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Runninghead: CHILD DEVELOPMENT

1

CHILD DEVELOPMENT 2

CHDV Draft Paper

Kenia Trujillo

Child Development

Professor

Alma Villanueva

September 16, 2016

Introduction

Healthy development is very crucial to the growth of all infants. The life of children revolves around their caregivers or parents. Parents and caregivers are the sources of safety, love, security, nurturance, support and understanding for children. It is the right of every child to get a safe life free from abuse. In this paper, we shall review an article on child abuse by parents and the influence of the story to a child’s psychological development.

It was the 6th of July in South Australia where a biological father and stepmother were arrested for frequently abusing their young girl and boy (

Candice Prosser

, 2016). The children were bitten, tied in trees, locked out of the house, put under cold conditions such as under cold showers and the girl raped by the father. These abuses by the parents created an environment of fear and degradation for the two children. The trauma they caused to these kids cannot be erased.

Child abuse does not end the time the abuse ends, it is long lasting and can severely affect daily development. Child abuse encroaches upon the trust at the core of a child’s relationship with the world. The moment this relationship becomes betrayal, a damaging scheme or customary main beliefs develops. This negative core schema often affects a person’s ability to create and endure important affections throughout life. Physical child abuse leads to unhappy life in the future. It may cause isolation or social disconnection from friends leading to an increased risk of living alone. Also child, abuse can result in behavioral health effects such as suicidal behavior and the augmented likelihood of drug abuse. Depression, low self-esteem, and aggressive behaviors are believed to be influenced by child abuse. These effects lead to poor development as psychological development is concerned.

Due to the increased abuse, psychological development of infants has been affected. To solve this problem, several strategies should be laid down. Such include intervening to reduce harm and abuse, strengthening economic supports, enhancing parental skills and providing quality care and education. Most abuse is caused by parents being unable to provide for their children. These are some of the strategies can help solve the problem of child abuse leading to a healthier child development.

Conclusion

In conclusion, child development is paramount to every child’s future. It is imperative for the society to establish a framework of prevention strategies, to prevent child abuse so that psychological development in children can be enhanced.

References

 Candice Prosser (2016), Children locked in cages, tied to trees, assaulted by parents, court told

http://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-07-06/children-locked-in-cages,-tied-to-trees,-raped court

hears/7574428

Term Paper: Students will write a short (2-3 page) paper. This will provide students the opportunity to develop academic writing skills and to explore a course topic in more depth. Details and guidelines are included at the end of the syllabus. All papers must be turned in
at the beginning of class
on the due date listed in the syllabus, otherwise it is considered 5% late. Each additional day, the paper will have a 10% deduction.

Term Paper

This assignment will be completed in 3 parts:

(1) Draft, which is due week 4

(2) During week 11th students must bring in their work to have it peer reviewed (worth 5pts)

(3) Final Term Paper due week 12th.

Goal: The purpose of this paper is to be aware of the current issues involved in child and adolescent development and incorporate it with course material. Students will have a chance to use critical thinking and analysis while creatively developing a possible alternative to the issue.

Instructions:

a. Search for a current (within the past year) news article about a story or issue involving infants, children, or adolescents. E.g. Childhood obesity, Teenage pregnancy, Infant physically abused by guardian, etc.

b. Ask yourself, how does this story influence a child’s biosocial, cognitive, or psychosocial development (the 3 sections of our book)? You will pick ONE area to focus on.

· Biosocial – physical, brain, motor skills, health, nutrition, etc.

· Cognitive – memory, intelligence, language, thinking, etc.

· Psychosocial – emotional, relationships, family, friends, play, etc.

Draft

a. Pick a news article & bring it to class

b. Type a 1-paragraph summary of the article (double space)

c. Indicate which area you will relate the article to: biosocial, cognitive, or psychosocial.

Term Paper

You will type a 5-paragraph essay:

1. Introduction – hook, background, & thesis statement

2. Summary of news article

3. Relation to course material (biosocial, cognitive, or psychosocial)

· Must include terms/vocabulary used in the textbook or lecture

· Must discuss at least one theory/theorist

4. Possible solution(s) to the issue

· Be creative & develop a plausible solution to resolve or prevent this problem.

5. Conclusion

Format:

· Double spaced, 12 size font, Times New Roman,

· APA Title page, 1”margins, header, & reference page (no abstract needed)

Chapter 6: First 2 Years (COGNITIVE)

Alma Villanueva, M.A

Overview

Piaget

Information Processing

Memory

Language

Theories of Language

PIAGET
Infants are ACTIVE learners
Piaget’s Periods of Cognitive Development
Sensorimotor Period (birth-2 years)
3 stages
broken into 6 sub-stages

3

Primary Circular Reactions – (SELF)
Stage 1 (birth – 1 month)
REFLEXES – helps infant understand the world
Sucking, grasping, staring, listening
Stage 2 (1 – 4 months)
FIRST ACQUIRED ADAPTATIONS
Intentionality
Reflexes + environment  action
Grabbing bottle to suck

4

Secondary Circular Reactions (OBJECTS & PEOPLE)
Stage 3 (4 – 8 months)
MAKING INTERESTING SIGHTS LAST
Repeat actions with pleasing responses
Stage 4 (8 – 12 months)
NEW ADAPTATION & ANTICIPATION
Means to an end
Goal-directed behavior

Object
Permanence
Realization that objects exist even when no longer seen
About 8 months, infants can understand this concept (Piaget)
Further researched needed

5

Tertiary Circular Reactions
Stage 5 (12 – 18 months)
NEW MEANS THROUGH ACTIVE EXPERIMENTATION
“Little scientists”
Act
Stage 6 (18 – 24 months)
NEW MEANS THROUGH MENTAL COMBINATIONS
Think about consequences
Deferred Imitation- copying behavior seen hours or even days earlier
Example

6

Information Processing
Compare infants to computers
Habituation (getting accustomed to an experience after repeated exposure) correlates w/later cognitive ability
2 aspects of cognition:
Affordances (input) & Memory (output)

Affordances
People perceive objects differently
Environment Affords (offers) many opportunities
Ball, Chair?

How do the affordances of our textbook differ from someone who is 1 mos., 12 mos., and 20y/o?

Affordance
What affordances are perceived and acted upon?
Sensory awareness
Immediate motivation
Current development
Past experience

Visual Cliff
False illusion
Experience and age will affect which affordance is perceived
Fear, no fear?
Visual Cliff

Movement & People
Infants are attracted to 2 affordances:
DYNAMIC PERCEPTION
Primed to focus on movement & change
PEOPLE PREFERENCE
Universal – fascinated by people
Voice recordings of their mothers vs. strangers (happy)
7 mos- match recordings to mother & stranger
3mos only to mothers
Smile 2x fast, longer, & more brightly

Memory
Experience & brain maturation
Memory is linked with language & words
Infants lack exp. & words
Memory fades
Crib mobile experiment

Memory
1 week later  immediate kicking
2 weeks later  random kicking
Reminder session aided memory
Could remember after two wks
Information may be stored, but processing time to retrieve information is important

What develops in the first 2 years?
Language
Universal sequence
Language begins with sound
Infants learn prenatally
Newborns prefer mom’s language over unheard

Language
Newborns  focus on facial expressions
Child-directed speech
“Motherese”
Baby talk
High-pitched, Simple, Repetitive

Babbling
6 – 9 months
Repetition of certain syllables
Ba-ba-ba
Native language

First words
Vocab is gradual  1 word/week
6- 15 month olds understand more than what they can communicate

Language
Holophrase
Single word that is used to express a whole meaning
“DADA?”
“DADA!”
Intonation
Variation of tone & pitch
A lot of intonation early on
Recognize native intonation & adjust pitch
Naming Explosion
Sudden increase in vocabulary, begins around 18 mos
Grammar
Word order- all the methods that language uses to communicate meaning

Theories of Language
3 types of theories

Theory 1: Infants Need to be TAUGHT
Behaviorists  B.F. Skinner
Babbling  rewarded with smiles
Operant conditioning
3 core ideas
Parents are expert teachers
Frequent repetition is instructive
Well-taught infants  well-spoken children

Infants Need to be TAUGHT
How much will a child learn to speak?
Depends on parent-child response
More talkative mother = more talkative child

Theory 2: Social Impulses Foster Infant Language
Social-pragmatic Theory
Humans are social beings
Infants learn for 1 reason = communication
Learning from TV?
“Toy”  Look at mom  Where is she looking?

Theory 3: Infants Teach THEMSELVES
Language is innate
Experience Expentact
Noam Chomsky
Young children all master basic grammar – same age
Language Acquisition Device (LAD)
Mental structure enabling human to learn language
Grammar, vocab, intonation

Hybrid Theory
Which of the 3 are correct?
All of them
Each theory valid for some aspects of language

Chapter 2: Theories

CHDV 140

Alma Villanueva, MA

California State University of Los Angeles

Overview
What theories do
Grand Theories
Newer Theories
What theories contribute

Developmental Theory
Provides a framework for explaining patterns & problems of development

Developmental Theory
What do theories do?
Produce hypotheses
Generate discoveries
Offer guidance

Facts & Norms
Norm: An average or usual event
Reflects biological & social pressures
Deviations are not necessarily deficits
Theories are NOT facts
Never true or false
Never good or bad

Grand Theories
Psychoanalytic
Behaviorism
Cognitive

Psychoanalytic Theory
Inner drives
Deep motives
Unconscious
Childhood

Sigmund Freud 1856 – 1939
Austrian physician
Patients with mental illness
Dreams, fantasies, uncensored thoughts
Early childhood is crucial

8

Psychosexual Stages
Children derive erotic pleasure from diff. body parts in each stage
Satisfaction in each stage needed

BIRTH – 1 ORAL TONGUE, LIPS & GUMS SUCKING & FEEDING
1 – 3 ANAL ANUS TOILET TRAINING & EXPELLING FECES
3 – 6 PHALLIC PENIS GENITAL STIMULATION (BOYS VS. GIRLS)
6 – 11 LATENCY LATENT FOCUS ON SCHOOL &SPORTS
ADOLESCENCE GENITAL GENITALS SEXUAL STIMULATION

Conflicts
Each stage has potential conflicts
How people deal with them, determines personality patterns
Conflicts rooted in childhood show in adulthood
Example:
Oral  Smoke Cigarettes, overeat, talkative

Erik Erikson 1902 – 1994
Freud’s follower
Stressed family and culture
–not sexual urges
Psychosocial Stages
People experience a conflict in each
Resolution to crisis depends on person & environment

PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES
TRUST VS. MISTRUST
AUTONOMY VS. SHAME & DOUBT
INITIATIVE VS. GUILT
INDUSTRY VS. INFERIORITY
IDENTITY VS. ROLE CONFUSION
INTIMACY VS. ISOLATION
GENERATIVITY VS. STAGNATION
INTEGRITY VS. DESPAIR

BEHAVIORISM
Conditioning & Social Learning
“Why don’t we make what we can observe the real field of psychology? Let us limit ourselves to things that can be observed, and formulate laws concerned only with those… We can observe behavior – what the organism does or says.”
John B. Watson

John B. Watson 1878 – 1958
Argued if psychology was true science, we should examine only what we see & measure
Not the hidden urges & thoughts

“ Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I’ll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select – doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors. I am going beyond my facts and I admit it, but so have the advocates of the contrary and they have been doing it for many thousands of years. [Behaviourism (1930), p. 43] ”

Behaviorism
Studying observable behavior
Aka Learning Theory
Describes how people learn & develop habits
Learning happens in small increments
Conditioning – Process where responses become linked to a specific stimuli
S – R (stimulus-response) conditioning

Ivan Pavlov 1849 – 1936
Dog Experiment
Classical conditioning: Learning process when a meaningful stimulus is connected with a neutral stimulus
Bell Sound – Neutral
Food – Meaningful
Infants  Smile when they see their parents  parents provide food & play
White Coat Syndrome- U.S 80+

B.F. Skinner 1904 – 1990
Operant Conditioning
Learning process when a particular action is followed by rewards or punishments
Rewards (pleasant consequence) = repeated action
Punishment (unpleasant consequence) = does not repeat

Operant Conditioning
Rewards & punishments depends on the child
Asking to leave the classroom may be a reward
Reinforcement – consequences that increase the frequency of a particular action
Each person responds differently to reinforcements & punishments

The difference between classical and operant conditioning Vid

Social Learning Theory
An extension of behaviorism that emphasizes the influence of other people
People learn through observation & imitation of others, not just reinforcements
Modeling: the central process of learning – observing the actions of others & copying them
Self-Efficacy – Belief in one’s abilities to achieve success
Learned from watching others succeed

Cognitive Theory
Piaget & Information Processing
Focusing on changes in people’s thoughts
Our thoughts shape our attitude, beliefs, and behaviors

Jean Piaget 1896 – 1980
First major cognitive theorist
How children think is more important than what they know

Cognitive Theory
Cognitive Equilibrium – a state of mental balance
Humans seek it and intellectually advance
When people experience new things, they may be confused (disequilibrium)

Equilibrium
To seek equilibrium, people cognitively adapt
Assimilation – new experiences are reinterpreted to fit into old ideas
Accommodation – old ideas are restructured to include new experiences (people adjust)
Example
Your friend did something completely unexpected (disequilibrium)
You can assimilate & decide they didn’t mean it – they must be upset or I must have seen the wrong thing
OR you can accommodate & change your view of your friend

Stages of Cognitive Development
Birth – 2 Sensorimotor Senses & Motors; Learning is active
2 – 6 Preoperational Magical & poetic thinking; use language; egocentric
6 – 11 Concrete Operational Logical, interpret objectively; limited to concrete thought (what they see)
12 – adulthood Formal Operational Abstract & hypothetical; reason analytically

Information Processing Theory
Newer version of cognitive theory
Inspired by computers & its efficiency
Not a single theory but a framework characterized by many research programs

Information Processing
Cognition begins with input picked up by the 5 senses, processed by the brain, stored in memory and finishes off with an output
Focus on relationship b/n one person’s thinking & another’s.

Older theories
European-American Men
Outdated
Limitations in technology & perspective
Newer  multicultural & multidisciplinary

Sociocultural Theory
Vygotsky & beyond
Humans develop from the dynamic interaction with their surrounding society
Culture is an integral part of everyday dev.

Lev Vygotsky (1896 – 1934)
Pioneer of sociocultural perspective
Observed how cultures influenced children
Focused on how child learns from the community

Sociocultural Theory
Apprenticeship in thinking – cognition developed w/ skilled members of society
Guided Participation – process of learning from others who guide & teach

ZPD
Zone of Proximal Development
The skills, knowledge, and concepts that the learner is close to acquiring BUT cannot yet master without help
Example: Riding a bicycle

The Universal Perspective:
Humanism & Evolution
We are one species, sharing universal impulses & needs
Humanism: stresses that all humans have a potential for GOOD & all have the same basic needs (regardless of culture, gender, etc.)

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
1. Physiological – food, water, air, warmth
2. Safety – protected from death/injury
3. Love & belonging – friends, family, community, religion
4. Esteem – respected by community & self
5. Self-actualization – become oneself – fulfilling unique potential while appreciating all of humanity

Evolution Theory
Darwin
2 basic drives = Survival & Reproduction
These needs shape life
Selective Adaptation – genes needed for survival are selected & over time, more prevalent

Eclectic Perspective
Most developmentalist adapted this idea
Apply aspects of various theories of development, not picking one

Chapter 5: The first 2 years – Biosocial
Development

CHDV 1400

California State University, Los Angeles

Alma Villanueva, MA

Overview
BODY CHANGES
SLEEP
BRAIN DEVELOPMENT
PERCEIVING & MOVING
SURVIVING IN GOOD HEALTH

Body Size
4 months – weight 2x
12 months – weight 3x
Slows down after the first year
Weight is mostly fat

3

Percentile
# that indicates rank compared to other similar people of same age
0 to 100
50th percentile– Average
Why is it useful?

Failure to Thrive : Serious medical condition in early infancy
insufficient weight gain or inappropriate weight loss)

4

Importance of Sleep
Good sleep
Normal brain development
Emotional regulation
Learning
Academic success
Psychological adjustment
Sleep deprivation
Poor health
Physical or psychological problems

5

Sleep
15 to 17 hours/day
Hours decrease with maturity
Full-term & well-fed babies sleep more
LBW babies  fed every 2 hours

6

REM
½ newborns sleep is REM
Rapid Eye Movement
Flickering eyes & rapid brain waves
Indicates dreaming
Until about 3 mos.

7

Brain Development
Newborn skull size – disproportionately large
By 2 y/o – almost 75% of adult weight
Head circumference measurement
Head-sparing – protects the brain’s dev. during malnutrition

Brain
Development
Neurons- nerve cell
Most are created prenatally
Far more than infant will need
Important in processing brain messages
Where are they located?
Brain stem
automatic responses
(heartbeat, breathing, temperature)
Mid-brain
emotions/memory
Cortex
70% of neurons
Outer layers of the brain
Thinking, feeling, & sensing

Prefrontal Cortex
Most prolonged development
Virtually inactive in infancy
Gradual growth
Planning
Impulse control
Anticipation

Brain Cells
Each Neuron contains 1 Axon & Many Dendrites
Axons – Sends electrochemical signal to dendrites of another neuron
Dendrites – Receives electrochemical signals from an axon of another neuron
Synapses – the way of communication b/n 2 neurons (axon & dendrite)

Neurotransmitters carry information for the axons to send

Brain Development
Transient Exuberance
Huge increase of dendrites
5 fold increase birth – 2years
Temporary
Pruning
Unused connections atrophy & die
Environment is important

Experience
Experience-expectant brain functions
Brains need and expect certain basic common experiences
Must occur for normal brain development
People to see, things to grab, etc.
Experience-dependent brain functions
Brain functions depend on particular experiences
Might happen
Culture and family specific
Additional skills developed over the life span (that the brain does not expect)
e.g. making an igloo

Harming the Brain
Lack of stimulation
Over stimulation
Stress
Shaken Baby Syndrome
Breaks neural connections
Preventing SBS
Severe social deprivation
Genie Wiley

Sensation & Perception
At birth, sensation (detecting a stimulus) is apparent
See, hear, smell, taste, touch
Vision last to mature
Perception (making sense of it) comes a bit later with exp.
Requires cognition

Movement
What is the growth pattern for a human being?
Infants  control head  control upper body  arms  legs

Gross Motor Skills
Large body movements
Arms, legs
Crawling (8 – 10 mo.)
Environment
Not all infants crawl – isn’t a must

Walking
3 factors to walk
Muscle strength
Brain maturation with the motor cortex
Practice

9 months Step when held
10 months Stand momentarily
12 months Walk unassisted

Fine Motor Skills
Small body movements
Hands, fingers, toes
Picking up a coin, drawing, feeding
6 months – stare and grab wanted object
1 year – pincer movement & self feeding

Surviving in Good Health: Immunization
Between 1950 & 2010, about 2 billion children died before age 5
Immunization: Protection against disease via antibodies
Dramatic Success
Small pox
Polio
Measles

Problems w/ immunization
Parents afraid of side effects
Risk of disease > risk of side effects
No access to rural areas
2 to 3 million children die/year

Nutrition
“Breast is Best”
Colostrum – thick, high-calorie fluid at birth
Sterile & Body Temp.
Iron, Vitamins & nutrients
Digestible
Protects from diseases, obesity, diabetes, & heart disease

Breast is best
Preterm babies
Milk adjust with age (quality)
Milk adjust in quantity to demand
Add digested food about 6 months
World Health Organization (WHO) recommends continued breastfeeding up to 2 years but at least 12 months

Malnutrition
Protein-calorie malnutrition
Infant doesn’t get enough food
Severe illness, weight loss, death
Stunting
Failure to grow normal height due to chronic malnutrition
Wasting
Severely underweight due to chronic malnutrition

Chapter 1: Introduction

CHDV 1400

Alma Villanueva, MA

California State University of Los Angeles

Overview

Understanding Human Development

All kinds of people: Culture, Ethnicity, & Race

Science

Caution & Challenges

Human Development
Science of Human Development:
Seeks to understand how and why people change over time
3 crucial elements
Science, People, & Change
Multidisciplinary
Variety of academic disciplines

3

The Scientific Method
5 STEPS:
CURIOSITY
Based on a theory (set of ideas)
HYPOTHESIS (testable prediction)
TEST HYPOTHESIS
Empirical (observable) evidence
CONCLUSIONS (support hypothesis?)
REPORT Results (share)

4

6th STEP
REPLICATION
Repeating procedures & methods with different participants
Research is shared via conferences, publications, etc.

Big Bang Theory explains Scientific Method

5

Nature-Nurture Debate
Historic & ongoing debate
Nature: Genetic influence
Nurture: Environment influence
How much are we influenced by nature and nurture? Not which
Nature always affects nurture
Nurture always affects nature

6

3 DOMAINS
Biosocial: biology, neuroscience, and medicine
Body, genes, nutrition, health
Cognitive: psychology, linguistic, education
Memory, language, thought
Psychosocial: economics, sociology, & history
Emotions, social skills, friends
PG. 7 (10th ed.)
Speaking babies
– maturation of brain, vocal cords
Brain can link objects to words
People to talk to them

Developmentalists study everyone: All kinds of people
Difference-equals-deficit error
Belief that being different means you are lacking.
Misbelief & fallacy
Human tendency to jump to conclusions
E.g. sexual orientation

Social construction
Idea built & constructed by society
Not based on objective reality
Powerful & affects human thought
Example: Culture, Ethnicity, & Race
Misuse & leads to DEDE

Social Constructions
Culture: System of shared beliefs, norms, behaviors, expectations that persist overtime
Family, community, college
Ethnicity/Ethnic Group: People whose ancestors were born in the same region (nationality) and who often share a language, culture and religion
Race: Categorizes people via physical features (outward appearances).

Socioeconomic status
SES (“social class”)
Income, occupation, education, residence
SES affects every aspect of development.
How? Why?

Critical Period
A time when something must occur to ensure normal dev.
E.g.
Human embryo grows arms and legs, hands and feet, toes and fingers all within 28 to 54 days after conception
Anti nausea drug (Thalidomide) after day 54 okay, but not before
After that, it’s too late
Humans never grow new limbs
Critical Periods are rare

12

Sensitive Period
A time where certain dev. occurs more easily & may be difficult later.
Example: Language
If children do not start speaking b/n ages 1 to 3, grammar may be impaired later.

13

Urie Bronfenbrenner
Ecological-Systems Approach
Microsystem
Immediate surroundings
Exosystem
Local institutions
Macrosystem
Large context
Mesosystem
Interaction b/n other systems
Chronosystem
Time, historical context

Historical Change
Cohort
Group of people who share similar life experiences
Technology, war, cultural shifts, etc.

Plasticity
Like plastic, human traits can be molded
Yet, still maintain a certain identity
Hope & Realism
People can change over time but new behavior depends partly on what already has happened
Example: Child physically abused may grow into a loving parent

Dynamic Systems
Human development is:
Ongoing
Ever-changing
Connected to all other parts

Scientific Method
Methods of testing the hypothesis
Observation
Unbiased
Natural or laboratory
Experiment
What causes what
Surveys
Large population
Questionnaires, phone interviews, US Census

Experimentation
INDEPENDENT VARIABLE (IV)
Affects the DV
Variable that can have an effect
DEPENDENT VARIABLE (DV)
Depends on the IV
Variable that may change as a result
SMOKING CIGARETTES & THE RISK OF CANCER
IV = Smoking Cigarettes
DV = Cancer

Experimentation
Experimental group
Gets the treatment
Control group
Does not get tx

Space Jam

Cross-sectional Research
Quick/Least Expensive
Group of people of same age are compared with another group of people of another age
Collect data once & compare groups
Example: Comparing 2 and 5 year olds on obesity
May be missing information

Longitudinal
Collecting data on the same person over a long period of time
Example: Studying the long term effects of child abuse on adolescent emotional development
What are some drawbacks?

Cohort-sequential
Cross-sectional + Longitudinal
Studying several groups of people of different ages and following them over many years

Caution & Challenges
Misinterpreting Correlations
Depending too heavy on numbers
Ignoring ethics

Correlation
Correlation is NOT causation
Correlation indicates a relationship
Positive: both variables increase or decrease
Negative: one variable increase, the other decreases
Zero: no connection
Example:
From Birth to 9
(+) Age and height
(-) Age and napping
(0) Age and # of toes

Quantity & Quality
Quantitative Data
Numbers, percentages
Qualitative Data
Interviews, narratives

Ethics
Code of Ethics
Set of moral rules researchers must follow
Institutional Review Board (IRB)
Group ensuring research follows guidelines

Chapter 3:
The New Genetics

Alma Villanueva, MA

California State University, Los Angeles

Overview
Genetic Code
The Beginning of Life
Male & Female
Twins
Genotype & Phenotype
Disorders
Genetic Counseling

Genetic Code
Cells
Basic unit of life
Trillions!
Nucleus
Chromosomes
Thread– like structures made up of DNA & protein
23 pairs
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid)
2 strands twisted in a double helix
Chemical composition of molecules that contain the genes
Contains all of the information required to build/maintain the cell

3

Genes
Small section of the chromosome
18,000 – 23,000 genes
Each gene provides a unique recipe to make a protein
4 bases
Code for your traits
A – adenine
T – thymine
C – cytosine
G – guanine
Only 4 possible pairs
A-T; T-A; C-G; G-C

http://mybrainnotes.com/brain-dna-behavior.html

4

Allele
A variation of a gene
Example: the gene for eye color has several variations (alleles); an allele for blue eye color or an allele for brown eyes
Everyone inherits alleles from sperm & ovum
Genetic diversity
Distinguishes each person
Allows the human species to adapt to pressures of the environment
Genome
Full set of genes with instructions to make a living organism
Genomes exist for each species
Video about Genes

5

The Beginning of Life
Two Parents, Millions of Gametes
Gamete
Reproductive cell
Sperm or Ovum
Each contains 23 pairs
Zygote
Cell formed with union of Sperm & Ovum
Produce a new individual with 23 chromosomes from each parent
Conception

http://predictingbabygender.info/tag/intercourse-timing/

Matching genes
Genotype
Organism’s entire genetic inheritance, or genetic potential.
Homozygous (same zygote)
Two genes of one pair that are exactly the same in every letter of their code
Heterozygous
Two genes of one pair that differ in some way
Usually not an issue

Male of Female?
Humans usually possess
46 chromosomes
44 autosomes and 2 sex chromosomes
SEX chromosome = 23rd pair
Female – XX
Male – XY
Mother’s contain X
Father’s may have X or Y
X chrom. Is larger & more genes
Y contain SRY,
making male hormones & organs

It’s a girl!

Uncertain Sex
“ambiguous genitals,” = child’s sex is not abundantly clear
a quick analysis of the chromosomes is needed, to make sure there are exactly 46 and to see whether the 23rd pair is XY or XX
shown here a baby boy (left) and girl (right).

Too Many Boys?
Is sex selection the parents’ right or a social wrong?
Preference for boys in many areas of world
Ways to prevent female birth
Inactivating X sperm before conception
In vitro fertilization (IVF)
Aborting XX fetuses
My Strength, My Daughter
slogan these girls in New Delhi are shouting at a demonstration against abortion of female fetuses in India
The current sex ratio of children in India suggests that this campaign has not convinced every couple.

New Cells
Within hours of conception
23 pairs of chromosomes carrying all the genes duplicate, forming two complete sets of the genome
Two sets move toward opposite sides of the zygote
the single cell splits neatly down the middle into two cells
By birth = 10 trillion cells
By Adulthood = 37 trillion cells

Stem Cells
Stem Cells
Results from early duplication and division
Are able to produce any other cell
Differentiation
Cells specialize
Placenta- organ that sustains the dev. Person through pregnancy
Sample of the placenta blood can be checked for genetic/chromosomal disorders
Research
Replicate & try to produce genes to fight diseases and other medical intervention
May cause havoc, causing cancer or death
Ethical issues

www.scientificamerican.com

Twins
MONOZYGOTIC TWINS
(Identical Twins)
1 in 250 conceptions
Originate from one Zygote that splits apart very early in development
Incomplete split results in conjoined twins
same genetic instructions but slight variations in phenotype are possible due to environmental influences
About 1 in 3 twins are monozygotic

Twins
DIZYGOTIC TWINS
(Fraternal Twins)
Formed with 2 separate ova & 2 separate sperm
occurs twice as often as monozygotic twins
Share half of genes, like full siblings
Can look different or very alike
Older women  double-ovulate
Is it possible for fraternal twins to have different fathers?
Multiples.about.com

Assisted Reproduction Technology (ART)
techniques designed to help infertile couples conceive
and sustain a pregnancy
About 12% of U.S. couples cannot conceive
Infertility
Failure to conceive a child after a year of trying
Subfertile
Less fertile than ideal; not sterile
Woman may take drugs to cause ovulation
Donated sperm
Donor ova & wombs
In Vitro Fertilization (IVF) Involves mixing sperm w/surgically removed ova from the woman’s ovary and implanting zygote into a woman’s uterus
Less than 50% success
Slight increase of birth defects/later illnesses

Male/Female Differences
One-third of all fertility problems originate in woman; another third from man; final third from unknown causes.
Fertility decreases with age; faster decline for women

From Genotype to Phenotype

Genotype instigates body/brain formation
Phenotype is influenced since conception
Phenotype
Observable characteristics of an organism, including appearance, personality, intelligence, and all other traits
Most traits are
Polygenic
Influenced by many genes
Multifactorial
Influenced by many factors
Genes & environment
A child may have genes for musical genius, but potential is not realized & environment doesn’t support it

Epigenetics
Do genes determine everything?
Research changed perspective
Epigenetic
Epigenetics- the study of exactly how genes change in form and expression
Schizophrenia- no single gene, traits arise from a combination of genes
Gene expression depends on environment
Diseases can be delayed or facilitated, depending on certain environmental influences (drug abuse, injuries, food, love, care, etc.)

Current consensus
Genes affect every aspect of behavior
Most environment influences on children raised in the same home are not shared
Genes elicit responses that shape development
Lifelong, people choose friends and environments that encourage their genetic predispositions

Genotype and Phenotype
Alcoholism
Genes create addictive pull
Alcoholism is polygenic and culture is pivotal
Risk
Biological sex
Gender
Contexts
Ethnicity

Nature and nurture must combine to create an alcoholic

Human Genome Project
International effort project to map the complete human genetic code
Officially completed in 2001, but still ongoing
(Started in the 1980s)
100,000  20,000 genes
Many of our genes are common with other species
Crucial difference is brain size (proportion)

Dominant vs. Recessive
Alleles interact in a Dominant – Recessive pattern
One allele is dominant
One allele is recessive
Dominant = more influential & controls the gene
Ex. Dominant brown eye gene and recessive blue eye gene can result in hazel eyes
Carrier
Person with a gene that is not expressed (recessive gene)
Dominant – Recessive

Eye Color
Blue eyes  Recessive ‘b’ allele
Brown eyes  Dominant ‘B’ allele

Recessive genes
Most recessive genes are NOT harmful
However, some can be
Color blindness, allergies, diseases, learning disabilities
Especially if that recessive gene is located on the X-gene
X-Linked (mother)
Male = XY; Female = XX
Sons have more of a chance to express the recessive gene in their phenotype
20x more boys are color-blind than girls

Chromosomal & Genetic Problems
More or Fewer than 46 chromosomes
Women’s age
5 to 10% conceptions
1% of born
Abortion, miscarriage
Stillborn, or die within first few days

Chromosomal and Genetic Problems
Down syndrome
Called trisomy-21 because the person has three copies of chromosome 21
Distinct characteristics (facial shape, hearing problems, muscle weakness, intellectual dev.)
Fragile X syndrome
Caused by more than 200 repetitions of one triplet on one gene
Most common form of inherited form of inherited mental retardation
Sickle-cell trait
Offers some protection against malaria
African carriers are more likely than non-carriers to survive
Cystic fibrosis
More common among people with northern European ancestors
Carriers may have been protected against cholera

Genetic Counseling
Consultation & Testing
Recommended for the following:
Family genetic conditions
Previous stillbirths or abortions
Infertile couples
Couples of same ethnic group, esp. relatives
Women over 35 & men over 40
Controversial