper was about)

1 reference page (with a minimum of 4 references)

1) Format:

General Information

1) Research papers are in 12 font size and Time New Roman (usually) and are double spaced with a 1 inch

margin, (top, bottom, right, and left). Do not use italics or bold print.

2) Do not use the “Center” or “Justify” feature for spacing within the text.

3) Have a running head in the upper left side of the header and page number such as 1 in the upper right

part of the header. Make sure the running head is included on each page.

4) It should have a title page that includes; your name, title of paper, and college.

5) It should have an abstract. This is a one paragraph summary of your paper. It tells the reader what

information they can expect to find using actual facts from the document (no I statements) and tells the

focus of the paper.

6) The conclusion at the end of the paper states a summary of the main topics / points made in the paper.

7) Do not use symbols such as (&), write (and) within the main text. This symbol can be used when citing

two or more authors within text (Jones & Smith, 2010).

8) No new information should be presented in conclusion (or discussion if you have one).

9) If you add a questionnaire or chart, cite it as an addendum (if more than 1; label A, B, etc.) and add to

end of paper. So, state in paper … “please refer to the chart / questionnaire in appendix A”.

10) Do not use tables or list unless there is no other way to give this information. You could do this:

“Symptoms of alcohol abuse are; law trouble, health, continuing to drink and loss of family.”

11) If your last page has less than 3 or 4 lines; edit your paper so they fit on the page prior or add to it, to

make it at least a ¼ page.

12) Remember it takes 3 sentences or more to make paragraph.

13) Spell out acronyms the first time the reader is presented with it: Mothers Against Drunk Drivers

(MADD). Once the reader knows the meaning of the acronym, you can continue the acronym, MADD

throughout paper.

Citing Information

1) Cite where information has come from within the paper when it appears in the paper (especially

when using quotes) using APA format. Do not put them all at the end of the paragraph unless the

entire paragraph is from that/those authors.

2) Check how to cite in text.

If you add page number (Author, Year, p. ##)

Without page number (Author, Year)

3) If you cite a study, author or quote from a book or article other than the author of the book / article

you are using, look at the reference page and find the reference information to cite the original

author (referred to as double citing).

So, if you are reading a book by Jane Jones and state in your paper…Joe Smith states that

“Alcoholism is bad.” (Jones, 2009)… that is incorrect. Look at the reference page of the Jones

resource to find the original article / book by Smith & cite Smith in text

and on reference page.

4) If the reference information is not available on the embedded source (Smith), avoid citing or use of

direct quotes from that author (Smith).

5) If your site the Diagnostic Statistical Manual, cite it in text and on reference page. Check the APA

web site to see how to document or the Additional Class Resources link on faculty web page.

6) Cite author of web page (in text and reference page) not title of document (if you know author) ie

Lily or Alcoholics Anonymous.

7) Web sites referenced on reference page should look like this:

Kenneth, I. A. (2000). A Buddhist response to the nature of human rights. Journal of Buddhist

Ethics, 8. Retrieved from http://www.cac.psu.edu/jbe/twocont.html

8) Look how to cite personal interview in text and on reference page.

9) The reference page should be double spaced and APA format style.

10) The references cited in the text and the references page should match. So if you cite it in your paper,

you must have it listed on your reference page and if on reference page it must be in document.

11) Web sites referred to within text should not include: www or the .com, .org or .net.

12) Be sure to remove hyperlink when using website references (right click; then select remove) in text

and on reference page.

13) Avoid starting a sentence using a numeral; spell it out (Twenty percent not 20%).

2) Content Information

1) Remember you are the expert. Write the paper as if the reader knows nothing about the topic.

2) Take this approach when outlining your paper:

A. Tell the reader what you are going to tell them (abstract, introduction)

B. Tell them what you told them you were going to tell them (main body)

C. Tell them what you told them (conclusion)

3) Be sure your paper has a focus. Make sure what you have written pertains to the main idea(s) of the

paper. You might have to explain this, tell the reader how certain information relates if not obvious.

4) Let the reader know when you have changed topics, you can use these techniques; a) Use a new

paragraph when changing topics, and / or b) Use bridging / transitional sentences when you change the

subject so the reader knows you have moved on to another topic if you do not use section heads.

5) Break very long paragraphs into shorter ones by topic or enumeration (first….., secondly,….lastly).

6) Your paper’s tone should be seamless; reader should not know you switched resources.

7) If you are discussing a treatment model or study, explain it to the reader. Such as; “A study by

_(Author)_ (date) suggests that _(age of use), and _(frequency of use) are important in treating

_(alcoholism)_. “ then explain each item (if need be) and explain the process ( if need be).

8) The conclusion (or discussion if you have one) should not have new information.

9) Your discussion section (if you have one) should contain pertinent information related to topics

discussed in paper and can be a way to “bring life” to the facts in your paper. Usually contains

anecdotal information and is the only time “I” statements are appropriate.

10) Check for missing or duplicated words or phrases.

11) Check punctuation.

12) Check the proper use of plurals and possessives.

13) Cite information used to avoid plagiarism; use your own words as much as possible.

3) Other tips:

1) Let your paper “cool” for 24 hours. Read it to make sure it says what you want it to say.

2) Also scan each page for formatting issues. Does it look like the example from

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/media/pdf/20090212013008_560

3) Resources to learn proper format and citing information.

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/01/

http://www.apa.org/

http://www.apastyle.org

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/media/pdf/20090212013008_560

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/01/

http://www.apa.org/

http://www.apastyle.org/

M A N U S C R I P T S T R U C T U R E A N D C O N T E N T 57

THE SLEEPER EFFECT IN PERSUASION 3

The Sleeper Effect in Persuasion:

A Meta-Analytic Review

Persuasive messages are often accompanied by information that induces suspicions of

invalidity. For instance, recipients of communications about a political candidate may discount a

message coming from a representative of the opponent party because they do not perceive the

source of the message as credible (e.g., Lariscy & Tinkham, 1999). Because the source of the

political message serves as a discounting cue and temporarily decreases the impact of the

message, recipients may not be persuaded by the advocacy immediately after they receive the

communication. Over time, however, recipients of an otherwise influential message may recall

the message but not the noncredible source and thus become more persuaded by the message at

that time than they were immediately following the communication. The term sleeper effect was

used to denote such

a delayed increase in persuasion observed when the discounting cue (e.g.,

noncredible source)

becomes unavailable or “dissociated” from the communication in the

memory of the mes

sage recipients (Hovland, Lumsdaine, & Sheffield, 1949).…[section

Method

Sample of Studies

We retrieve

d reports related to the sleeper effect that were available by March 2003 by

means of multiple p

rocedures. First, we searched computerized databases, including PsycINFO

(1887–2003), Dissertation Abstracts International (1861–2003), ERIC (1967–2003), and the

Social-Science-Citation-Index (1956–2003), using the keywords sleeper effect, delayed-action,

credibility, source c

redibility, source expertise, attitude change, discounting cue, attitude

persistence, attitude maintenance, persuasion, propaganda, attitude and memory, attitude and

a delayed increase in persuasion observed when the discounting cue (e.g.,
becomes unavailable or “dissociated” from the communication in the
sage recipients (Hovland, Lumsdaine, & Sheffield, 1949).…[section
Method
d reports related to the sleeper effect that were available by March 2003 by
rocedures. First, we searched computerized databases, including PsycINFO

rtation Abstracts International (1861–2003), ERIC (1967–77 2003), and the

tion-Index (1956–66 2003), using the keywords sleeper effect,tt delayed-action,

redibility, source expertise, attitude change, discounting cue, attitude

maintenance, persuasion, propaganda, attitude and memoryrr , attitude and

THE SLEEPER EFFECT IN PERSUASION 4

retention, attitude and decay, and persuasion and decay . Because researchers often use the terms

opinion and belief, instead of attitude , we conducted searches using these substitute terms as

well.

Second, … [section c

ontinues].

Selection Criteria

We used the following criteria to select studies for inclusion in the meta-analysis.

1. We only included studies that involved the presentation of a communication containing

persuasive arguments. Thus, we excluded studies in which the participants played a role or were

asked to make a speech that contradicted their opinions. We also excluded developmental studies

involving delayed effects of an early event (e.g., child abuse), which sometimes are also referred

to as sleeper effects .…[section continues] .

Moderators

For descriptive purposes, we recorded (a) the year and (b) source (i.e., journal article,

unpublished dissertations and theses, or other unpublished document) of each report as well as

(c) the sample composition (i.e., high school students, university students, or other) and (d) the

country in which the study was conducted.

We also coded each experiment in terms of .…[section

continues].

Studies were coded independently by the first author and another graduate student.

Italicize key terms, 4.21

Description of meta-analysis, 1.02;
Guidelines for reporting meta-analysis,
2.10; see also Appendix

Identification of elements in a
series within a sentence, 3.04

Figure 2.3. Sample Meta-Analysis (The numbers refer to numbered sec-
tions in the Publication Manual. This abridged manuscript illus-
trates the organizational structure characteristic of reports of
meta-analyses. Of course, a complete meta-analysis would
include a title page, an abstract page, and so forth.)

Paper adapted from “The Sleeper Effect in Persuasion: A Meta-Analytic Review,” by G. Kumkale and D.
Albarracin, 2004, Psychological Bulletin, 130, pp. 143–172. Copyright 2004 by the American Psychological
Association.

S A M P L E P A P E R S58

THE SLEEPER EFFECT IN PERSUASION 5

was satisfactory (Orwin, 1994). We resolved disagreements by discussion and consultation with

colleagues. Characteristics of the individual studies included in this review are presented in

Table 1. The studies often contained several independent datasets such as different messages and

different experiments. The characteristics that distinguish different datasets within a report

appear on the second column of the table.

Dependent Measures and Computation of Effect Sizes

We calculated effect sizes for (a) persuasion and (b) recall–recognition of the message

content. Calculations were based on the data described in the primary reports as well as available

responses of the authors to requests of further information.…[section continues].

Analyses of Effect Sizes

There are two major models used in meta-analysis: fixed-effects and random-

effects.…[section continues].

To benefit from the strengths of both models, we chose to aggregate the effect sizes and to

conduct analyses us

ing both approaches.…[section continues].

Results

The data analysis included a description of the experiments we summarized, an

estimation of overal

l effects, moderator analyses, and tests of mediation.

Sample of Studies

and Datasets

Descriptive characteristics of the datasets included in the present meta-analysis appear in

Table 2.…[section continues].

Overview of the A

verage Effect Sizes

A thorough

understanding of the sleeper effect requires examining (a) the between-

condition differenc

es at each time point as well as (b) the within-condition changes that take

Analyses of Effect Sizes

wo major models used in meta-aa analysis: fixed-effects and s random-

ontinues].

e strengths of both models, we chose to aggregate the effect sizes and to

ing both approaches.…[section continues].
Results

alysis included a description of the experiments we summarized, an

l effects, moderator analyses, and tests of mediation.
and Datasets

characteristics of the datasets included in the present meta-aa analysis appear in

continues].
verage Effect Sizes
understanding of the sleeper effect requires examining (a) the between-
es at each time point as well as (b) the within-condition changes that take

THE SLEEPER EFFECT IN PERSUASION 6

place over time.…[section continues].

In light of these requirements, we first examined whether discounting cues led to a decrease in

agreement with the communication (boomerang effect). Next,.…[section continues].

Ruling out a nonpersisting boomerang effect. To determine whether or not a delayed

increase in persuasion represents an absolute sleeper effect, one needs to rule out a nonpersisting

boomerang effect, which takes place when a message initially backfires but later loses this

reverse effect (see Panel A of Figure 1).…[section continues].

Average sleeper effect. Relevant statistics corresponding to average changes in

persuasion from the immediate to the delayed posttest appear in Table 4, organized by the

different conditions we considered (i.e., acceptance-cue, discounting-cue, no-message control,

and message-only control). In Table 4, positive effect sizes indicate increases in persuasion over

time, negative effect sizes indicate decay in persuasion, and zero effects denote stability in

persuasion. Confidence intervals that do not include zero indicate significant changes over time.

The first row of Table 4 shows that recipients of acceptance cues agreed with the message less as

time went by (fixed-effects, d + = –0.21; random-effects, d+ = –0.23). In contrast to the decay in

persuasion for recipients of acceptance cues, there was a slight increase in persuasion for

recipients of discounting cues over time (d+ = 0.08). It is important to note that change in

discounting-cue conditions significantly differed from change in acceptance-cue conditions,

(fixed-effects; B = –0.29, SE = 0.04), QB(1) = 58.15, p < .0001; QE(123) = 193.82, p <

.0001.…[section continues].

Summary and variability of the overall effect. The overall analyses identified a relative

sleeper effect in persuasion, but no absolute sleeper effect. The latter was not surprising, because

the sleeper effect was expected to emerge under specific conditions.…[section continues].

Use at least
two subheadings
in a section, 3.02

Figure 2.3. Sample Meta-Analysis (continued)

M A N U S C R I P T S T R U C T U R E A N D C O N T E N T 59

THE SLEEPER EFFECT IN PERSUASION 7

Moderator Analyses

Although overall effects have descriptive value, the variability in the change observed in

discounting-cue conditions makes it unlikely that the same effect was present under all

conditions. Therefore, we tested the hypotheses that the sleeper effect would be more likely (e.g.,

more consistent with the absolute pattern in Panel B1 of Figure 1) when…[section continues].

THE SLEEPER EFFECT IN PERSUASION 8

. . . [references continue]

[Follow the form of the one-experiment sample paper to type the author note, footnotes,
tables, and figure captions.]

References

References marked with an asterisk indicate studies included in the meta-analysis.

Albarracín, D. (2002). Cognition in persuasion: An analysis of information processing in

response to persuasive communications. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental

social psychology (Vol. 34, pp. 61–130). doi:10.1016/S0065-2601(02)80004-1

… [references continue]

Johnson, B. T., & Eagly, A. H. (1989). Effects of involvement in persuasion: A meta-analysis.

Psychological Bulletin, 106, 290–314. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.106.2.290

*Johnson, H. H., Torcivia, J. M., & Poprick, M. A. (1968). Effects of source credibility on the

relationship between authoritarianism and attitude change. Journal of Personality and

Social Psychology, 9, 179–183. doi:10.1037/h0021250

*Johnson, H. H., & Watkins, T. A. (1971). The effects of message repetitions on immediate and

delayed attitude change. Psychonomic Science, 22, 101–103.

Jonas, K., Diehl, M., & Bromer, P. (1997). Effects of attitudinal ambivalence on information

processing and attitude-intention consistency. Journal of Experimental Social

Psychology, 33, 190–210. doi:10.1006/jesp.1996.1317

Format for references included
in a meta-analysis with less
than 50 references, 6.26

Figure 2.3. Sample Meta-Analysis (continued)

Running head: EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 1

Effects of Age on Detection of Emotional Information

Christina M. Leclerc and Elizabeth A. Kensinger

Boston College

Author Note

This rese

arch was supported by National Science Foundation Grant BCS 0542694

awarded to Eliza

beth A. Kensinger

.

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Christina M. Leclerc,

Department of Psychology, Boston College, McGuinn Hall, Room 512, 140 Commonwealth

Avenue, Chestn

ut Hill, MA 02467. Email: christina.leclerc.1@bc.edu

Christina

M. Leclerc and Elizabeth A. Kensinger, Department of Psychology,

Boston College.

Author Note
arch was supported by National Science Foundation Grant BCS 0542694
beth A. Kensinger.

ndence concerning this article should be addressed to Christina M. Leclerc,

sychology, Boston College, McGuinn Hall, Room 512, 140 Commonwealth

ut Hill, MA 02467. Email: christina.leclerc.1@bc.edu
M. Leclerc and Elizabeth A. Kensinger, Department of Psychology,

Writing the abstract, 2.04

Establishing a title, 2.01; Preparing the
manuscript for submission, 8.03

Formatting the author name (byline) and
institutional affiliation, 2.02, Table 2.1

Double-spaced manuscript,
Times Roman typeface,
1-inch margins, 8.03

Elements of an author note, 2.03

EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION

2

Abstract

Age differences were examined in affective processing, in the context of a visual search task

.

Young and older adults were faster to detect high arousal images compared with low arousal and

neutral items. Younger adults were faster to detect positive high arousal targets compared with

other categories. In contrast, older adults exhibited an overall detection advantage for emotional

images compared with neutral images. Together, these findings suggest that older adults do not

display valence-based effects on affective processing at relatively automatic stages.

Keywords: aging, attention, information processing, emotion, visual search

M A N U S C R I P T S T R U C T U R E A N D C O N T E N T 41

Figure 2.1. Sample One-Experiment Paper (The numbers refer to numbered
sections in the Publication Manual.)

Paper adapted from “Effects of Age on Detection of Emotional Information,” by C. M. Leclerc and E. A. Kensinger,
2008, Psychology and Aging, 23, pp. 209–215. Copyright 2008 by the American Psychological Association.

S A M P L E P A P E R S42

EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 3

Effects of Age on Detection of Emotional Information

Frequently, people encounter situations in their environment in which it is impossible to

attend to all available stimuli. It is therefore of great importance for one’s attentional processes to

select only the most salient information in the environment to which one should attend. Previous

research has suggested that emotional information is privy to attentional selection in young

adults (e.g.,

& Tapia, 2004; Nummenmaa, Hyona, & Calvo, 2006), an obvious service to evolutionary drives

to approach rewarding situations and to avoid threat and danger (Davis & Whalen, 2001; Dolan

& Vuilleumier, 2003; Lang, Bradley, & Cuthbert, 1997; LeDoux, 1995).

For example, Ohman, Flykt, and Esteves (2001)presented participants with 3 × 3 visual

arrays with images representing four categories (snakes, spiders, flowers, mushrooms). In half

the arrays, all nine images were from the same category, whereas in the remaining half of the

arrays, eight images were from one category and one image was from a different category (e.g.,

eight flowers and one snake). Participants were asked to indicate whether the matrix included a

discrepant stimulus. Results indicated that fear-relevant images were more quickly detected than

fear-irrelevant items, and larger search facilitation effects were observed for participants who

were fe

arful of the stimuli. A similar pattern of results has been observed when examining the

attention-grabbing nature of negative facial expressions, with threatening faces (including those

not atte

nded to) identified more quickly than positive or neutral faces (Eastwood, Smilek, &

Merikl

e, 2001; Hansen & Hansen, 1988). The enhanced detection of emotional information is

not lim

ited to threatening stimuli; there is evidence that any high-arousing stimulus can be

detected rapidly, regardless of whether it is positively or negatively valenced (Anderson, 2005;

Anderson, 2005; Calvo & Lang, 2004; Carretie, Hinojosa, Marin-Loeches, Mecado,

ant stimulus. Results indicated that fearr-rr relevant images were more quickly detected than

elevant items, and larger search facilitation effects were observed for participants who aa

arful of the stimuli. A similar pattern of results has been observed when examining the

n-grabbing nature of negative facial expressions, with threatening faces (includ- ing those

nded to) identified more quickly than positive or neutral faces (Eastwood, Smilek, &
e, 2001; Hansen & Hansen, 1988). The enhanced detection of emotional information is
ited to threatening stimuli; there is evidence that any high-arousing stimulus can be

d rapidly, regardless of whether it is positively or negatively valenced (Anderson,(( 2005;55

EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 4

Calvo & Lang, 2004; Carretie et al., 2004; Juth, Lundqvist, Karlsson, & Ohman, 2005;

Nummenmaa et al., 2006).

From this research, it seems clear that younger adults show detection benefits for

arousing information in the environment. It is less clear whether these effects are preserved

across the adult life span. The focus of the current research is on determining the extent to which

aging influences the early, relatively automatic detection of emotio

nal infor

mation.

Regions of the brain thought to be important for emotional detection remain relatively

intact with aging (reviewed by Chow & Cummings, 2000). Thus, it is plausible that the detection

of emotional information remains relatively stable as adults age. However, despite the

preservation of emotion-processing regions with age (or perhaps because of the contrast between

the preservation of these regions and age-related declines in cognitive-processing regions; Good

et al., 2001; Hedden & Gabrieli, 2004; Ohnishi, Matsuda, Tabira, Asada, & Uno, 2001; Raz,

2000; West, 1996), recent behavioral research has revealed changes that occur with aging in the

regulation and processing of emotion. According to the socioemotional selectivity theory

(Carstensen, 1992), with aging, time is perceived as increasingly limited, and as a result, emotion

regulation becomes a primary goal (Carstensen, Isaacowitz, & Charles, 1999). According to

socioemotional selectivity theory, age is associated with an increased motivation to deri

ve

emotional meaning from life and a simultaneous decreasing motivation to expand one’s

knowledge base. As a consequence of these motivational shifts, emotional aspects of the

Writing the introduction, 2.05

Ordering citations within
the same parentheses, 6.16

Selecting
the correct
tense, 3.18

Continuity in presentation
of ideas, 3.05

Citing one
work by six
or more
authors, 6.12

No capitalization in
naming theories, 4.16

Numbers
expressed
in words,
4.32

Numbers that represent
statistical or mathematical
functions, 4.31

Use of hyphenation for
compound words, 4.13,
Table 4.1

Figure 2.1. Sample One-Experiment Paper (continued)

M A N U S C R I P T S T R U C T U R E A N D C O N T E N T 43

EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 5

To maintain positive affect in the face of negative age-related change (e.g., limited time

remaining, physical and cognitive decline), older adults may adopt new cognitive strategies. One

such strategy, discussed recently, is the positivity effect (Carstensen & Mikels, 2005), in which

older adults spend proportionately more time processing positive emotional material and less

time processing negative emotional material. Studies examining the influence of emotion on

memory (Charles, Mather, & Carstensen, 2003; Kennedy, Mather, & Carstensen, 2004) have

found that compared with younger adults, older adults recall proportionally more positive

information and proportionally less negative information. Similar results have been found when

examining eye-tracking patterns: Older adults looked at positive images longer than younger

adults did, even when no age differences were observed in looking time for negative stimuli

(Isaacowitz, Wadlinger, Goren, & Wilson, 2006). However, this positivity effect has not gone

uncontested; some researchers have found evidence inconsistent with the positivity effect (e.g.,

Grühn, Smith, & Baltes, 2005; Kensinger, Brierley, Medford, Growdon, & Corkin, 2002).

Based on this previously discussed research, three competing hypotheses exist to explain

age differences in e

motional processing associated with the normal aging process. First,

emotional information may remain important throughout the life span, leading to similarly

facilitated detection of emotional information in younger and older adults. Second, with aging,

emotional informatio

n may take on additional importance, resulting in older adults’ enhanced

detection of emotion

al information in their environment. Third, older adults may focus

principally on positiv

e emotional information and may show facilitated detection of positive, but

not negative,

emotional information.

The primary

goal in the present experiment was to adjudicate among these alternatives.

To do so, we employed a visual search paradigm to assess young and older adults’ abilities to

motional processing associated with the normal aging process. First,

n may remain important throughout the life span, leading to similarly

of emotional information in younger and older adults. Second, with aging,

n may take on additional importance, resulting in older adults’ enhanced
al information in their environment. Third, older adults may focus
e emotional information and may show facilitated detection of positive, but
nal information.
goal in the present experiment was to adjudicate among these alternatives.

ed a visual search paradigm to assess young and older adults’ abilities to

EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 6

rapidly detect emotional information. We hypothesized that on the whole, older adults would be

slower to detect information than young adults would be (consistent with Hahn, Carlson, Singer,

& Gronlund, 2006; Mather & Knight, 2006); the critical question was whether the two age

groups would show similar or divergent facilitation effects with regard to the effects of emotion

on item detection. On the basis of the existing literature, the first two previously discussed

hypotheses seemed to be more plausible than the third alternative. This is because there is reason

to think that the positivity effect may be operating only at later stages of processing (e.g.,

strategic, elaborative, and emotion regulation processes) rather than at the earlier stages

of

processing involved in the rapid detection of information (see Mather & Knight, 2005, for

discussion). Thus, the first two hypotheses, that emotional information maintains its importance

across the life span or that emotional information in general takes on greater importance with

age, seemed particularly applicable to early stages of emotional processing.

Indeed, a couple of prior studies have provided evidence for intact early processing of

emotional facial expressions with aging. Mather and Knight (2006) examined young and older

adults’ abilities to detect happy, sad, angry, or neutral faces presented in a complex visual array.

Mather and Knight found that like younger adults, older adults detected threatening faces more

quickly than they detected other types of emotional stimuli. Similarly, Hahn et al. (2006) also

found no age differences in efficiency of search time when angry faces were presented in an

array of neutral faces, compared with happy faces in neutral face displays. When angry faces,

compared with positive and neutral faces, served as nontarget distractors in the visual search

arrays, however, older adults were more efficient in searching, compared with younger adults,

Capitalization of words
beginning a sentence after
a colon, 4.14

Using the colon between
two grammatically
complete clauses, 4.05

Using the semicolon to
separate two independent
clauses not joined by
a conjunction, 4.04

Using the comma between
elements in a series, 4.03

Punctuation with citations
in parenthetical material,
6.21

Citing references in text,
inclusion of year within
paragraph, 6.11, 6.12

Hypotheses and their
correspondence to research
design, Introduction, 2.05

Prefixes and
suffixes that
do not require
hyphens,
Table 4.2

Figure 2.1. Sample One-Experiment Paper (continued)

S A M P L E P A P E R S44

EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 7

negative stimuli were not of equivalent arousal levels (fearful faces typically are more arousing

than happy faces; Hansen & Hansen, 1988). Given that arousal is thought to be a key factor in

modulating the attentional focus effect (Hansen & Hansen, 1988; Pratto & John, 1991; Reimann

& McNally, 1995), to more clearly understand emotional processing in the context of aging, it is

necessary to include both positive and negative emotional items with equal levels of arousal.

In the current research, therefore, we compared young and older adults’ detection of four

categories of emotional information (positive high arousal, positive low arousal, negative high

arousal, and negative low arousal) with their detection of neutral information. The positive and

negative stimuli were carefully matched on arousal level, and the categories of high and low

arousal were closely matched on valence to assure that the factors of valence (positive, negative)

and arousal (high, low) could be investigated independently of one another. Participants were

presented with a visual search task including images from these different categories (e.g., snakes,

cars, teapots). For half of the multi-image arrays, all of the images were of the same item, and for

the remaining half of the arrays, a single target image of a different type from the remaining

items was included. Participants were asked to decide whether a different item was included in

the array, and their reaction times

were recorded for each decision. Of primary interest were

differences in response times (RTs

) based on the valence and arousal levels of the target

categories. We reasoned that if yo

ung and older adults were equally focused on emotional

information, then we would expect similar degrees of facilitation in the detection of emotional

stimuli for the two age groups. By contrast, if older adults were more affectively focused than

were younger adults, older adults

should show either faster detection speeds for all of the

emotional items (relative to the neutral items) than shown by young adults or greater facilitation

g y , g ,

single target image of a different type from the remaining

were asked to decide whether a different item was included in

were recorded for each decision. Of primary interest were
) based on the valence and arousal levels of the target
ung and older adults were equally focused on emotional

t similar degrees of facilitation in the detection of emotional

contrast, if older adults were more affectively focused than

should show either faster detection speeds for all of the

utral items) than shown by young adults or greater facilitation

EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 8

for the arousing items than shown by the young adults (resulting in an interaction between age

and arousal).

Method

Participants

Younger adults (14 women, 10 men, Mage = 19.5 years, age range: 18–22 years) were

recruited with flyers posted on the Boston College campus. Older adults (15 women, nine men,

Mage = 76.1 years, age range: 68–84 years) were recruited through the Harvard Cooperative on

Aging (see Table 1, for demographics and test scores).1 Participants were compensated $10 per

hour for their participation. There were 30 additional participants, recruited in the same way as

described above, who provided pilot rating values: five young and five old participants for the

assignment of items within individual categories (i.e., images depicting cats), and 10 young and

10 old participants for the assignment of images within valence and arousal categories. All

participants were asked to bring corrective eyewear if needed, resulting in normal or corrected

to normal vision for all participants.

Materials and

Procedure

The visual search task was adapted from Ohman et al. (2001). There were 10 different

types of items (two each of five Valence × Arousal categories: positive high arousal, positive low

arousal, neutral, negative low arousal, negative high arousal), each containing nine individual

exemplars that were used to construct 3 × 3 stimulus matrices. A total of 90 images were used,

each appearing as a target and as a member of a distracting array. A total of 360 matrices were

presented to each participant; half contained a target item (i.e., eight items of one type and one

target item of another type) and half did not (i.e., all nine images of the same type). Within the

Prefixed words that
require hyphens,
Table 4.3

Using abbreviations, 4.22; Explanation
of abbreviations, 4.23; Abbreviations
used often in APA journals, 4.25;
Plurals of abbreviations, 4.29

Elements of the Method
section, 2.06; Organizing
a manuscript with levels
of heading, 3.03

Using numerals to express
numbers representing age, 4.31

Numbering and
discussing tables
in text, 5.05

Identifying
subsections
within the
Method
section, 2.06

Participant (subject)
characteristics,
Method, 2.06

Figure 2.1. Sample One-Experiment Paper (continued)

M A N U S C R I P T S T R U C T U R E A N D C O N T E N T 45

Running head: EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 10

selected such that the arousal difference between positive low arousal and positive high arousal

was equal to the difference between negative low arousal and negative high arousal.

Similarity ratings. Each item was rated for within-category and between-categories

similarity. For within-category similarity, participants were shown a set of exemplars (e.g., a set

of mushrooms) and were asked to rate how similar each mushroom was to the rest of the

mushrooms, on a 1 (entirely dissimilar) to 7 (nearly identical) scale. Participants made these

ratings on the basis of overall similarity and on the basis of the specific visual dimensions in

which the objects could differ (size, shape, orientation). Participants also rated how similar

objects of one category were to objects of another category (e.g., how similar the mushrooms

were to the snakes). Items were selected to assure that the categories were equated on within-

category and between-categories similarity of specific visual dimensions as well as for the

overall similarity of the object categories (ps > .20). For example, we selected particular

mushrooms and particular cats so that the mushrooms were as similar to one another as were the

cats (i.e., within-group similarity was held constant across the categories). Our object selection

also assured that the categories differed from one another to a similar degree (e.g., that the

mushrooms were as similar to the snakes as the cats were similar to the snakes).

Procedure

Each trial began with a white fixation cross presented on a black screen for 1,000 ms; the

matrix was then presented, and it remained on the screen until a participant response was

recorded. Participants were instructed to respond as quickly as possible with a button marked yes

if there was a target present, or a button marked no if no target was present. Response latencies

and accuracy for each trial were automatically recorded with E-Prime (Version 1.2) experimental

Running head: EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTIONRR

selected such that the arousal difference between positive low arousal and positi

was equal to the difference between negative low arousal and negative high arou

Similarity ratings. Each item was rated for within-category and between

similarity. For within-category similarity, participants were shown a set of exem

of mushrooms) and were asked to rate how similar each mushroom was to the re

mushrooms, on a 1 (entirely dissimilar) to 7 (nearly identical(( ) scale. Participants

ratings on the basis of overall similarity and on the basis of the specific visual di

which the objects could differ (size, shape, orientation). Participants also rated h

objects of one category were to objects of another category (e.g., how similar the

were to the snakes). Items were selected to assure that the categories were equate

category and between-categories similarity of specific visual dimensions as well

overall similarity of the object categories (p(( s > .20). For example, we selected pa

h d ti l t th t th h i il t

EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 9

matrix. Within the 180 target trials, each of the five emotion categories (e.g., positive high

arousal, neutral, etc.) was represented in 36 trials. Further, within each of the 36 trials for each

emotion category, nine trials were created for each of the combinations with the remaining four

other emotion categories (e.g., nine trials with eight positive high arousal items and one neutral

item). Location of the target was randomly varied such that no target within an emotion category

was presented in the same location in arrays of more than one other emotion category (i.e., a

negative high arousal target appeared in a different location when presented with positive high

arousal array images than when presented with neutral array images).

The items within each category of grayscale images shared the same verbal label (e.g.,

mushroom, snake), and the items were selected from online databases and photo clipart

packages. Each image depicted a photo of the actual object. Ten pilot participants were asked to

write down the name corresponding to each object; any object that did not consistently generate

the intended response was eliminated from the set. For the remaining images, an additional 20

pilot participants rated the emotional valence and arousal of the objects and assessed the degree

of visual similarity among objects within a set (i.e., how similar the mushrooms were to one

another) and between objects across sets (i.e., how similar the mushrooms were to the snakes).

Valence and arousal ratings. Valence and arousal were judged on 7-point scales (1 =

negative valence or low arousal and 7 = positive valence or high arousal). Negative objects

received mean valence ratings of 2.5 or lower, neutral objects received mean valence ratings of

3.5 to 4.5, and positive objects received mean valence ratings of 5.5 or higher. High-arousal

objects received mean arousal ratings greater than 5, and low-arousal objects (including all

neutral stimuli) received mean arousal ratings of less than 4. We selected categories for which

both young and older adults agreed on the valence and arousal classifications, and stimuli were

Latin abbreviations, 4.26

Numbers expressed in words
at beginning of sentence, 4.32

Italicization of anchors
of a scale, 4.21

Figure 2.1. Sample One-Experiment Paper (continued)

S A M P L E P A P E R S46

EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 11

software. Before beginning the actual task, participants performed 20 practice trials to assure

compliance with the task instructions.

Results

Analyses focus on participants’ RTs to the 120 trials in which a target was present and

was from a different emotional category from the distractor (e.g., RTs were not included for

arrays containing eight images of a cat and one image of a butterfly because cats and butterflies

are both positive low-arousal items). RTs were analyzed for 24 trials of each target emotion

category. RTs for error trials were excluded (less than 5% of all responses) as were RTs that

were ±3 SD from each participant ’s mean (approximately 1.5% of responses). Median RTs were

then calculated for each of the five emotional target categories, collapsing across array type (see

Table 2 for raw RT values for each of the two age groups). This allowed us to examine, for

example, whether participants were faster to detect images of snakes than images of mushrooms,

regardless of the type of array in which they were presented. Because our main interest was in

examining the effects of valence and arousal on participants’ target detection times, we created

scores for each emotional target category that controlled for the participant’s RTs to detect

neutral targets (e.g., subtracting the RT to detect neutral targets from the RT to detect positive

high arousal targets). These difference scores were then examined with a 2 × 2 × 2 (Age [young,

older] × Valence [positive, negative] × Arousal [high, low]) analysis of variance (ANOVA). This

ANOVA revealed only a significant main effect of arousal, F(1, 46) = 8.41, p = .006, ηp2 = .16,

with larger differences between neutral and high-arousal images (M = 137) than between neutral

and low-arousal images (M = 93; i.e., high-arousal items processed more quickly across both age

groups compared with low-arousal items; see Figure 1). There was no significant main effect for

valence, nor was there an interaction between valence and arousal. It is critical that the analysis

Symbols, 4.45;
Numbers, 4.31

Abbreviations
accepted as
words, 4.24

Numbering and discussing
figures in text, 5.05

Nouns followed
by numerals or
letters, 4.17

Reporting
p values,
decimal
fractions,
4.35

Statistical symbols,
4.46, Table 4.5

Elements of the
Results section, 2.07

Figure 2.1. Sample One-Experiment Paper (continued)

M A N U S C R I P T S T R U C T U R E A N D C O N T E N T 47

EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 12

revealed only a main effect of age but no interactions with age. Thus, the arousal-mediated

effects on detection time appeared stable in young and older adults.

The results described above suggested that there was no influence of age on the

influences of emotion. To further test the validity of this hypothesis, we submitted the RTs to the

five categories of targets to a 2 × 5 (Age [young, old] × Target Category [positive high arousal,

positive low arousal, neutral, negative low arousal, negative high arousal]) repeated-measures

ANOVA.2 Both the age group, F(1, 46) = 540.32, p < .001, ηp2 = .92, and the ta rget category,

F(4, 184) = 8.98, p < .001, ηp2 = .16, main effects were significant, as well as the Age Group ×

Target Category interaction, F (4, 184) = 3.59, p = .008, ηp2 = .07. This interaction appeared to

reflect the fact that for the younger adults, positive high-arousal targets were detected faster than

targets from all other categories, ts(23) < –1.90, p < .001, with no other target categories

differing significantly from one another (although there were trends for negative high-arousal

and negative low-arousal targets to be detected more rapidly than neutral targets; p < .12). For

older adults, all emotional categories of targets were detected more rapidly than were neutral

targets, ts(23) > 2.56, p < .017, and RTs to the different emotion categories of targets did not

differ significantly from one another. Thus, these results provided some evidence that older

adults may show a broader advantage for detection of any type of emotional information,

whereas young adults’ benefit may be more narrowly restricted to only certain categories of

emotional information.

Discussion

As outlined previously, there were three plausible alternatives for young and older adults’

performance on the visual search task: The two age groups could show a similar pattern of

enhanced detection of emotional information, older adults could show a greater advantage for

Elements of the
Discussion section, 2.08

Statistics
in text, 4.44

Capitalize effects
or variables when
they appear with
multiplication
signs, 4.20

Spacing, alignment,
and punctuation of
mathematical copy, 4.46

Figure 2.1. Sample One-Experiment Paper (continued)

S A M P L E P A P E R S48

EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 13

emotional detection than young adults, or older adults could show a greater facilitation than

young adults only for the detection of positive information. The results lent some support to the

first two alternatives, but no evidence was found to support the third alternative.

In line with the first alternative, no effects of age were found when the influence of

valence and arousal on target detection times was examined; both age groups showed only an

arousal effect. This result is consistent with prior studies that indicated that arousing information

can be detected rapidly and automatically by young adults (Anderson, Christoff, Panitz, De

Rosa, & Gabrieli, 2003; Ohman & Mineka, 2001) and that older adults, like younger adults,

continue to display a threat detection advantage when searching for negative facial targets in

arrays of positive and neutral distractors (Hahn et al., 2006; Mather & Knight, 2006). Given the

relative preservatio

n of automatic processing with aging (Fleischman, Wilson, Gabrieli, Bienias,

& Bennett, 2004; Jennings & Jacoby, 1993), it makes sense that older adults would remain able

to take advantage o

f these automatic alerting systems for detecting high arousal information.

However, d

espite the similarity in arousal-mediated effects on detection between the two

age groups, the present study did provide some evidence for age-related change (specifically,

age-related enhance

ment) in the detection of emotional information. When examining RTs for

the five categories

of emotional targets, younger adults were more efficient in detecting positive

high-arousal images (as presented in Table 2), whereas older adults displayed an overall

advantage for detec

ting all emotional images compared with neutral images. This pattern

suggests a broader i

nfluence of emotion on older adults’ detection of stimuli, providing support

for the hypothesis t

hat as individuals age, emotional information becomes more salient.

It is interesting that this second set of findings is clearly inconsistent with the hypothesis

that the positivity e

ffect in older adults operates at relatively automatic stages of information

nd neutral distractors (Hahn et al., 2006; Mather & Knight, 2006). Given the 66

n of automatic processing with aging (Fleischman, Wilson, Gabrieli, Bienias,

nnings & Jacoby, 1993), it makes sense that older adults would remain able 33

f these automatic alerting systems for detecting high arousal information.
espite the similarity in arousal-mediated effects on detection between the two

ent study did provide some evidence for age-related change (specifically,

ment) in the detection of emotional information. When examining RTs for
of emotional targets, younger adults were more efficient in detecting positive

s (as presented in Table 2), whereas older adults displayed an overall

22

ting all emotional images compared with neutral images. This pattern
nfluence of emotion on older adults’ detection of stimuli, providing support
hat as individuals age, emotional information becomes more salient.

ng that this second set of findings is clearly inconsistent with the hypothesis

ffect in older adults operates at relatively automatic stages of information

EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 14

processing, given that no effects of valence were observed in older adults’ detection speed. In the

present study, older adults were equally fast to detect positive and negative information,

consistent with prior research that indicated that older adults often attend equally to positive and

negative stimuli (Rosler et al., 2005). Although the pattern of results for the young adults has

differed across studies—in the present study and in some past research, young adults have shown

facilitated detection of positive information (e.g., Anderson, 2005; Calvo & Lang, 2004; Carretie

et al., 2004; Juth et al., 2005; Nummenmaa et al., 2006), whereas in other studies, young adults

have shown an advantage for negative information (e.g., Armony & Dolan, 2002; Hansen &

Hansen, 1988; Mogg, Bradley,de Bono, & Painter, 1997; Pratto & John, 1991; Reimann &

McNally, 1995; Williams, Mathews, & MacLeod, 1996)—what is important to note is that the

older adults detected both positive and negative stimuli at equal rates. This equivalent detection

of positive and negative information provides evidence that older adults display an advantage for

the detection of emotional information that is not valence-specific.

Thus, although younger and older adults exhibited somewhat divergent patterns of

emotional detection on a task reliant on early, relatively automatic stages of processing, we

found no evidence of an age-related positivity effect. The lack of a positivity focus in the older

adults is in keeping with the proposal (e.g., Mather & Knight, 2006) that the positivity effect

does not arise through automatic attentional influences. Rather, when this effect is observed in

older adults, it is likely due to age-related changes in emotion regulation goals that operate at

later stages of processing (i.e., during consciously controlled processing), once information has

been attended to and once the emotional nature of the stimulus has been discerned.

Although we cannot conclusively say that the current task relies strictly on automatic

processes, there are two lines of evidence suggesting that the construct examined in the current

Clear statement of support or
nonsupport of hypotheses,
Discussion, 2.08

Use of an em dash to
indicate an interruption
in the continuity of a
sentence, 4.06;
Description of an
em dash, 4.13

Figure 2.1. Sample One-Experiment Paper (continued)

M A N U S C R I P T S T R U C T U R E A N D C O N T E N T 49

EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 15

research examines relatively automatic processing. First, in their previous work, Ohman et al.

(2001) compared RTs with both 2 × 2 and 3 × 3 arrays. No significant RT differences based on

the number of images presented in the arrays were found. Second, in both Ohman et al.’s (2001)

study and the present study, analyses were performed to examine the influence of target location

on RT. Across both studies, and across both age groups in the current work, emotional targets

were detected more quickly than were neutral targets, regardless of their location. Together,

these findings suggest that task performance is dependent on relatively automatic detection

processes rather than on controlled search processes.

Although further work is required to gain a more complete understanding of the age-

related changes in t

he early processing of emotional information, our findings indicate that

young and older ad

ults are similar in their early detection of emotional images. The current

study provides further evidence that mechanisms associated with relatively automatic processing

of emotional image

s are well maintained throughout the latter portion of the life span

(Fleischman et al., 2004; Jennings & Jacoby, 1993; Leclerc & Hess, 2005). It is critical that,

although there is ev

idence for a positive focus in older adults’ controlled processing of emotional

information (e.g., Carstensen & Mikels, 2005; Charles et al., 2003; Mather & Knight, 2005), the

present results sugg

est that the tendency to focus on the positive does not always arise when

tasks require relativ

ely automatic and rapid detection of information in the environment.

he early processing of emotional information, our findings indicate that
ults are similar in their early detection of emotional images. The current

her evidence that mechanisms associated with relatively automatic processing

s are well maintained throughout the latter portion of the life span

2004; Jennings & Jacoby, 1993;33 Leclerc & Hess, 2005). It is critical that,

idence for a positive focus in older adults’ controlled processing of emotional

Carstensen & Mikels, 2005; Charles et al., 2003; Mather & Knight, 2005), the

est that the tendency to focus on the positive does not always arise when
ely automatic and rapid detection of information in the environment.

EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 16

Anderson, A. K., Christoff, K., Panitz, D., De Rosa , E., & Gabrieli, J. D. E. (2003). Neural

correlates of the automatic processing of threat facial signals. Journal of Neuroscience,

23, 5627–5633.

Armony, J. L., & Dolan, R. J. (2002). Modulation of spatial attention by fear-conditioned

stimuli: An event-related fMRI study. Neuropsychologia, 40 , 817–826.

doi:10.1016/S0028-3932%2801%2900178-6

Beck, A. T., Epstein, N., Brown, G., & Steer, R. A. (1988). An inventory for measuring clinical

anxiety: Psychometric properties. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 56 ,

893–897. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.56.6.893

Calvo, M. G., & Lang, P. J. (2004). Gaze patterns when looking at emotional pictures:

Motivationally biased attention. Motivation and Emotion, 28, 221–243. doi:

10.1023/B%3AMOEM.0000040153.26156.ed

Carretie, L., Hinojosa, J. A., Martin-Loeches, M., Mecado, F., & Tapia, M. (2004). Automatic

attention to emotional stimuli: Neural correlates. Human Brain Mapping , 22 , 290–299.

doi:10.1002/hbm.20037

Carstensen, L. L. (1992). Social and emotional patterns in adulthood: Support for socioemotional

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Carstensen, L. L., Fung, H., & Charles, S. (2003). Socioemotional selectivity theory and the

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Use of parallel construction
with coordinating conjunctions
used in pairs, 3.23

Discussion section ending
with comments on
importance of findings, 2.08

Construction of an accurate and
complete reference list, 6.22;
General desciption of references, 2.11

Figure 2.1. Sample One-Experiment Paper (continued)

S A M P L E P A P E R S50

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Example of reference to a
book chapter, print verison,
no DOI, 7.02, Example 25

Digital object identifier as
article identifier, 6.31;
Example of reference to a
periodical, 7.01

134. doi:

Figure 2.1. Sample One-Experiment Paper (continued)

M A N U S C R I P T S T R U C T U R E A N D C O N T E N T 51

EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 20

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22

Footnotes

covariance were conducted with these covariates, with no resulting

influences of these variables on the pattern or magnitude of the results.

2 These data were also analyzed with a 2 × 5 ANOVA to examine the effect of target

category when presented only in arrays containing neutral images, with the results remaining

qualitatively the same. More broadly, the effects of emotion on target detection were not

qualitatively impacted by the distractor category.

EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION

Analyses of 1

Article with more than
seven authors, 7.01,
Example 2

Placement and format
of footnotes, 2.12

Figure 2.1. Sample One-Experiment Paper (continued)

S A M P L E P A P E R S52

24
EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION

Note. Values represent median response times, collapsing across array type and excluding arrays

of the same category as targets (i.e., positive high arousal represents the median RT to respond to

positiv

e high arousal targets, collapsing across positive low arousal, neutral, negative high

arousal

, and negative low arousal array categories). The median response time values were

record

ed in milliseconds.

Table 2

Raw R

esponse Time (RT) Scores for Young and Older Adults

Category Young group Older group
Positive high arousal 825 1,580
Positive low arousal 899 1,636
Neutral 912 1,797
Negative high arousal 885 1,578
Negative low arousal 896 1,625

24
CTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION

Values represent median response times, collapsing across array type and excluding arrays

same category as targets (i.e., positive high arousal represents the median RT to respond to

e high arousal targets, collapsing across positive low arousal, neutral, negative high
, and negative low arousal array categories). The median response time values were
ed in milliseconds.
2
esponse Time (RT) Scores for Young and Older Adults

oryy Young groupg g p Older groupg p
ve high arousal 825 1,580
ve low arousal 899 1,636
al 912 1,797
ive high arousal 885 1,578
ive low arousal 896 1,625

23EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION

Note. The Beck Anxiety Inventory is from Beck et al. (1988); the Behavioral Assessment of the

Dysexecutive Syndrome—Dysexecutive Questionnaire (BADS–DEX) is from Wilson et al.

(1996); the State–Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) measures are from Spielberger et al. (1970);

and the Digit Symbol Substitution, Digit Span–Backward, and Arithmetic Wechsler Adult

Intelligence Scale—III and Wechsler Memory Scale—III measures are from Wechsler (1997).

Generative naming scores represent the total number of words produced in 60 s each for letter

F, A, and S. The Vocabulary measure is from Shipley (1986); the Mental Control measure is

from Wechsler (1987); the Self-Ordered Pointing measure was adapted from Petrides and Milner

(1982); and the Wisconsin Card Sorting Task (WCST) measure is from Nelson (1976).

Table 1

Participant Characteristics

Younger group Older group
Measure M SD M SD F(1, 46) p
Years of education 13.92 1.28 16.33 2.43 18.62 <.001 Beck Anxiety Inventory 9.39 5.34 6.25 6.06 3.54 .066 BADS–DEX 20.79 7.58 13.38 8.29 10.46 .002 STAI–State 45.79 4.44 47.08 3.48 1.07 .306 STAI–Trait 45.64 4.50 45.58 3.15 0.02 .963 Digit Symbol Substitution 49.62 7.18 31.58 6.56 77.52 <.001 Generative naming 46.95 9.70 47.17 12.98 .004 .951 Vocabulary 33.00 3.52 35.25 3.70 4.33 .043 Digit Span–Backward 8.81 2.09 8.25 2.15 0.78 .383 Arithmetic 16.14 2.75 14.96 3.11 1.84 .182 Mental Control 32.32 3.82 23.75 5.13 40.60 <.001 Self-Ordered Pointing 1.73 2.53 9.25 9.40 13.18 .001 WCST perseverative errors 0.36 0.66 1.83 3.23 4.39 .042

All values represent raw, nonstandardized scores.

Selecting effective
presentation, 4.41;
Logical and effective
table layout, 5.08

Elements of
table notes, 5.16

Figure 2.1. Sample One-Experiment Paper (continued)

M A N U S C R I P T S T R U C T U R E A N D C O N T E N T 53

EFFECTS OF AGE ON DETECTION OF EMOTION 25

.

Figure 1. Mean difference values (ms) representing detection speed for each target category

subtracted from the mean detection speed for neutral targets. No age differences were found in the

arousal-mediated effects on detection speed. Standard errors are represented in the figure by the

error bars attached to each column.

Figure legends
and captions, 5.23

Principles of figure use and
construction; types of figures;
standards, planning, and
preparation of figures, 5.20–5.25

Figure 2.1. Sample One-Experiment Paper (continued)