PSY 101 Smarter Decisions through Psychology Case Study 3
Assignment details and template attached
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PSY101 CASE STUDY #3 – WEEK 9
Type Your Name Here
Smarter Decision Making through Psychology
March 13, 2020
Using your problem solving and self and social awareness skill and the information that you learned in Chapter 7 of the webtext about brain plasticity and mindset, answer the questions below.
For each question, you should write a paragraph-length response (5–7 sentences) to receive credit for this assignment. You may use your Soomo webtext as a resource.
Question 1: What kind of mindset does Reggie need to embrace to be successful? (Hint: Page 7.6 will be a great resource for this question.)
Question 2: How does Reggie’s mindset affect his brain? (Hint: Page 7.6 will help you learn about mindset.)
Question 3: In Chapter 4, you learned about memory and how to effectively study. Using Chapter 4 in the webtext, what specific strategies should Gloria suggest to Reggie so that he will be prepared for the compliance test. Why did you select these strategies? (Hint: Page 4.15 has suggestions to improve your memory.)
Question 4: If Reggie were your coworker, what important aspects of the situation would you want to keep in mind when offering advice and strategies to him? Why do you think this is important?
Sources
1. D. G. Myers & C. N. DeWall. 2019. Psychology (6th ed.). Soomo Learning. http://www.webtexts.com
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Assignment: Case Study #3
Overview
It can be hard to know how to handle a problem with a coworker or friend. That’s why the psychological
concepts you’re learning in this course are so important. Understanding how the human brain works will help
you master your problem solving and self and social awareness skills in your personal and professional life.
And whether at work or home, you’re learning how to read the social cues of others and recommend strategies
based on psychological concepts and principles.
This week you’ll use your problem solving and self and social awareness skills to look beyond the opinions
of others and figure out a problem’s cause so you can help a coworker make informed decisions. Review the
scenario below to get started.
Case Study and Questions
Reggie works with Gloria and Lakeisha. He is a friendly older man who often talks about his plans for
retirement in five years. He likes to make people laugh but often jokes about his struggles to learn new
programs and technology.
The company recently informed the team that there will be a compliance test on new safety policies, which
employees will need to pass in order to keep their jobs. The company has provided materials to study as
well as optional practice exams. Gloria, Lakeisha, and Reggie are having lunch in the break room, and
Gloria and Lakeisha mention that they have already signed up to take the first practice test. Reggie
comments about how hard it is for him to learn a different way of doing the jobs that he has already been
doing for years, joking that “you can’t teach an old man new tricks.” However, later in the day, he stops by
Gloria’s desk to find out how she is preparing for the test and asks for advice. Given that they have a month
until the compliance test, Gloria is confident that she can help Reggie prepare. Using your problem solving
and self and social awareness skills and the information that you learned in Chapter 7 of the webtext about
brain plasticity and mindset, answer the questions below:
1. What kind of mindset does Reggie need to embrace to be successful?
2. How does Reggie’s mindset affect his brain?
3. In Chapter 4, you learned about memory and how to effectively study. Using Chapter 4 in the
webtext, what specific strategies should Gloria suggest to Reggie so that he will be prepared for the
compliance test, and why?
4. If Reggie was your coworker, what important aspects of the situation would you want to keep in
mind when offering advice and strategies to him? Why do you think this is important?
Instructions
Use the Case Study #3 Assignment Template to record your responses. For each question, you should write a
paragraph-length response (5-7 sentences) to receive credit for this assignment. You may use your Soomo
webtext as a resource. Once you have completed your work, save the file and upload it to the assignment
submission area.
Strayer University Writing Standards Note: Review the Strayer University Writing Standards. These are
provided as a brief set of user-friendly guidelines that make it easier for you to learn the behaviors of appropriate
writing (i.e., clear, professional, and ethical writing). This is meant to support the use of the template provided.
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Psychology
Course Notes
Motivation and Grit
On this page, take note of some additional info about achievement motivation that you
will need to succeed on course assignments.
7 Motivation / Page 7.8 Course Notes: Motivation and Grit
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So far we have seen how self-regulation, along with self-efficacy and mindset, can affect
motivation. But how do some people manage to sustain their motivation through very
difficult tasks, while others give up quickly? Psychologist Angela Duckworth studied
high-achieving individuals—such as National Spelling Bee contestants, West Point
cadets, and sales professionals—and identified one factor as a vital ingredient of
success: grit.
Going for Grit
After examining the characteristics of those who had achieved a high level of success,
psychologist Angela Duckworth found that the best predictor of success across many
occupational and educational contexts wasn’t IQ, high school GPA, or social
intelligence. It was grit, a personality trait that she described in her 2013 TED Talk:
“Grit is passion and perseverance for very long-term goals. Grit is having stamina. Grit
is sticking with your future, day in, day out, not just for the week, not just for the
month, but for years, and working really hard to make that future a reality” (2013).
Duckworth’s research shows that students who graduate from college are higher in grit
than those who don’t, and she continues to study how grit can be developed over time
(Hanford, 2012).
People with grit possess four psychological assets: deep interest, deliberate practice, a
growth mindset, and a sense of purpose. A deep interest provides the optimum level of
arousal necessary to engage in a task or skill over and over. It is what sustains spelling-
bee contestants, professional basketball players, or paleontologists to continue their
quest years after most people have given up on such interests. Deliberate practice,
according to Duckworth, is more than simple repetition. It involves working on your
specific weaknesses in an area so you can refine your skills, and it is the kind of practice
often done alone. The spelling-bee contestant who studies Latin prefixes every night is
engaging in deliberate practice, as is the golfer who spends weeks perfecting a specific
swing.
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As you can see, grit requires having a growth mindset, a high degree of self-efficacy, and
well-developed self-regulation. Grit is the rare combination of passion and
perseverance. It represents what can happen when we are truly passionate about
achieving a goal—when we will do what it takes to sustain our motivation along the way,
to monitor our progress, and to make choices that lead us closer to our goal.
Multiple-Choice Question
Which of the following BEST explains how self-efficacy, mindset, and self-
regulation are related to grit?
Since grit and mindset are the same concept, self-efficacy and self-regulation
are also different terms for the same concept.
Each aspect proves that you just have to think positive thoughts and good
things will happen to you.
Developing a fixed mindset will lead to improved self-efficacy and give you the
motivation to be able to regulate your behaviors.
To develop grit, you must believe that your intelligence is not fixed and that
you will succeed on a task, and you must be able to self-regulate as you
persevere.
Correct. To develop passionate perseverance for a long-term goal, you need to believe
that your perseverance will lead to improvement or success. You also need to have a
growth mindset and a high degree of self-efficacy, as well as the self-regulation skills to
actually persevere through difficulties.
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Conclusion
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Psychology
7 Motivation / Page 7.9 Conclusion
Conclusion
How does motivation relate to your problem solving and self and social awareness
skills?
Using Psychology to Make Good Decisions
Now that you have used your self and social awareness skill to gather insight about your
motivation, you can use that insight to make better decisions and improve your problem
solving skill. Your motivation for a task will be highest when you feel that you will be
successful (self-efficacy, growth mindset) and that the task is valuable (self-regulation,
grit). So when you face a difficult problem, you can create motivation by interpreting
the problem as a doable challenge and by feeling confident that you can develop new
knowledge and skills as you work. Along with exhibiting that growth mindset and self-
efficacy, you can also practice metacognition and self-regulation by evaluating current
strategies or learning new ones as you monitor your progress toward a goal. If you need
to motivate other people, such as students or employees, you can now recognize why
you should set high, clear standards and provide specific feedback that helps people
self-regulate and develop a growth mindset. You can use your self and social awareness
skill to consider how to ensure that the people around you experience enough, but not
too much, physiological arousal.
Quick Chapter Review
This week you honed your problem solving skill by reflecting on your own motivation.
You also improved your self and social awareness skill by learning what motivates
people. Many of the concepts you learned this week built on what you have already
learned about emotions, personality, cognition, and self and social awareness. Let’s take
a few minutes to review the key concepts from this week:
Motivation has been studied from four main perspectives: instincts, drive-
reduction, arousal, and a hierarchy of needs.
Certain types of thoughts or beliefs affect motivation:
Metacognition involves knowing yourself, knowing how to implement
strategies, and being able to regulate yourself. It influences motivation by
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allowing you to plan, monitor, and evaluate your progress toward a goal.
Metacognition is also a necessary part of your self and social awareness skill.
Self-efficacy is a task-specific belief in your ability. A higher degree of self-
efficacy promotes motivation—you are more motivated to do things you feel
confident about, even when you face challenges.
Mindset is the tendency to see intelligence or ability either as something that
is fixed, or as something that can grow. When you have a growth mindset, you
view ability as something that develops over time, with practice. Challenges
then become opportunities to learn and get better.
Self-regulation is the process of controlling your behaviors, thoughts, and
emotions in order to reach specific goals or standards of behavior. It relates to
metacognition because it requires you to know your strengths and strategies
and be able to monitor your progress.
Grit is the ability to sustain high levels of motivation and passion for a goal
over a long period of time. It requires a growth mindset, a high degree of self-
efficacy and metacognition, and well-developed self-regulation skills.
Developing grit greatly improves your problem solving skill.
Coming Up: Decision Making
So far in this course, we have discussed concepts that influence decision making. In this
chapter, you saw how decisions are influenced by your level of motivation or by certain
beliefs, such as mindset or self-efficacy. In the next chapter, you will learn about
different strategies for solving problems and making decisions, and you will apply what
you have learned in this course to solve problems presented in a case study.
You’ve reached the end of Chapter 7. Before moving on, take a break and reflect on what
you’ve learned here. When you’re ready, use the Table of Contents menu in the upper
left corner of this screen to select the chapter you want to view next.
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Psychology
Course Notes
Motivation and Self-Efficacy
On this page, you’ll read about some additional concepts that you should note to
succeed in this course.
7 Motivation / Page 7.5 Course Notes: Motivation and Self-Efficacy
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Now that we’ve gotten an overview of how psychologists view achievement motivation,
this Course Notes page will provide a closer look at four related psychological concepts:
self-efficacy, mindset, self-regulation, and grit. These concepts will help you better
understand what motivates us, which will be important for the final course assignment
and the investigation in Chapter 10.
Classic theories of motivation describe how our decisions and behaviors are driven by
instinct, drives, incentives, and other needs. Today’s research on motivation is less
concerned with instincts and drives and more focused on how attitudes and beliefs
about oneself affect motivations. In studying the concepts of self-efficacy, mindset, self-
regulation, and grit, we’ll find that the beliefs we hold about our abilities (and their
origins) influence the decisions we make and how we organize and direct our behaviors.
Both people who are highly motivated and people who are successful problem solvers
have highly developed metacognition (Mayer, 1988). Metacognition literally means
“thinking about thinking,” but it involves much more—having deep knowledge about
yourself and how you think and learn. There are three skills associated with
metacognition:
knowledge about yourself, including your skills, weaknesses, and problem-solving
ability
knowledge about how to implement strategies for learning and problem solving
ability to regulate thinking and behavior during learning or problem solving
So how does this relate to motivation? These skills influence our ability to plan,
monitor, and evaluate our progress on goals. In the next section (and on the following
page), we’ll see how the way we think about our abilities and skills influences our
motivation and persistence. Then we’ll discuss how our skills and our ability to regulate
our behaviors can help us sustain motivation.
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Self-efficacy
In Chapter 3, you read about the social-cognitive theory, proposed by Albert Bandura,
which states that behaviors are influenced by personal and situational factors. One of
the personal factors that Bandura identified was self-efficacy, which is our belief about
how well we will be able to deal with a specific task. Our prediction of whether we will
succeed or fail at a certain task affects our amount of motivation and persistence and
our choice of strategy. If we have high expectations for success, or high self-efficacy, we
will feel more motivated, be more likely to persist when things get hard, and choose
more effective strategies to help us complete the task. On the other hand, when we start
out with low self-efficacy, we will be less motivated, more likely to give up when things
get hard, and more likely to choose strategies that will not prove helpful.
Bandura has also studied how our self-efficacy affects our ability to decide to self-direct
crucial life events, to design intentional courses of action, and to motivate and regulate
ourselves to live out these plans. Metacognition helps us make these decisions by
empowering us to know ourselves, to implement strategies, and to self-regulate. Self-
efficacy is the confidence that gets us started and keeps us going as we work to reach
our goals.
Sources of Self-Efficacy
Self-efficacy is task specific, meaning that you have a high degree of self-efficacy in
some areas of your life and a lower degree in others. At school you may feel more
confident in your ability to master certain subjects or classes, but you feel less confident
about others. Or you may face certain tasks at work that make you anxious about your
abilities and other tasks for which you’re considered an expert. Self-efficacy is not about
whether you believe you are smart but whether you think you can accomplish a specific
task. According to Bandura (1997), our expectations for success on tasks are influenced
by four sources: previous experience with mastery, physiological arousal, vicarious
experiences, and social persuasion.
Mastery experiences
One of the most powerful influences on our self-efficacy for a task is our past success or
failure on similar tasks. If we have been successful, our self-efficacy will be higher
because of that experience with mastery. Even if the task is new—as long as it is similar
enough to something we have done well in the past—we will feel more confident, set
higher goals, and make better decisions. But when we have failed or struggled with
similar tasks in the past, we are likely to respond with self-defeating thoughts or failure-
avoiding strategies.
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Level of arousal
Earlier in this chapter, you read about how optimum levels of arousal affect motivation.
We need a certain amount of “push” to motivate us, but too much arousal can shut
down our effort. Our interpretation of that arousal is just as important—feeling excited
increases self-efficacy, whereas feeling anxious decreases it.
Vicarious experiences
Bandura noted that our personal mastery experiences are the most important
contribution to self-efficacy, but in some cases, watching someone else master a skill
increases our own confidence. Through these vicarious experiences, we can gain
knowledge of skills and strategies to use when we encounter similar tasks; thus, we feel
more prepared. Self-efficacy is especially enhanced when the model is someone to
whom we can relate, such as a peer or favorite celebrity.
Social persuasion
When coaches give the team a pep talk before a big game or when teachers encourage a
student struggling on a difficult problem, they are using social persuasion to raise self-
efficacy. This type of social persuasion is only temporary, however. To have a lasting
effect on self-efficacy, feedback should be specific enough to guide future behavior so
that the person recognizes what strategies worked and what strategies to try next time.
Multiple-Choice Question
Which of the following BEST explains the concept of self-efficacy?
It is the ability to self-regulate on a task.
It is a measure of overall achievement motivation.
It is a belief about how metacognitive we are.
It is our belief about our ability to succeed on a task.
Correct. Self-efficacy is a person’s belief about how well he or she will be able to deal
with a specific task.
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Multiple-Choice Question
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Ashanti feels confident in her ability to locate good sources when
researching for her class paper, but she puts off the writing because she
struggles with correct grammar and citations. Which of the following BEST
describes her self-efficacy?
Ashanti has high self-efficacy for the situational factors and low self-efficacy
for the personal factors.
Ashanti has low overall self-efficacy for writing this class paper.
Ashanti has high overall self-efficacy for writing this class paper.
Ashanti has high self-efficacy for the research portion but low self-efficacy for
the writing portion of the paper.
Correct. Self-efficacy is task specific, so it is possible to have different expectations for
success on various aspects of a project (like this paper) that requires multiple tasks.
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Developing Self-efficacy
So how can we work to develop self-efficacy on tasks we’ve struggled with in the past?
The key is to focus on progress, not perfection. We can recognize how we have
improved, even in small ways, from earlier work. We can also return to tasks we
completed in the past and apply what we have learned since then. As we “revise” these
tasks, we will demonstrate our new mastery and confirm what we believe—that success
comes from putting forth effort and implementing strategies. By acknowledging
yesterday’s weaknesses, we can strengthen self-efficacy today.
Cognitive reappraisal of the arousal we feel before a task is also helpful. Many
performers or public speakers talk about “psyching themselves up” before going on
stage, choosing to interpret their shaky knees and increased heart rate as a sign that
they are “excited” instead of “nervous.” This can take practice, but remember that the
body is preparing us to either run away and avoid the situation at all costs (which will
lead to failure and low self-efficacy) or to stay and “fight” through to success.
Good teachers and managers recognize the importance of specific, high-quality
feedback. When it is not offered, we should ask for it. However, we may not always have
someone we trust who can provide social persuasion that is specific enough to increase
our self-efficacy. Personal reflection can be a good substitute for social persuasion, as
long as we do so with a mind toward improvement instead of self-punishment. As
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mentioned above, reviewing previous work can help us recognize how we have
improved, but it also provides an opportunity to identify for ourselves which skills we
need to develop or what strategies we may want to use next time.
Multiple-Choice Question
Diane is not confident in her ability to meet her sales goals for this month.
Considering the sources of self-efficacy, how could her manager increase
her self-efficacy for achieving this goal?
The manager could stop by Diane’s desk and give her a general pep talk, such
as “Go get ’em, Diane!”
The manager could really put the pressure on Diane to achieve this sales goal
and make sure she understands that her quarterly bonus—or even her job—is
at stake.
The manager could provide specific feedback on Diane’s sales strategies (those
that are effective) and encourage her to shadow the top salesperson on the
team to learn some new strategies.
The manager could remind Diane of each of the few times that she has failed
to meet her monthly sales goals in the past.
Correct. By providing specific feedback on strategies Diane already uses, the manager
would be using social persuasion as a source of self-efficacy to increase Diane’s
confidence. The manager would also be boosting Diane’s self-efficacy by letting her
vicariously experience success as she shadows the top salesperson.
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Motivation: Instincts and Drives
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Psychology
7 Motivation / Page 7.2 Motivation: Instincts and Drives
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Motivation: Instincts and Drives
How do psychologists define motivation? From what perspectives do they view
motivated behavior?
Psychologists define motivation as a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior.
Our motivations arise from the interplay between nature (the bodily “push”) and
nurture (the “pulls” from our thought processes and culture).
The point to remember Our motivations arise from the interplay between nature (the
bodily “push”) and nurture (the “pulls” from our thought processes and culture).
If our motivations get hijacked, our lives go awry. Those with substance use disorder,
for example, may find their cravings for an addictive substance override their longings
for sustenance, safety, and social support.
In their attempts to understand ordinary motivated behavior, psychologists have
viewed it from four perspectives:
Instinct theory (now replaced by the evolutionary perspective) focuses on
genetically predisposed behaviors.
Drive-reduction theory focuses on how we respond to our inner pushes.
Arousal theory focuses on finding the right level of stimulation.
Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs focuses on the priority of some needs over
others.
Multiple-Choice Question
Which of the following BEST describes motivation?
the optimum level of arousal
a need or desire that activates and guides behavior toward a goal
the priority of some needs above others
a balanced physiological and psychological state
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Correct. Motivation arises from the interaction between pushes and pulls that energize
our behavior and direct it toward a goal.
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Instincts and Evolutionary Psychology
To qualify as an instinct, a complex behavior must have a fixed pattern throughout a
species and be unlearned (Tinbergen, 1951). Such behaviors are common in other
species and include imprinting in birds and the return of salmon to their birthplace. A
few human behaviors, such as infants’ innate reflexes to root for a nipple and suck,
exhibit unlearned fixed patterns, but many more are directed by both physiological
needs and psychological wants.
Although instincts cannot explain most human motives, the underlying assumption
continues in evolutionary psychology: Genes do predispose some species-typical
behavior. Psychologists might apply this perspective, for example, to explain our human
similarities, animals’ biological predispositions, and the influence of evolution on our
phobias, our helping behaviors, and our romantic attractions.
Drives and Incentives
In addition to our predispositions, we have drives. Physiological needs (such as for food
or water) create an aroused, motivated state—a drive (such as hunger or thirst)—that
pushes us to reduce the need. Drive-reduction theory explains that, with few exceptions,
when a physiological need increases, so does our psychological drive to reduce it.
The point to remember Drive reduction is one way our bodies strive for homeostasis—
the maintenance of a steady internal state.
Drive reduction is one way our bodies strive for homeostasis (literally “staying the
same”)—the maintenance of a steady internal state. For example, our body regulates its
temperature in a way similar to a room’s thermostat. Both systems operate through
feedback loops: Sensors feed room temperature to a control device. If the room’s
temperature cools, the control device switches on the furnace. Likewise, if our body’s
temperature cools, our blood vessels constrict (to conserve warmth) and we feel driven
to put on more clothes or seek a warmer environment (
Figure 1
).
Figure 1
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Drive-Reduction Theory
This illustration of the process of drive-reduction theory shows three boxes connected by
arrows. A need, such as food or water, creates a drive, like hunger or thirst. This drive then
causes drive-reducing behaviors like eating or drinking.
Drive-reduction motivation arises from homeostasis—an organism’s natural tendency to
maintain a steady internal state. Thus, if we are water deprived, our thirst drives us to
drink and to restore the body’s normal state.
Not only are we pushed by our need to reduce drives, we also are pulled by incentives—
positive or negative environmental stimuli that lure or repel us. This is one way our
individual learning histories influence our motives. Depending on our learning, the
aroma of good food, whether fresh roasted peanuts or toasted ants, can motivate our
behavior. So can the sight of those we find attractive or threatening.
When there is both a need and an incentive, we feel strongly driven. The food-deprived
person who smells pizza baking may feel a strong hunger drive, and the baking pizza
may become a compelling incentive. For each motive, we can therefore ask, “How is it
pushed by our inborn physiological needs and pulled by learned incentives in the
environment?”
Multiple-Choice Question
According to drive-reduction theory, when a physiological need (such as
hunger) creates an aroused tension state, what does that tension state do?
It lowers the temperature of the body.
It reduces the drive to achieve homeostasis.
It drives the organism to reduce the need and return to homeostasis.
It creates an instinct.
Correct. The state of tension or need motivates the animal (or human) to take action to
reduce or resolve that need and return the body to a state of homeostasis. Drive-
reduction theory helps explain why you go to the pantry for a snack when your stomach
begins to growl.
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Introduction
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Psychology
7 Motivation / Page 7.1 Introduction
Introduction
How does your self and social awareness skill help you understand your motivation?
Nicole Malachowski, someone who has always possessed high achievement motivation,
speaks about how an injury forced her to adjust her goals.
Strayer Studios
Despite what you might believe on your laziest days, we all seek to direct our energy
in ways that will produce satisfaction and success. Social motives (such as affiliation
and achievement) and biological motives (such as hunger) push us. In this week’s
Story, Nicole Malachowski talks about how an unexpected injury affected her
motivation. She remained as highly motivated as ever, but she had to learn how to
redirect her energy in new ways and how to adjust her goals as she focused on
survival and regaining basic skills during her recovery.
The goals you set, your beliefs about yourself, and your self and social awareness skill
are all
close
ly tied—they all affect the decisions you make and the actions you take.
How are your beliefs and habits aligned with your decisions and goals? As you read
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about the theories of motivation in this chapter, consider how you can more
effectively direct your energy to achieve your goals and make better decisions.
Chapter 7 introduces how psychologists define and study motivation. You will
examine the major theories of motivation and study how the specific beliefs that you
can uncover using your self and social awareness skill influence your motivation.
Specifically, we will discuss the following topics:
Theories of motivation. You will read about how instinct, drives, optimal
arousal, and a hierarchy of needs influence your decisions.
Achievement motivation. You will explore the characteristics, habits, and
thoughts associated with achievement motivation.
Metacognition. You will identify the skills and knowledge that help you
effectively “think about your own thinking.” This type of thinking is crucial for
your self and social awareness skill.
Mindset. You will read about the powerful idea that how you think about your
ability influences your decisions and behaviors. This is essential to your self and
social awareness skill.
Self-efficacy and self-regulation. You will learn how the way you think
about yourself also influences your decisions, behaviors, and motivation.
Grit. You will determine what keeps people motivated to passionately pursue
long-term goals.
This week you will also complete Assignment 2: Case Study #2. This assignment will
be submitted through Blackboard. You will apply psychological concepts to a realistic
scenario to support and explain your ideas and decisions.
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Achievement Motivation
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Psychology
7 Motivation / Page 7.4 Achievement Motivation
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Achievement Motivation
What is achievement motivation?
Some motives seem to have little obvious survival value. Billionaires may be motivated
to make ever more money, reality TV stars to attract ever more social media followers,
politicians to achieve ever more power, daredevils to seek ever greater thrills. Such
motives seem not to diminish when they are fed. The more we achieve, the more we
may need to achieve. Psychologist Henry Murray (1938) defined achievement
motivation as a desire for significant accomplishment, for mastering skills or ideas, for
control, and for attaining a high standard.
The point to remember People with high achievement motivation do achieve more.
Thanks to their persistence and eagerness for challenge, people with high achievement
motivation do achieve more. One study followed the lives of 1,528 California children
whose intelligence test scores were in the top 1 percent. Forty years later, when
researchers compared those who were most and least successful professionally, they
found a motivational difference. Those most successful were more ambitious, energetic,
and persistent. As children, they had more active hobbies. As adults, they participated
in more groups and sports (Goleman, 1980). Gifted children are able learners.
Accomplished adults are tenacious doers. Most of us are energetic doers when starting
and when finishing a project. It’s easiest—have you noticed?—to get stuck in the middle.
That’s when high achievers keep going (Bonezzi et al., 2011).
Multiple-Choice Question
Which of the following is TRUE of people with high achievement
motivation?
They have more talent than discipline.
They do more and achieve more.
They start many tasks without finishing them.
They are more stressed and less happy.
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Correct. People high in achievement motivation are not simply more motivated by their
goals; they’re more likely to set higher goals and reach them.
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In other studies of both secondary school and university students, self-discipline has
surpassed intelligence test scores to better predict school performance, attendance, and
graduation honors. When combined with positive enthusiasm, sustained effort predicts
success for teachers, too—with their students making good academic progress
(Duckworth et al., 2009). For school performance, “discipline outdoes talent,”
concluded researchers Angela Duckworth and Martin Seligman (2005, 2006).
Discipline also refines talent. By their early twenties, top violinists have accumulated
thousands of lifetime practice hours—in fact, double the practice time of other violin
students aiming to be teachers (Ericsson, 2001, 2006, 2007). A study of outstanding
scholars, athletes, and artists found that all were highly motivated and self-disciplined,
willing to dedicate hours every day to the pursuit of their goals (Bloom, 1985). As child
prodigies illustrate (think young Mozart composing at age 8), native talent matters, too
(Hambrick & Meinz, 2011; Ruthsatz & Urbach, 2012). In sports, music, and chess, for
example, people’s practice-time differences, while significant, account for a third or less
of their performance differences (Hambrick et al., 2014a,b; Macnamara et al., 2014).
Superstar achievers are, it seems, distinguished both by their extraordinary daily
discipline and by their extraordinary natural talent.
Duckworth and Seligman have a name for this passionate dedication to an ambitious,
long-term goal: grit. When combined with self-control (regulating one’s attention and
actions in the face of temptation), gritty goal-striving can produce great achievements.
“If you want to look good in front of thousands,” the saying goes, “you have to outwork
thousands in front of nobody.”
The point to remember Achievement involves much more than raw ability.
Although intelligence is distributed like a bell curve, achievements are not. That tells us
that achievement involves much more than raw ability. That is why organizational
psychologists seek ways to engage and motivate ordinary people doing ordinary jobs.
And that is why training students in hardiness—resilience under stress—leads to better
grades (Maddi et al., 2009).
Multiple-Choice Question
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According to psychological research, which of the following is MOST
important for academic achievement?
raw talent
intelligence
self-discipline
vocabulary
Correct. Self-discipline is a more reliable gauge of academic performance than
intelligence or talent are. If someone has a natural gift for math but lacks the discipline
to apply that talent, he or she will likely be outdone by someone with less skill but more
dedication.
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3/13/2020 PSY105 & PSY101 – Page 7.6 – Motivation and Mindset
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Psychology
Course Notes
Motivation and Mindset
On this page, you’ll read about some additional concepts that you should note to
succeed in this course.
7 Motivation / Page 7.6 Course Notes: Motivation and Mindset
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On the previous Course Notes page, we learned how motivation is influenced by our
thoughts and beliefs about our abilities on specific tasks. Now we turn to how our
beliefs and thoughts about the nature of our own intelligence can shape our success.
Carol Dweck, a Stanford University psychologist, has conducted research that shows
people tend to view ability and intelligence either as something inherent that can only
be demonstrated or as something malleable that can be nurtured and developed. This
concept is known as mindset.
The concept of mindset focuses on how people’s beliefs about the basic workings of
human ability affect their perseverance. According to Dweck’s website, “In a fixed
mindset, people believe their basic qualities, like their intelligence or talent, are simply
fixed traits” (n.d.). Students with a fixed mindset believe that you’re either smart or
you’re not, and they tend to be more easily discouraged when they encounter a difficult
task. Those with a growth mindset, on the other hand, tend to persevere through
difficult tasks because they understand that accomplishment takes effort and that most
people who have achieved high levels of success were able to do so only through hard
work and practice.
Our belief about whether intelligence and ability are fixed also influences our
expectations and interactions with other people. Teachers and managers with a fixed
mindset are less helpful and provide more negative feedback to struggling students or
employees (Dweck, 2008). They view failure or struggle as an indication of low
intelligence. Teachers and managers with a growth mindset, on the other hand, look at
failure and struggle as a challenge and an opportunity to improve. They set high
expectations and goals and recognize that their own role isn’t simply to judge but to
help their students or employees reach those goals. Because they believe that any of
their students or employees can become more productive or more creative, teachers and
managers with a growth mindset take the time to provide good feedback to guide them.
Dweck also recognizes that companies can have mindsets that affect the culture and
growth of the company: Companies with a growth mindset are more likely to value their
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employees as individuals and to encourage employees to discuss new ideas and
opportunities.
Mindset and Feedback
Our mindset, like our self-efficacy, is influenced by the feedback we receive from others.
When children hear phrases like “Great job on your test! You’re so smart!” or “She’s a
natural athlete,” they may internalize the message that ability or intelligence is fixed.
Not only do people hearing this type of praise develop a fixed mindset, they also miss
out on feedback about specific skills that lead to success—like the hours someone
spends deliberately studying, or the days spent determinedly practicing batting drills. If
we have a fixed mindset, we will have less motivation, especially on challenging tasks,
because we will interpret failure as proof that our ability is low and always will be.
Specific feedback, however, teaches children that their ability is continually improving.
Difficulty on a challenging task is not evidence of low intelligence but a chance to learn
something new. A game loss is not the result of inherently low ability but serves as
motivation to improve specific skills.
Mindset and Neuroplasticity
Thirty years ago, it was assumed that the brain was essentially finished developing by
adulthood. However, neuroscience has proven that the brain is constantly rewiring
itself and growing connections in response to our experiences. We call this ability
neuroplasticity, or brain plasticity. Scientists originally developed the term to explain
how the brain can create new brain cells (neurogenesis) and reorganize some functions,
even after brain damage. Today, Dweck uses the concept of neuroplasticity to explain
growth mindset.
Every time we learn something new, our brain creates new connections between
neurons; these connections are known as synapses. When we practice, rehearsing
knowledge and skills over time, these connections are strengthened through the
formation of myelin, a fatty substance that surrounds the axons of the neurons fired
during practice. This myelin results in faster communication between neurons,
meaning that the next time we recall or perform a skill, we will be able to do so faster or
more accurately. When we learn and practice, we physically change our brain.
Dweck has studied what happens when children are taught to think about the brain like
a muscle. After all, just like a muscle becomes stronger with exercise and effort, the
brain grows through challenge and practice. She found that when children learn that
practice grows and strengthens the brain, their mindset begins to change and their
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performance in school improves. This improvement is most dramatic in students who
had a fixed mindset and had previously struggled in school.
Multiple-Choice Question
Which of the following BEST describes the difference between a fixed
mindset and a growth mindset, and how each responds to setbacks?
People with a growth mindset will avoid failure at all costs because they
believe it can undermine the growth of their intelligence, whereas those with a
fixed mindset believe that intelligence cannot be increased, so they are not
bothered by failure.
People with a growth mindset believe abilities are fixed and will not try new
strategies after a failure, whereas those with a fixed mindset believe ability and
intelligence can be changed and will likely not give up after a failure.
People with a growth mindset believe abilities can be developed and will try
new strategies after a failure, whereas those with a fixed mindset believe
ability and intelligence cannot be changed and will likely give up after a
failure.
People with a growth mindset believe that ability can develop up to a point
before it becomes fixed, whereas those with a fixed mindset believe that you
must experience failure in order to “fix” your intelligence or ability.
Correct. People with a growth mindset respond more positively to setbacks than people
with a fixed mindset do.
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Multiple-Choice Question
Which of the following statements would help a student develop a growth
mindset?
“You have always been good at math, and I’m proud that this is your talent.”
“You tried very hard, and that is all that matters.”
“Let’s look over your work together and figure out where you got confused or
whether you need a new strategy.”
“That advanced science class is challenging; it could hurt your GPA if you get a
B.”
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Correct. This statement communicates to the student that challenges present an
opportunity for learning, a key characteristic of a growth mindset.
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Developing Your Mindset
Dweck’s research has important implications for how parents and teachers can help
children develop growth mindsets. But what about adults? How can we, especially those
of us who have had a fixed mindset in a particular area for many years, go about helping
ourselves change a mindset?
Make a Counter-Argument
Pay attention to your fixed-mindset thoughts and actively argue against them. For
example, say you notice yourself thinking, “This assignment is too hard for me. I’m just
stupid and I’m going to fail.” Argue against it by using language like, “This assignment
is hard. I can do it, but I’m going to have to approach this differently than easier
assignments.”
Notice how the first thought gives you an excuse to not put forth the effort. The second
thought recognizes and accepts the challenge and keeps you focused on the future.
Add a “Yet”
Add the word “yet” to your doubts. “Yet” allows us to accept our current beliefs or skill
levels—but only temporarily, as we work to develop them. This word helps us think
about success as a process and remember that we can get better, we can learn, and we
can be successful at something even if we are not so great at it right now. Consider the
differences between the following thoughts:
“I am not good at math” vs. “I am not good at math yet.”
“I can’t cook” vs. “I can’t cook yet.”
“This history assignment doesn’t make sense to me” vs. “This history assignment
doesn’t make sense to me yet.”
Make Mistakes
Recognize that mistakes are evidence of learning. No one learns everything perfectly the
first time. This is why it takes years to master a musical instrument or develop the skills
to write a term paper. People with a growth mindset approach mistakes differently than
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those with a fixed mindset because they ask questions—for example, “What did I do
wrong? Where did I get confused?”—and the answers to these questions help them
change their approach the next time they attempt a task.
Add the Extra Effort
Understand that beliefs and thoughts are not enough. You have to demonstrate effort in
order to sustain your mindset, and you have to pay attention to the amount of effort you
put into your successful experiences. When you do well, ask yourself what you did
correctly so that you can identify what to repeat in the future.
Growth mindset is not about being perfect or believing you can do everything; it is
about believing that intelligence, talent, and success are not predetermined but are
rather the outcome of planning and hard work.
Multiple-Choice Question
Nick thinks to himself, “I’m definitely going to fail this psychology exam
because I’m an idiot when it comes to liberal-arts classes.” Which of the
following is an example of a counter-argument that he could make to help
develop a growth mindset?
“The instructor makes her exams way too hard, so there’s no way I can be
expected to pass.”
“I’m going to fail this exam, but at least I’m good at other subjects like
business.”
“This exam is challenging, so I’m going to have to set aside extra study time to
make sure that I’ll succeed.”
“Both of my parents struggled academically, so it’s not my fault that I have
trouble in some of my classes.”
Correct. This counter-argument reframes the obstacle as a challenge that Nick is
capable of overcoming if he perseveres.
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3/13/2020 PSY105 & PSY101 – Page 7.7 –
Motivation
and Self-Regulation
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Psychology
Course Notes
Motivation and Self-Regulation
On this page, take note of some additional info about achievement motivation that you
will need to succeed on course assignments.
7 Motivation / Page 7.7 Course Notes: Motivation and Self-Regulation
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When we feel motivated, it is because our drives, instincts, or beliefs are directing our
actions and behaviors, pushing and pulling us to reach a goal or desired outcome. But
unlike a lab rat experiencing motivation to reach the cheese at the end of a maze, we
have mostly long-term goals or desires that require sustained motivation over time.
These goals require us to overcome multiple failures or barriers. As we’ve read about in
the last couple of pages, certain beliefs help us sustain motivation, but self-control over
our behaviors and responses is also key. On this page, you will read more about self-
regulation, the multifaceted process through which we control our thoughts and actions
to achieve goals and conform to standards.
Components of Self-regulation
Self-regulation is a process of controlling our behaviors, thoughts, and emotions in
order to reach specific goals or standards of behavior. It’s tempting to think of self-
regulation as simply willpower or self-control, which is the ability to stop ourselves.
Self-control is required to politely refuse dessert when we are on a diet. But self-
regulation is required if our goal is to maintain a healthy diet over many years. When
we exercise self-regulation, we are deciding what actions to take (or to avoid) to achieve
a goal, and we are constantly monitoring our progress. According to Roy F. Baumeister
and Kathleen D. Vohs (2007), self-regulation has four components: standards,
motivation, monitoring, and willpower.
Standards
Standards are what we use to measure our success. They are the goals, rules, principles,
or expectations against which we compare our progress. When standards are clear, we
are better able to regulate our behavior and to adjust when necessary, and we
experience greater self-efficacy and motivation.
Motivation
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Motivation, in this sense, is the reason we are doing something. It may be the drive or
desire behind achieving our goal. Or it may be the value that a task holds for us.
According to Baumeister and John Tierney (2011), it is not enough to have clear
standards and self-efficacy, or to be capable of effective monitoring and self-control. If
we don’t care about why we are doing something, we fail to self-regulate.
Monitoring
Monitoring is vital for self-regulation. People who are self-regulated keep one eye on the
standard and monitor how well they are progressing toward that standard. As they
monitor, they receive the feedback necessary for them to adjust their behavior. This
feedback can come from their own thoughts, from other people, or from the task itself.
Willpower
Willpower is the ability to change and resist urges. It is the energy that is required to
exert control over our behaviors. According to Baumeister and Tierney, the strength of
our willpower will depend in part on some innate individual differences (consider the
personality trait of conscientiousness). But similar to Dweck’s mindset, willpower can
be developed through practice. Small acts of self-control may increase our ability to
exert willpower over time (Baumeister & Tierney, 2011). However, Baumeister and
Tierney believe that we have a limited amount of willpower, and that exercising too
much self-control can deplete our ability to exert willpower in a future task. This is why,
after a stressful day at work when you may have refrained from yelling at an annoying
co-worker, you may find yourself more likely to give in to your desire for ice cream, even
though you told yourself you wouldn’t.
Multiple-Choice Question
Which of the following BEST describes self-regulation?
the external tools used to best manage one’s time in order to accomplish many
tasks in the same period of time
the willpower and self-control to stop unwanted behaviors or habits
the instinct to achieve a goal or desired outcome at any cost
a series of actions related to managing thoughts, feelings, and behaviors in
order to achieve a specific outcome or standard
Correct. Self-regulation is a process of controlling our behaviors, thoughts, and
emotions in order to reach specific goals or standards of behavior.
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Self-Regulation in Practice
Consider how these four components may be used by college students to complete their
degrees. First, the students would need to identify a standard. For some students, the
standard may simply be to graduate, no matter how long it takes. Others may have a
standard such as wanting to finish with a specific GPA or within a specific time frame.
The motivation for the task may differ by person, too. Many students may be motivated
by the new job opportunities or salary increases that a college degree can offer, while
others may be more motivated by the personal challenge. Either way, the students will
need to monitor their progress toward the goal. They should complete assignments on
time and check their understanding of the material by studying and engaging in self-
quizzing. They may need to adjust their schedules or try different study techniques to
help them achieve their standards. And of course, the students will need to exert
willpower on the days or weeks when they find it hard to read the material, engage with
the discussions, or complete the assignments. They may be tempted to prioritize their
social lives or binge-watch a new television series, but these times are opportunities to
exercise self-control.
Multiple-Choice Question
A psychology student would like to earn an A on his paper, so before he
begins to write, he examines the resources that his instructor has provided.
He reads the sample paper to get a sense of the scope of the assignment,
carefully reviews the instructions, and refers to the grading rubric when
writing and also when revising his paper. He even sets up an appointment
with a tutor at the writing center to get feedback. Which component of self-
regulation do his actions BEST illustrate?
willpower
metacognition
monitoring
motivation
Correct. The student is monitoring his behavior by comparing his paper to the
standards set in the sample paper and rubric so that he can achieve his goal of earning
an A.
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3/13/2020 PSY105 & PSY101 – Page 7.3 – Motivation: Seeking Stimulation and Prioritizing Needs
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Psychology
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Motivation: Seeking Stimulation and Prioritizing
Needs
Optimum Arousal
We are much more than homeostatic systems, however. Some motivated behaviors
actually increase rather than decrease arousal. Well-fed animals will leave their shelter
to explore and gain information, seemingly in the absence of any need-based drive.
Curiosity drives monkeys to monkey around trying to figure out how to unlock a latch
that opens nothing, or how to open a window that allows them to see outside their room
(Butler, 1954). It drives the 9-month-old infant to investigate every accessible corner of
the house. It drives the scientists whose work this text discusses. And it drives explorers
and adventurers such as mountaineer George Mallory. Asked why he wanted to climb
Mount Everest, the New York Times reported that Mallory answered, “Because it is
there.” Sometimes uncertainty brings excitement, which amplifies motivation (Shen et
al., 2015). Those who, like Mallory, enjoy high arousal are most likely to seek out
intense music, novel foods, and risky behaviors and careers (Roberti, 2004; Zuckerman,
1979, 2009). Although they have been called sensation-seekers, risk takers may also be
motivated by a drive to master their emotions and actions (Barlow et al., 2013).
The point to remember Human motivation aims not to eliminate arousal but to seek
optimum levels of arousal.
So, human motivation aims not to eliminate arousal but to seek optimum levels of
arousal. Having all our biological needs satisfied, we feel driven to experience
stimulation and we hunger for information. Lacking stimulation, we feel bored and look
for a way to increase arousal to some optimum level. If left alone by themselves, most
people prefer to do something—even (when given no other option) to self-administer
mild electric shocks (Wilson et al., 2014). However, with too much stimulation comes
stress, and we then look for a way to decrease arousal. In one experiment, people felt
less stress when they cut back checking e-mail to three times a day rather than being
continually accessible (Kushlev & Dunn, 2015).
Two early twentieth-century psychologists studied the relationship of arousal to
performance and identified the Yerkes-Dodson law, suggesting that moderate arousal
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would lead to optimal performance (Yerkes & Dodson, 1908). When taking an exam, for
example, it pays to be moderately aroused—alert but not trembling with nervousness.
(If anxious, it’s better not to become further aroused with a caffeinated drink.) Between
depressed low arousal and anxious hyperarousal lies a flourishing life. But optimal
arousal levels depend upon the task as well, with more difficult tasks requiring lower
arousal for best performance (Hembree, 1988) (Figure 2).
Figure 2
Optimal Arousal Varies With Difficulty of the Task Being Performed
Chart showing level of performance on easy and difficult tasks at various arousal levels.
The highest performance level for difficult tasks is shown to be at lower arousal levels,
while the peak for easy tasks is at higher arousal levels.
Multiple-Choice Question
What is the optimum level of arousal?
The optimum level of arousal depends on the difficulty of the task, with easy
tasks requiring less arousal than difficult tasks.
The optimum level of arousal depends on the type of task, with less physical
tasks requiring less arousal than mental tasks.
The optimum level of arousal depends on the drive to accomplish a task, with
less desirable tasks requiring less arousal than enjoyable tasks.
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The optimum level of arousal depends on the difficulty of the task, with easy
tasks requiring greater arousal than difficult tasks.
Correct. According to the Yerkes-Dodson law, physiological arousal associated with
peak performance varies with the difficulty of the task.
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A Hierarchy of Motives
Some needs take priority over others. At this moment, with your needs for air and water
hopefully satisfied, other motives—such as your desire to achieve—are energizing and
directing your behavior. Let your need for water go unsatisfied and your thirst will
preoccupy you. Deprived of air, your thirst would disappear.
Abraham Maslow (1970) described these priorities as a hierarchy of needs (
Figure 3
). At
the base of this pyramid are our physiological needs, such as those for food and water.
Only if these needs are met are we prompted to meet our need for safety, and then to
satisfy our human needs to give and receive love and to enjoy self-esteem. Beyond this,
said Maslow (1971), lies the need for self-actualization—to realize our full potential.
Figure 3
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Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Illustration of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs arranged in a pyramid shape. From top to
bottom, the text reads: Self-transcendence needs—need to find meaning and identity
beyond the self. Self actualization needs—need to live up to our fullest and unique
potential. Esteem needs—need for self-esteem, achievement, competence, and
independence; need for recognition and respect from others. Belongingness and love
needs—need to love and be loved, to belong and be accepted; need to avoid loneliness and
separation. Safety needs—need to feel that the world is organized and predictable; need to
feel safe, secure, and stable. Physiological needs—need to satisfy hunger and thirst.
Reduced to near-starvation by their rulers, inhabitants of Suzanne Collins’ fictional
nation, Panem, hunger for food and survival. Hunger Games heroine Katniss Everdeen
expresses higher-level needs for actualization and transcendence, and in the process
inspires the nation.
© Lionsgate/Photofest
Near the end of his life, Maslow proposed that some of us also reach a level of self-
transcendence. At the self-actualization level, we seek to realize our own potential. At
the self-transcendence level, we strive for meaning, purpose, and communion in a way
that is transpersonal—beyond the self (Koltko-Rivera, 2006).
The order of Maslow’s hierarchy is not universally fixed: People have starved
themselves to make a political statement. Culture also influences our priorities: Self-
esteem matters most in individualist nations, whose citizens tend to focus more on
personal achievements than on family and community identity (Oishi et al., 1999). And,
while agreeing with Maslow’s basic levels of need, today’s evolutionary psychologists
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add that gaining and retaining mates and parenting offspring are also universal human
motives (Kenrick et al., 2010).
The point to remember The simple idea that some motives are more compelling than
others provides a framework for thinking about motivation.
Nevertheless, the simple idea that some motives are more compelling than others
provides a framework for thinking about motivation. Worldwide life-satisfaction
surveys support this basic idea (Oishi et al., 1999; Tay & Diener, 2011). In poorer
nations that lack easy access to money and the food and shelter it buys, financial
satisfaction more strongly predicts feelings of well-being. In wealthy nations, where
most are able to meet basic needs, social connections (such as home-life satisfaction)
better predict well-being.
Table 1
Classical Motivation Theories
Theory Its Big Idea
Instinct theory/evolutionary
psychology
There is a genetic basis for unlearned, species-typical
behavior (such as birds building nests or infants rooting for
a nipple).
Drive-reduction theory
Physiological needs (such as hunger and thirst) create an
aroused state that drives us to reduce the need (for example,
by eating or drinking).
Arousal theory
Our need to maintain an optimal level of arousal motivates
behaviors that meet no physiological need (such as our
yearning for stimulation and our hunger for information).
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs We prioritize survival-based needs and then social needsmore than the needs for esteem and meaning.
Multiple-Choice Question
Which motivation theory BEST explains why Michael, who has plenty of
food and owns a nice house, now feels like he needs to find a soul mate with
whom he can share his life?
instinct theory
drive-reduction theory
achievement motivation
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
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Correct. Since Michael’s physiological needs (food and water) and safety needs (a good
house) have already been met, the next need he will turn to is the need to give and
receive acceptance and love. This would explain his hunt for a spouse.
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Psychology
Course Notes
Study Strategies
On this page, you’ll read about some additional concepts that you should note to
succeed in this course.
4 Memory / Page 4.15 Course Notes: Study Strategies
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Now that you’ve gotten an overview of how memory works, this Course Notes page will
provide a closer look at what these concepts suggest about the best ways to study to
improve long-term retention. The study skills on this page will help you study and
remember the key concepts from this course. They will also be important for the
investigation in Chapter 6 as well as Case Study #3, which is due in Week 9.
Active Study Strategies
It’s important to read any given material and listen to lectures or discussions, but these
actions are not study strategies. When you read or listen, your sensory memory is taking
in the information. But to study the information, learn it, and encode it in your long-
term memory, you must actively process it in your working memory. Research shows
that rereading text without thinking about it or doing something with it creates a false
sense of familiarity (Roediger & McDermott, 1995). To truly learn something and
commit it to long-term memory, use the following active study strategies—and be sure
to study often and over time.
Rehearse and Retrieve
Rehearsal, or retrieval practice, involves more active processing than simply rereading.
If you hear a new song on the radio, you probably can’t sing all the words after listening
to it only once. After hearing it several times, however, you may know the lyrics and the
melody. Retrieval practice is similar to listening to a song over and over. When you
rehearse information, quizzing yourself to test your recall, you strengthen the memories
and make it more likely that you will retrieve the information quickly. This is due in
part to the testing effect. The more you test yourself on the information you’re likely to
be asked about, the more likely you’ll remember it when you need it.
Use Mnemonics
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When you need to memorize lists of items or steps in a procedure, use or develop
mnemonics. Since working memory is limited to between five and seven bits of
information at a time, chunking and mnemonics allow you to consolidate a list or steps
into a more manageable unit to remember. For example, you can use the acronym
CANOE to remember the Big Five personality traits from Chapter 3: conscientiousness,
agreeableness, neuroticism, openness, and extraversion.
Make It Meaningful
As you study material and engage in retrieval practice, be sure to think about how the
concepts relate to what you already know, do, or have experienced. Making the material
meaningful taps into a deeper level of processing than simply memorizing material
does. This strategy is especially important as we get older and the encoding of new
information slows down (Bashore et al., 1997). The effort involved in connecting and
contrasting new information with our prior knowledge or experience results in deeper
processing and greater retention of information in long-term memory.
Explain What You Are Learning to Someone Else
Being able to explain an idea to someone else requires a great deal of elaborative
thinking, which increases retention (Lachner et al., 2019). Preparing your explanation
helps you organize the information and check your understanding, both of which will
improve the accuracy of your recall. Even practicing an explanation for an imaginary
person will help you identify your own misconceptions or gaps in knowledge so that you
can go back and review what you were missing.
Important Considerations
The active study strategies above will help you remember the content you are studying.
You can also do the following to optimize your study sessions.
Space out your study sessions. Retrieval practice should begin well before you
need to recall the information. Waiting until the last minute to study increases the
likelihood of experiencing stress and the recency effect. Start studying as soon as
you know that an assessment is coming. Also, take full advantage of the spacing
effect and spread out your study sessions so that there is increased time between
your sessions. For example, you can start by researching or quizzing yourself on
material for one chapter or topic every day for a week. Then, wait a couple of days
and study it again. Next, wait a few more days and review the material again. This
technique, called distributed practice, helps to consolidate and strengthen the
memories in long-term memory.
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Keep the study sessions brief. Another benefit of distributed practice is that if
you start early, you can keep your study sessions brief. This means that your
attention is less likely to drift and you’re more likely to keep up the habit. How long
you need to study will depend on many factors, such as the amount and type of
material to learn, as well as your mood or level of motivation (Nonis & Hudson,
2006). Nevertheless, studying for 30 minutes each day is far more effective than
studying for 3.5 hours on 1 day (Baddeley & Longman, 1978).
Minimize distractions. To reduce encoding interference, minimize distractions
when you study. Find a quiet spot, turn off your social media notifications, and
focus. It can be difficult to unplug from distractions, but it is easier to do if you
follow the advice above about keeping each study session brief.
Multiple-Choice Question
Which of the following would be the BEST way to master material for a
given test?
quickly reread the text
frequently test yourself in the weeks before the test
read the material only on the night before the test
listen to the audiobook
Correct. The best way to truly remember material is to study and actively rehearse it in
multiple short study sessions that are spaced out, rather than cramming all your
studying into one marathon session. The latter approach may seem more productive
and effective, but it isn’t.
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