OB
Use plagiarism check please .
The material required is attached as text book ch13,ch1
College of Administrative and Financial Sciences
Assignment 2
Deadline: 28/03/2020 @ 23:59
Course Name: Organizational Behavior
Student’s Name:
Course Code: MGT301
Student’s ID Number:
Semester: II
CRN:
Academic Year: 1440/1441 H
For Instructor’s Use only
Instructor’s Name: Dr xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
Students’ Grade: 00/10
Level of Marks: High/Middle/Low
Instructions – PLEASE READ THEM CAREFULLY
· The Assignment must be submitted on Blackboard (WORD format only) via allocated folder.
· Assignments submitted through email will not be accepted.
· Students are advised to make their work clear and well presented, marks may be reduced for poor presentation. This includes filling your information on the cover page.
· Students must mention question number clearly in their answer.
· Late submission will NOT be accepted.
· Avoid plagiarism, the work should be in your own words, copying from students or other resources without proper referencing will result in ZERO marks. No exceptions.
· All answered must be typed using Times New Roman (size 12, double-spaced) font. No pictures containing text will be accepted and will be considered plagiarism).
· Submissions without this cover page will NOT be accepted.
Course Learning Outcomes-Covered
1
Develop the problem-solving skills for teamwork especially if the problem relates to the task (Lo 3.2).
2
Ability to communicate and share information within the team and organization in professional manner (Lo 4.4).
Assignment 2
Reference Source: Book-Ch:-13 & 14 (10 Marks)
Critical Thinking:-Leadership
Use at least 3 scientific references to support your answers. Follow APA-style when referencing.
Assignment Question(s):
1. Define leadership and explain the difference between being a manager and being a leader. Which boss would you rather have? Why? (02 Marks)
2. The leadership style theories, which you have learned in the chapter 13 & 14 based on that determine which leadership styles are suitable for managers who are managing workers ( both Blue collar & White collar) in the organizations.(03 Marks)
3. Describe directive leadership and supportive leadership, Explain their importance. (02 Marks)
4. How organizations are benefitted from supportive leadership? Give an example of such organization which you might have come across. (03 Marks)
Answer:
1.
Leadership
is the process of influencing others and the process of facilitating individual and collective efforts to accomplish shared objectives.
A key way of differentiating between managers and leaders is to argue that the role of management is to promote stability or to enable the organization to run smoothly, whereas the role of leadership is to promote adaptive or useful changes.2 Persons in managerial positions could be involved with both manage- ment and leadership activities, or they could emphasize one activity at the expense of the other. Both management and leadership are needed, however, and if managers do not assume responsibility for both, then they should ensure that someone else handles the neglected activity. The point is that when we dis- cuss leadership, we do not assume it is identical to management.
For our purposes, we treat leadership as the process of inl uencing others process of inl uencing
to understand and agree about what needs to be done and how to do it, and the others and the process of process of facilitating individual and collective efforts to accomplish shared objec- facilitating individual and
tives.3 Leadership appears in two forms: (1) formal leadership, which is exerted collective efforts to by persons appointed or elected to positions of formal authority in organizations, accomplish shared
and (2) informal leadership, which is exerted by persons who become inl uential objectives.
because they have special skills that meet the needs of others. Although both types are important in organizations, this chapter will emphasize formal leader- ship; informal leadership will be addressed in the next chapter.4
The leadership literature is vast—thousands of studies at last count—and consists of numerous approaches.5 We have grouped these approaches into two chapters: Leadership Essentials, Chapter 13, and Leadership Challenges and Orga- nizational Change, Chapter 14. The present chapter focuses on trait and behavioral
2.
3.
.
291➠
13 Leadership Essentials
the key point
Not all managers are leaders and not all leaders are managers. In a managerial position, being a
leader requires understanding how to adapt one’s management style to the situation to generate
willing and effective followership. As shown in the Zappos example, the most successful leaders are
those who are able to generate strong cultures in which employees work together to get things done.
chapter at a glance
What Is Leadership?
What Are Situational Contingency Approaches to Leadership?
What Are Follower-Centered Approaches to Leadership?
What Are Inspirational and Relational Leadership Perspectives?
what ’s inside?
ETHICS IN OB
CEO PAY—IS IT EXCESSIVE?
FINDING THE LEADER IN YOU
LOOKING FOR LEADER MATCH AT GOOGLE
OB IN POPULAR CULTURE
PATH-GOAL AND REMEMBER THE TITANS
RESEARCH INSIGHT
PARTICIPATORY LEADERSHIP AND PEACE
leaders make things happen
c13LeadershipEssentials.indd Page 291 6/29/11 8:28 PM ff-446c13LeadershipEssentials.indd Page 291 6/29/11 8:28 PM ff-446 Schermerhorn_OBSchermerhorn_OB
292 13 Leadership Essentials
Most people assume that anyone in management, particularly the CEO, is a leader.
Currently, however, controversy has arisen over this assumption. We can all think
of examples where managers do not perform much, if any, leadership, as well as
instances where leadership is performed by people who are not in management.
Researchers have even argued that failure to clearly recognize this difference is a
violation of “truth in advertising” because many studies labeled “leadership” may
actually be about “management.”
1
Managers versus Leaders
A key way of differentiating between managers and leaders is to argue that the
role of management is to promote stability or to enable the organization to run
smoothly, whereas the role of leadership is to promote adaptive or useful
changes.2 Persons in managerial positions could be involved with both manage-
ment and leadership activities, or they could emphasize one activity at the
expense of the other. Both management and leadership are needed, however,
and if managers do not assume responsibility for both, then they should ensure
that someone else handles the neglected activity. The point is that when we dis-
cuss leadership, we do not assume it is identical to management.
For our purposes, we treat leadership as the process of infl uencing others
to understand and agree about what needs to be done and how to do it, and the
process of facilitating individual and collective efforts to accomplish shared objec-
tives.3 Leadership appears in two forms: (1) formal leadership, which is exerted
by persons appointed or elected to positions of formal authority in organizations,
and (2) informal leadership, which is exerted by persons who become infl uential
because they have special skills that meet the needs of others. Although both
types are important in organizations, this chapter will emphasize formal leader-
ship; informal leadership will be addressed in the next chapter.
4
The leadership literature is vast—thousands of studies at last count—and
consists of numerous approaches.5 We have grouped these approaches into two
chapters: Leadership Essentials, Chapter 13, and Leadership Challenges and Orga-
nizational Change, Chapter 14. The present chapter focuses on trait and behavioral
• Leadership is the
process of infl uencing
others and the process of
facilitating individual and
collective efforts to
accomplish shared
objectives.
LEARNING ROADMAP Managers versus Leaders / Trait Leadership Perspectives /
Behavioral Leadership Perspectives
Leadership
Change Brings Out the Leader
in Us
Avon CEO Andrea Jung feels “there is a big difference
between being a leader and being a manager.” That
difference lies in being fl exible and willing to change.
According to Jung, if you have diffi culty with change you
will have a harder time being successful as a leader.
c13LeadershipEssentials.indd Page 292 6/30/11 3:35 PM ff-446c13LeadershipEssentials.indd Page 292 6/30/11 3:35 PM ff-446 Schermerhorn_OBSchermerhorn_OB
Leadership 29
3
theory perspectives, cognitive and symbolic leadership perspectives, and transfor-
mational and charismatic leadership approaches. Chapter 14 deals with such
leadership challenges as how to be a moral leader, how to share leadership, how
to lead across cultures, how to be a strategic leader of major units, and, of course,
how to lead change. Many of the perspectives in each chapter include several
models. Although each of these models may be useful to you in a given work
setting, we invite you to mix and match them as necessary in your setting, just as
we did earlier with the motivational models discussed in Chapter 5.
Trait Leadership Perspectives
For over a century, scholars have attempted to identify the key characteristics that
separate leaders from nonleaders. Much of this work stressed traits. Trait per-
spectives assume that traits play a central role in differentiating between leaders
and nonleaders in that leaders must have the “right stuff.”6 The great person-trait
approach refl ects the attempt to use traits to separate leaders from nonleaders.
This list of possible traits identifi ed only became longer as researchers focused on
the leadership traits linked to successful leadership and organizational perfor-
mance. Unfortunately, few of the same traits were identifi ed across studies. Part
of the problem involved inadequate theory, poor measurement of traits, and the
confusion between managing and leading.
Fortunately, recent research has yielded promising results. A number of traits
have been found that help identify important leadership strengths, as outlined in
Figure 13.1. As it turns out, most of these traits also tend to predict leadership
outcomes.
7
Key traits of leaders include ambition, motivation, honesty, self-confi dence,
and a high need for achievement. They crave power not as an end in itself but as
a means to achieve a vision or desired goals. At the same time, they must have
enough emotional maturity to recognize their own strengths and weaknesses, and
have to be oriented toward self-improvement. Furthermore, to be trusted, they
must have authenticity; without trust, they cannot hope to maintain the loyalty of
their followers. Leaders are not easily discouraged, and they stick to a chosen
• Trait perspectives
assume that traits play a
central role in
differentiating between
leaders and nonleaders or
in predicting leader or
organizational
outcomes.
Energy and adjustment or stress tolerance: Physical vitality and emotional resilience
Prosocial power motivation: A high need for power exercised primarily for the benefit
of others
Achievement orientation: Need for achievement, desire to excel, drive to success,
willingness to assume responsibility, concern for task objectives
Emotional maturity: Well-adjusted, does not suffer from severe psychological disorders
Self-confidence: General confidence in self and in the ability to perform the job of a leader
Integrity: Behavior consistent with espoused values; honest, ethical, trustworthy
Perseverance or tenacity: Ability to overcome obstacles; strength of will
Cognitive ability, intelligence, social intelligence: Ability to gather, integrate, and
interpret information; intelligence, understanding of social settin
g
Task-relevant knowledge: Knowledge about the company, industry, and technical aspects
Flexibility: Ability to respond appropriately to changes in the setting
Positive Impact on Leadership Success
Figure 13.1 Traits with
positive implications for
successful leadership.
c13LeadershipEssentials.indd Page 293 6/29/11 8:29 PM ff-446c13LeadershipEssentials.indd Page 293 6/29/11 8:29 PM ff-446 Schermerhorn_OBSchermerhorn_OB
294 13 Leadership Essentials
course of action as they push toward goal accomplishment. At the same time,
they must be able to deal with the large amount of information they receive on a
regular basis. They do not need to be brilliant, but usually exhibit above-average
intelligence. In addition, leaders have a good understanding of their social setting
and possess extensive knowledge concerning their industry, fi rm, and job.
Even with these traits, however, the individual still needs to be engaged. To lead
is to infl uence others, and so we turn to the question of how a leader should act.
Behavioral Leadership Perspectives
How should managerial leaders act toward subordinates? The behavioral per-
spective assumes that leadership is central to performance and other outcomes.
However, instead of underlying traits, behaviors are considered. Two classic
research programs—at the University of Michigan and at the Ohio State Univer-
sity—provide useful insights into leadership behaviors.
Michigan Studies In the late 1940s, researchers at the University of Michigan
sought to identify the leadership pattern that results in effective performance.
From interviews of high- and low-performing groups in different organizations,
the researchers derived two basic forms of leader behaviors: employee-centered
and production-centered. Employee-centered supervisors are those who place
strong emphasis on their subordinates’ welfare. In contrast, production-centered
supervisors are more concerned with getting the work done. In general, employee-
centered supervisors were found to have more productive workgroups than did
the production-centered supervisors.
8
These behaviors are generally viewed on a continuum, with employee-
centered supervisors at one end and production-centered supervisors at the other.
Sometimes, the more general terms human-relations oriented and task oriented
are used to describe these alternative leader behaviors.
Ohio State Studies At about the same time as the Michigan studies, an impor-
tant leadership research program began at the Ohio State University. A questionnaire
was administered in both industrial and military settings to measure subordinates’
perceptions of their superiors’ leadership behavior. The researchers identifi ed two
dimensions similar to those found in the Michigan studies: consideration and
initiating structure.9 A highly considerate leader was found to be one who is
sensitive to people’s feelings and, much like the employee-centered leader, tries
to make things pleasant for his or her followers. In contrast, a leader high in ini-
tiating structure was found to be more concerned with defi ning task requirements
and other aspects of the work agenda; he or she might be seen as similar to a
production-centered supervisor. These dimensions are related to what people
sometimes refer to as socioemotional and task leadership, respectively.
At fi rst, the Ohio State researchers believed that a leader high in consider-
ation, or socioemotional warmth, would have more highly satisfi ed or better per-
forming subordinates. Later results suggested, however, that many individuals in
leadership positions should be high in both consideration and initiating structure.
This dual emphasis is refl ected in the leadership grid approach.
The Leadership Grid Robert Blake and Jane Mouton developed the leadership
grid approach based on extensions of the Ohio State dimensions. Leadership grid
results are plotted on a nine-position grid that places concern for production on
• The behavioral
perspective assumes that
leadership is central to
performance and other
outcomes.
• A leader high in
consideration is sensitive
to people’s feelings.
• A leader high in
initiating structure is
concerned with spelling
out the task requirements
and clarifying aspects of
the work agenda.
• Leadership grid is an
approach that uses a grid
that places concern for
production on the horizontal
axis and concern for people
on the vertical axis.
c13LeadershipEssentials.indd Page 294 6/29/11 8:29 PM ff-446c13LeadershipEssentials.indd Page 294 6/29/11 8:29 PM ff-446 Schermerhorn_OBSchermerhorn_OB
Leadership 29
5
the horizontal axis and concern for people on the vertical axis, where 1 is mini-
mum concern and 9 is maximum concern. As an example, those with a 1/9
style—low concern for production and high concern for people—are termed
“country club management.” They do not emphasize task accomplishment but
stress the attitudes, feelings, and social needs of people.
10
Similarly, leaders with a 1/1 style—low concern for both production and
people—are termed “impoverished,” while a 5/5 style is labeled “middle of the
road.” A 9/1 leader—high concern for production and low concern for people—
RESEARCH INSIGHT
In an unusual cross-cultural organizational behavior study, Gretchen Spreitzer
examined the link between business leadership practices and indicators of
peace in nations. She found that earlier research suggested that peaceful
societies had (1) open and egalitarian decision making and (2) social control
processes that limit the use of coercive power. These two characteristics are
the hallmarks of participatory systems that empower people in the collective.
Spreitzer reasoned that business fi rms can provide open egalitarian decisions
by stressing participative leadership and empowerment.
Spreitzer recognized that broad cultural factors could also be important.
The degree to which the culture is future oriented and power distance
appeared relevant. And she reasoned that she needed specifi c measures of peace. She selected two
major indicators: (1) the level of corruption and (2) the level of unrest. The measure of unrest was a
combined measure of political instability, armed confl ict, social unrest, and international disputes. While
she found a large leadership database that directly measured participative leadership, she developed
the measures of empowerment from another apparently unrelated survey. Two items appeared rel-
evant: the decision freedom individuals reported (decision freedom), and the degree to which they felt
they had to comply with their boss regardless of whether they agreed with an order (compliance).
You can schematically think of this research in
terms of the following model.
As one might expect with exploratory research,
the fi ndings support most of her hypotheses but
not all. Participative leadership was related to less
corruption and less unrest, as was the future-
oriented aspect of culture. Regarding empower-
ment, there were mixed results; decision freedom
was linked to less corruption and unrest, but the
compliance measure was only linked to more
unrest.
Participatory Leadership and Peace
Do the Research Do you agree that when business used participatory leadership, it legitimated the
democratically based style and increased the opportunity for individuals to express their voice? What other
research could be done to determine the link between leadership and peace?11
Cultural Factors
Future Orientation
Power Distance
Empowerment
Decision Freedom
Compliance
Peace
Corruption
Unrest
Participative Leadership
Source: Gretchen Spreitzer, “Giving Peace a Chance: Organizational Leadership, Empowerment, and Peace,” Journal of
Organizational Behavior 28 (2007), pp. 1077–1095.
c13LeadershipEssentials.indd Page 295 6/29/11 8:29 PM ff-446c13LeadershipEssentials.indd Page 295 6/29/11 8:29 PM ff-446 Schermerhorn_OBSchermerhorn_OB
296 13 Leadership Essentials
has a “task management” style. Finally, a 9/9 leader, high on both dimensions, is
considered to have a “team management” style; this is the ideal leader in Blake
and Mouton’s framework.
Cross-Cultural Implications It is important to consider whether the fi ndings of
the Michigan, Ohio State, and grid studies transfer across national boundaries. Some
research in the United States, Britain, Hong Kong, and Japan shows that the behav-
iors must be carried out in different ways in alternative cultures. For instance, British
leaders are seen as considerate if they show subordinates how to use equipment,
whereas in Japan the highly considerate leader helps subordinates with personal
problems.12 We will see this pattern again as we discuss other theories. The concept
seems to transfer across boundaries, but the actual behaviors differ. Sometimes the
differences are slight, but in other cases they are not. Even subtle differences in the
leader’s situation can make a signifi cant difference in precisely the type of behavior
needed for success. Successful leaders adjust their infl uence attempts to the situation.
The trait and behavioral perspectives assume that leadership, by itself, would
have a strong impact on outcomes. Another development in leadership thinking
has recognized, however, that leader traits and behaviors can act in conjunction
with situational contingencies—other important aspects of the leadership situa-
tion—to predict outcomes. Traits are enhanced by their relevance to the leader’s
situational contingencies.13 For example, achievement motivation should be most
effective for challenging tasks that require initiative and the assumption of per-
sonal responsibility for success. Leader fl exibility should be most predictive in
unstable environments or when leaders lead different people over time.
Prosocial power motivation, or power oriented toward benefi ting others,
is likely to be most important in situations where decision implementation
requires lots of persuasion and social infl uence. “Strong” or “weak” situations also
make a difference. An example of a strong situation is a highly formal organiza-
tion with lots of rules, procedures, and policies. An example of a weak situation
is one that is ambiguous and unstructured. In a strong situation traits will have
less impact than in a weaker, more unstructured situation because the leader has
less ability to infl uence the nature of the situation. In other words, leaders can’t
show dynamism as much when the organization restricts them.
Traits may also make themselves felt by infl uencing leader behaviors (e.g., a
leader high in energy engages in directive, take-charge behaviors).14 In an attempt
to isolate when particular traits and specifi c combinations of leader behavior and
situations are important, scholars have developed a number of situational contin-
gency theories and models. Some of these theories emphasize traits, whereas
others deal exclusively with leader behaviors and the setting.
Fiedler’s Leadership Contingency View
Fred Fiedler’s leadership contingency view argues that team effectiveness depends
on an appropriate match between a leader’s style, essentially a trait measure, and the
• Prosocial power
motivation is power
oriented toward benefi ting
others.
LEARNING ROADMAP Fiedler’s Leadership Contingency View / Path-Goal View of Leadership /
Hersey and Blanchard Situational Leadership Model /
Substitutes for Leadership
Situational Contingency Leadership
c13LeadershipEssentials.indd Page 296 6/29/11 8:29 PM ff-446c13LeadershipEssentials.indd Page 296 6/29/11 8:29 PM ff-446 Schermerhorn_OBSchermerhorn_OB
Situational Contingency Leadership 297
demands of the situation.15 Specifi cally, Fiedler considers situational control—the
extent to which a leader can determine what his or her group is going to do—and
leader style as important in determining the outcomes of the group’s actions and
decisions.
To measure a person’s leadership style, Fiedler uses an instrument called the
least–preferred co-worker (LPC) scale. Respondents are asked to describe the
person with whom they have been able to work least well—their least preferred
co-worker, or LPC—using a series of adjectives such as the following two:
Unfriendly ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ Friendly
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Pleasant ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ Unpleasant
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Fiedler argues that high-LPC leaders (those describing their LPC very posi-
tively) have a relationship-motivated style, whereas low-LPC leaders have a task-
motivated style. Because LPC is a style and does not change across settings, the
leaders’ actions vary depending on the degree of situational control. Specifi cally,
a task-motivated leader (low LPC) tends to be nondirective in high- and low-
control situations, and directive in those in between. A relationship-motivated
leader tends to be the opposite. Confused? Take a look at Figure 13.2 to clarify
the differences between high-LPC leaders and low-LPC leaders.
Figure 13.2 shows the task-motivated leader as being more effective when
the situation is high and low control, and the relationship-motivated leader as
being more effective when the situation is moderate control. The fi gure also
shows that Fiedler measures situational control with the following variables:
• Leader-member relations (good/poor)—membership support for the leader
• Task structure (high/low)—spelling out the leader’s task goals, procedures,
and guidelines in the group
• Position power (strong/weak)—the leader’s task expertise and reward or
punishment authority
• Situational control is
the extent to which leaders
can determine what their
groups are going to do and
what the outcomes of their
actions are going to be.
• The least-preferred
co-worker (LPC) scale is
a measure of a person’s
leadership style based on a
description of the person
with whom respondents
have been able to work
least well.
1 2 3
Task-Motivated
Leader
Leader–Member Relations
Task Structure
Position Power
Relationship-
Motivated Leader
Good
High
Low
Weak StrongStrong
High-Control
Situations
4 5 6 7
Good
Poor
High LowLow
WeakWeak StrongStrong
Moderate-Control
Situations
8
Poor
Low
Weak
Low-Control
Situations
Figure 13.2 Fiedler’s situational variables and their preferred leadership styles.
c13LeadershipEssentials.indd Page 297 6/29/11 8:29 PM ff-446c13LeadershipEssentials.indd Page 297 6/29/11 8:29 PM ff-446 Schermerhorn_OBSchermerhorn_OB
298 13 Leadership Essentials
Consider an experienced and well-trained production supervisor of a group
that is responsible for manufacturing a part for a personal computer. The leader
is highly supported by his group members and can grant raises and make hiring
and fi ring decisions. This supervisor has very high situational control and is oper-
ating in situation 1 in Figure 13.2. For such high-control situations, a task-oriented
leader style is predicted as the most effective. Now consider the opposite setting.
Think of the chair of a student council committee of volunteers who are unhappy
about this person being the chair. They have the low-structured task of organizing
a Parents’ Day program to improve university–parent relations. This low-control
situation also calls for a task-motivated leader who needs to behave directively to
keep the group together and focus on the task; in fact, the situation demands it.
Finally, consider a well-liked academic department chair who is in charge of
determining the fi nal list of students who will receive departmental honors at the
end of the academic year. This is a moderate-control situation with good leader–
member relations, low-task structure, and weak position power, calling for a
relationship-motivated leader. The leader should emphasize nondirective and
considerate relationships with the faculty.
Fiedler’s Cognitive Resource Perspective Fiedler later developed a cogni-
tive resource perspective that built on his earlier model.16 Cognitive resources are
abilities or competencies. According to this approach, whether a leader should
use directive or nondirective behavior depends on the following situational con-
tingencies: (1) the leader’s or subordinates’ ability or competency, (2) stress,
(3) experience, and (4) group support of the leader. Cognitive resource theory is
useful because it directs us to leader or subordinate group-member ability, an
aspect not typically considered in other leadership approaches.
The theory views directiveness as most helpful for performance when the
leader is competent, relaxed, and supported. In this case, the group is ready, and
directiveness is the clearest means of communication. When the leader feels
stressed, his or her attention is diverted. In this case, experience is more impor-
tant than ability. If support is low, then the group is less receptive, and the leader
has less impact. Group-member ability becomes most important when the leader
is nondirective and receives strong support from group members. If support is
weak, then task diffi culty or other factors have more impact than either the leader
or the subordinates.
Evaluation and Application The roots of Fiedler’s contingency approach
date back to the 1960s and have elicited both positive and negative reactions.
The biggest controversy concerns exactly what Fiedler’s LPC instrument mea-
sures. Some question Fiedler’s behavioral interpretations that link the style mea-
sure with leader behavior in all eight conditions. Furthermore, the approach
makes the most accurate predictions in situations 1 and 8 and 4 and 5; results
are less consistent in the other situations.17 Tests regarding cognitive resources
have shown mixed results.18
In terms of application, Fiedler has developed leader match training, which
Sears, Roebuck and Co. and other organizations have used. Leaders are trained to
diagnose the situation in order to “match” their LPC score. The red arrows in
Figure 13.2 suggest a “match.” In cases with no “match,” the training shows how
each of these situational control variables can be changed to obtain a match. For
instance, a leader with a low LPC and in setting 4 could change the position
• In leader match
training, leaders are
trained to diagnose the
situation to match their
high and low LPC scores
with situational control.
c13LeadershipEssentials.indd Page 298 6/29/11 8:29 PM ff-446c13LeadershipEssentials.indd Page 298 6/29/11 8:29 PM ff-446 Schermerhorn_OBSchermerhorn_OB
Situational Contingency Leadership 29
9
power to strong and gain a “match.” Another way of getting a match is through
leader selection or placement based on LPC scores.19 For example, a low LPC
leader would be selected for a position with high situational control, as in our
earlier example of the manufacturing supervisor. A number of studies have been
designed to test this leader match training. Although they are not uniformly sup-
portive, more than a dozen such tests have found increases in group effectiveness
following the training.20
We conclude that although unanswered questions concerning Fiedler’s con-
tingency theory remain, especially concerning the meaning of LPC, the perspec-
tive and the leader match program have relatively strong support.21 The approach
and training program are especially useful in encouraging situational contingency
thinking.
Finding the Leader in You
LOOKING FOR LEADER MATCH AT GOOGLE
The news came as a surprise: Eric
Schmidt was out as CEO of Google,
and Larry Page was in. Schmidt had
been brought in by board of
directors in 2001 to provide “adult
supervision” to then 27-year-old
founders Larry Page and Sergey Brin.
For 10 years Google’s management
structure was described as some-
thing of a three-ring circus, with
co-founders Larry Page and Sergey
Brin running the business behind the
scenes, and Schmidt as the public
face. Now, the three decided, it was
time for Page to take the stage.
“For the last 10 years, we have
all been equally involved in making
decisions. This triumvirate
approach has real benefi ts in terms
In many ways, Page is taking
over at an ideal time. Google’s
business is doing well, with the
company reporting revenues of
$29.3 billion, up 24 percent from
the year before and profi ts
soaring. But the concern isn’t for
the present; it is for the future.
As reported in Newsweek, “there
has been a gnawing sense that
Google’s best days may be
behind it.” Google is facing
tough competition from Face-
book and Microsoft, and has
been losing top talent to younger
tech shops.
Page’s job is clear: Shake things
up and knock loose some new ideas.
But it’s a risky move. As reported in
Newsweek, “Page is a computer
scientist, not a business strategist.
And not all founders make great
leaders. Page is no Steve Jobs.”
Steve Jobs or not, Page is a
brilliant entrepreneur who has
been heavily involved in running
the business and gets along well
with the engineers. The question
now is whether the new leader-
ship structure will work, and if
Google has found its match
between leader capabilities and
company needs.
of shared wisdom, and we will con-
tinue to discuss the big decisions
among the three of us. But we have
also agreed to clarify our individual
roles so there’s clear responsibility
and accountability at the top of the
company,” said Eric Schmidt.
The objective is to simplify the
management structure and speed
up decision making. “Larry will
now lead product development and
technology strategy, his greatest
strengths . . . and he will take
charge of our day-to-day operations
as Google’s Chief Executive
Offi cer,” according to Schmidt.
That leaves Sergey Brin, with
title of co-founder, to focus on
strategic projects and new products,
and Schmidt to serve as executive
chairman, working
externally on deals,
partnerships,
customers, and
government
outreach. As
described on the
offi cial Google blog,
“We are confi dent
that this focus will
serve Google and
our users well in the
future.”
c13LeadershipEssentials.indd Page 299 6/29/11 8:29 PM ff-446c13LeadershipEssentials.indd Page 299 6/29/11 8:29 PM ff-446 Schermerhorn_OBSchermerhorn_OB
300 13 Leadership Essentials
Path-Goal View of Leadership
Another well-known approach to situational contingencies is one developed by
Robert House based on the earlier work of others.22 House’s path-goal view of
managerial leadership has its roots in the expectancy model of motivation dis-
cussed in Chapter 5. The term path-goal is used because of its emphasis on how
a leader infl uences subordinates’ perceptions of both work goals and personal
goals, and the links, or paths, found between these two sets of goals.
The theory assumes that a leader’s key function is to adjust his or her behav-
iors to complement situational contingencies, such as those found in the work
setting. House argues that when the leader is able to compensate for things lack-
ing in the setting, subordinates are likely to be satisfi ed with the leader. For
example, the leader could help remove job ambiguity or show how good perfor-
mance could lead to an increase in pay. Performance should improve as the paths
by which (1) effort leads to performance—expectancy—and (2) performance
leads to valued rewards—instrumentality—become clarifi ed.
House’s approach is summarized in Figure 13.3. The fi gure shows four types
of leader behavior (directive, supportive, achievement-oriented, and participative)
and two categories of situational contingency variables (follower attributes and
work-setting attributes). The leader behaviors are adjusted to complement the
situational contingency variables in order to infl uence subordinate satisfaction,
acceptance of the leader, and motivation for task performance.
Before delving into the dynamics of the House model, it is important to
understand each component. Directive leadership has to do with spelling out
the subordinates’ tasks; it is much like the initiating structure mentioned earlier.
Supportive leadership focuses on subordinate needs and well-being and on
promoting a friendly work climate; it is similar to consideration. Achievement-
oriented leadership emphasizes setting challenging goals, stressing excellence
in performance, and showing confi dence in the group members’ ability to achieve
high standards of performance. Participative leadership focuses on consulting
with subordinates, and seeking and taking their suggestions into account before
making decisions.
• Path-goal view of
managerial leadership
assumes that a leader’s key
function is to adjust his or
her behaviors to
complement situational
contingencies.
• Directive leadership
spells out the what and
how of subordinates’ tasks.
• Supportive leadership
focuses on subordinate
needs, well-being, and
promotion of a friendly
work climate.
• Achievement-oriented
leadership emphasizes
setting goals, stressing
excellence, and showing
confi dence in people’s
ability to achieve high
standards of performance.
• Participative
leadership focuses on
consulting with subordinates
and seeking and taking their
suggestions into account
before making decisions.
Leadership
Factors
Subordinate
Outcomes
Leadership Behaviors:
Directive
Supportive
Achievement–oriented
Participative
Job Satisfaction:
Job leads to valued
rewards
Contingency
Factors
Follower
Attributes:
Authoritarianism
Internal–external
orientation
Ability
Work-Setting
Attributes:
Task
Formal authority
system
Primary workgroup
Acceptance of Leader:
Leader leads to valued
rewards
Motivational Behavior:
Expectancy that effort
leads to performance
Instrumentality that
such performance is
the path to valued
rewards
Figure 13.3 Summary of
major path-goal
relationships in House’s
leadership approach.
c13LeadershipEssentials.indd Page 300 6/29/11 8:30 PM ff-446c13LeadershipEssentials.indd Page 300 6/29/11 8:30 PM ff-446 Schermerhorn_OBSchermerhorn_OB
Situational Contingency Leadership 301
Important subordinate characteristics are authoritarianism (close-mindedness,
rigidity), internal-external orientation (i.e., locus of control), and ability. The key
work-setting factors are the nature of the subordinates’ tasks (task structure), the
formal authority system, and the primary workgroup.
Predictions from Path-Goal Theory Directive leadership is predicted to have
a positive impact on subordinates when the task is ambiguous; it is predicted to
have just the opposite effect for clear tasks. In addition, the theory predicts that
when ambiguous tasks are being performed by highly authoritarian and closed-
minded subordinates, even more directive leadership is called for.
Supportive leadership is predicted to increase the satisfaction of subordinates
who work on highly repetitive tasks or on tasks considered to be unpleasant,
stressful, or frustrating. In this situation the leader’s supportive behavior helps
compensate for adverse conditions. For example, many would consider tradi-
tional assembly-line jobs to be highly repetitive, perhaps even unpleasant or
frustrating. A supportive supervisor could help make these jobs more enjoyable.
Achievement-oriented leadership is predicted to encourage subordinates to strive
for higher performance standards and to have more confi dence in their ability to
meet challenging goals. For subordinates in ambiguous, nonrepetitive jobs,
achievement-oriented leadership should increase their expectations that effort
leads to desired performance.
Participative leadership is predicted to promote satisfaction on nonrepetitive
tasks that allow for the ego involvement of subordinates. For example, on a chal-
lenging research project, participation allows employees to feel good about deal-
ing independently with the demands of the project. On repetitive tasks, open-
minded or nonauthoritarian subordinates will also be satisfi ed with a participative
leader. On a task where employees screw nuts on bolts hour after hour, for
example, those who are nonauthoritarian will appreciate having a leader who
allows them to get involved in ways that may help break up the monotony.
Evaluation and Application House’s path-goal approach has been with us for
more than 30 years. Early work provided some support for the theory in general
and for the particular predictions discussed earlier.23 However, current assessments
by well-known scholars have pointed out that many aspects have not been tested
adequately, and there is very little current research concerning the theory.24 House
recently revised and extended path-goal theory into the theory of work-unit lead-
ership. It’s beyond our scope to discuss the details of this new theory, but as a base
the new theory expands the list of leader behaviors beyond those in path-goal
theory, including aspects of both leadership theory and emerging challenges of
leadership.25 It remains to be seen how much research it will generate.
In terms of application there is enough support for the original path-goal
theory to suggest two possibilities. First, training could be used to change leader-
ship behavior to fi t the situational contingencies. Second, the leader could be
taught to diagnose the situation and learn how to try to change the contingencies,
as in leader match.
Hersey and Blanchard Situational Leadership Model
Like other situational contingency approaches, the situational leadership
model developed by Paul Hersey and Kenneth Blanchard indicates that there is
• The situational
leadership model focuses
on the situational
contingency of maturity or
“readiness” of followers.
c13LeadershipEssentials.indd Page 301 6/29/11 8:30 PM ff-446c13LeadershipEssentials.indd Page 301 6/29/11 8:30 PM ff-446 Schermerhorn_OBSchermerhorn_OB
302 13 Leadership Essentials
no single best way to lead.26 Hersey and Blanchard focus on the situational con-
tingency of maturity, or “readiness,” of followers, in particular. Readiness is the
extent to which people have the ability and willingness to accomplish a specifi c
task. Hersey and Blanchard argue that “situational” leadership requires adjusting the
leader’s emphasis on task behaviors—for instance, giving guidance and direction—
and relationship behaviors—for example, providing socioemotional support—
according to the readiness of followers to perform their tasks. Figure 13.4 identi-
fi es four leadership styles: delegating, participating, selling, and telling. Each
emphasizes a different combination of task and relationship behaviors by the
leader. The fi gure also suggests the following situational matches as the best
choice of leadership style for followers at each of four readiness levels.
A “telling” style (S1) is best for low follower readiness (R1). The direction
provided by this style defi nes roles for people who are unable and unwill-
ing to take responsibility themselves; it eliminates any insecurity about the
task that must be done.
OB IN POPULAR CULTURE
PATH-GOAL AND REMEMBER THE TITANS
A leader following the Path-Goal View will adjust her or his style in
response to a number of situations that may exist. If followers lack ability,
a directive style might be used. If the work is unpleasant, a supportive
approach is needed. Achievement-oriented and participative styles can
be used to increase follower motivation. A leader must be aware of the
conditions that exist and help clear the paths that lead followers to
achieve goals (both individual and organizational).
In Remember the Titans, legendary Coach Herman Boone (Denzel
Washington) has a daunting task. In assuming the position of head
football coach at the newly integrated T.C. Williams High School, he
demonstrates Path-Goal leadership. Boone knows that many of the players will not respect
a “colored” coach. When it comes to practice, he uses a very directive leadership style—my
way or else, get the plays right or expect to run. At the same time, he respects the diffi cul-
ties his players face. When Louie Lastik (Ethan Suplee) says he does not have the grades
to go to college, Boone whispers that they will work on his grades together because he
does not want that to keep Lastik from going to college. “Let’s just keep that between you
and me,” he adds at the end.
Herman Boone clearly knew when to be tough and when to use a softer, more under-
standing approach. He was clearly the leader, making tough decisions even in situations
involving assistant coaches and star players. Still, he recognized the impact his leadership
would have on the lives of the young men who played for him.
Get to Know Yourself Better Coach Boone was an effective coach because he
knew what it took to get a team in shape and meet the individual needs of his players.
What about you? Complete Assessment 11, Leadership Style, in the OB Skills Work-
book to see if your concern for task is balanced in terms of your concern for people. Too
much emphasis on one aspect over the other could lead to problems. Can you show
enough concern for individuals and still keep them focused on getting the job done?
c13LeadershipEssentials.indd Page 302 6/29/11 8:30 PM ff-446c13LeadershipEssentials.indd Page 302 6/29/11 8:30 PM ff-446 Schermerhorn_OBSchermerhorn_OB
Situational Contingency Leadership 303
A “selling” style (S2) is best for low-to-moderate follower readiness (R2). This
style offers both task direction and support for people who are unable but
willing to take task responsibility; it involves combining a directive approach
with explanation and reinforcement in order to maintain enthusiasm.
A “participating” style (S3) is best for moderate-to-high follower readiness
(R3). Able but unwilling followers require supportive behavior in order to
increase their motivation; by allowing followers to share in decision mak-
ing, this style helps enhance the desire to perform a task.
A “delegating” style (S4) is best for high readiness (R4). This style provides
little in terms of direction and support for the task at hand; it allows able
and willing followers to take responsibility for what needs to be done.
This situational leadership approach requires that the leader develop the capa-
bility to diagnose the demands of situations and then choose and implement the
LEADER BEHAVIOR
Low Hig
h
L
o
w
H
ig
h
Task Behavior
Guidance
Relationship Behavior
Supportive Behavior
S2S3
S1S4
Explain decisions
and provide
opportunity
for clarification
Share ideas and
facilitate in decision
making
Provide specific
instructions and
closely supervise
performance
Turn over
responsibility
for decisions and
implementation
Follower Readiness
R4 R3 R2 R1
Able and
Willing
or
Confident
Able but
Unwilling
or
Insecure
Unable but
Willing
or
Confident
Unable or
Unwilling
or
Insecure
T
e
llin
g
S
e
llin
g
P
a
rt
ic
ip
a
ti
n
g
D
e
le
g
a
ti
n
g
Figure 13.4 Hersey and
Blanchard model of
situational leadership.
c13LeadershipEssentials.indd Page 303 6/29/11 8:31 PM ff-446c13LeadershipEssentials.indd Page 303 6/29/11 8:31 PM ff-446 Schermerhorn_OBSchermerhorn_OB
304 13 Leadership Essentials
appropriate leadership response. The model gives specifi c attention to followers
and their feelings about the task at hand and suggests that effective leaders focus
on emerging changes in the level of readiness of the people involved in the work.
In spite of its considerable history and incorporation into training programs
by a large number of fi rms, this situational leadership approach has received very
little systematic research attention.27
Substitutes for Leadership
A fi nal situational contingency approach is leadership substitutes.28 Scholars using
this approach have developed a perspective indicating that sometimes managerial
leadership makes essentially no difference. These researchers contend that cer-
tain individuals, jobs, and organization variables can serve as substitutes for lead-
ership or neutralize a managerial leader’s impact on subordinates. Some examples
of these variables are shown in Figure 13.5.
Substitutes for leadership make a leader’s infl uence either unnecessary or
redundant in that they replace the leader’s infl uence. For example, in Figure 13.5
it will be unnecessary and perhaps impossible for a leader to provide the kind of
task-oriented direction already available from an experienced, talented, and well-
trained subordinate. In contrast, neutralizers can prevent a leader from behaving
in a certain way or nullify the effects of a leader’s actions. If a leader has little
formal authority or is physically separated, for example, his or her leadership may
be neutralized even though task supportiveness may still be needed.
• Substitutes for
leadership make a leader’s
infl uence either
unnecessary or redundant
in that they replace a
leader’s infl uence.
Professional orientation
Indifference toward
organizational rewards
Experience, ability, training
Substitutes for task-oriented
leadership
Substitutes for task-oriented
and supportive leadership
Neutralizes task-oriented
and supportive leadership
Characteristics of Individuals Impact on Leadership
Highly structured/routine
Substitutes for task-oriented
leadership
Intrinsically satisfying Substitutes for supportive leadership
Characteristics of Job
Substitutes for task-oriented
and supportive leadership
Neutralizes task-oriented
and supportive leadership
Neutralizes task-oriented
and supportive leadership
Cohesive workgroup
Low leader position power
Leader physically separated
Characteristics of Organization
Figure 13.5 Some
examples of leadership
substitutes and
neutralizers.
c13LeadershipEssentials.indd Page 304 6/29/11 8:31 PM ff-446c13LeadershipEssentials.indd Page 304 6/29/11 8:31 PM ff-446 Schermerhorn_OBSchermerhorn_OB
Follower-Centered Approaches 305
Research suggests some support for the general notion of substitutes for lead-
ership.29 First, studies involving Mexican, U.S., and Japanese workers suggests
both similarities and differences between various substitutes in the countries
examined. Again, there were subtle but important differences across the national
samples. Second, a systematic review of 17 studies found mixed results for the
substitutes theory. The review suggested a need to broaden the list of substitutes
and leader behaviors. It was also apparent that the approach is especially impor-
tant in examining self-directed work teams. In such teams, for example, in place
of a hierarchical leader specifying standards and ways of achieving goals (task-
oriented behaviors), the team might set its own standards and substitute them for
those of the leader’s.
Central to the substitutes for leadership perspective is the question of whether
leadership makes a difference at all levels of the organization. At least one
researcher has suggested that at the very top of today’s complex fi rms, the leader-
ship of the CEO makes little difference compared to environmental and industry
forces.30 These leaders are typically accountable to so many groups of people for
the resources they use that their leadership impact is greatly constrained, so the
argument goes. Instead of a dramatic and an important effect, much of the impact
a top leader has is little more than symbolic. Further, much of what is described
as CEO leadership is actually part of explanations to legitimize their actions.
Such symbolic treatment of leadership occurs particularly when performance
is either extremely high or extremely low or when the situation is such that many
people could have been responsible for the performance. The late James Meindl
and his colleagues call this phenomenon the romance of leadership, whereby
people attribute romantic, almost magical, qualities to leadership.31 Consider the
fi ring of a baseball manager or football coach whose team does not perform well.
Neither the owner nor anyone else is really sure why the poor showing occurred.
But the owner can’t fi re all the players, so a new team manager is brought in to
symbolize “a change in leadership” that is “sure to turn the team around.”
• Romance of
leadership involves
people attributing romantic,
almost magical, qualities to
leadership.
So far we have dealt with leader traits, leader behavior, and the situations facing
the leader and his or her subordinates. But what about followers and their part in
the leadership process? Interestingly, until very recently, issues of followership
have been largely ignored in leadership research. It seems that our fascination
with leaders has caused us to overlook the importance of followers. As discussed
in this section, this issue is addressed in cognitive approaches to leadership, but
is also becoming its own fi eld of study in newly emerging work on followership.
Implicit Leadership Theories (ILTs)
In the mid-1970s, Dov Eden and Uri Leviatan32 wrote an article in which they
concluded that “leadership factors are in the mind of the respondent.” This radical
idea sparked what is known as the cognitive revolution in leadership, in which
researchers recognized that if leadership resides in the minds of followers, then it
is imperative to discover what followers are thinking.33
LEARNING ROADMAP Implicit Leadership Theories /
Implicit Followership Theories
Follower-Centered Approaches
c13LeadershipEssentials.indd Page 305 6/29/11 8:31 PM ff-446c13LeadershipEssentials.indd Page 305 6/29/11 8:31 PM ff-446 Schermerhorn_OBSchermerhorn_OB
306 13 Leadership Essentials
Scholars began using cognitive categorization theory to learn more about
how followers process information regarding leaders.34 Recall from Chapter 4 on
perception and attribution that cognitive categorization is a type of mental short-
cut that helps us simplify our cognitive understanding of the world by attaching
labels when we are faced with a stimulus target. For example, think about your
fi rst day of class. Did you look around the room and fi nd yourself making assess-
ments of the teacher, and even your classmates? Were your assessments accurate?
This is the process of cognitive categorization, and it occurs automatically and
spontaneously when individuals categorize others on the basis of visually salient
cues (e.g., age, race, gender, and appearance) and social roles (e.g., leader and
follower). We do it because it helps us process and act on information quickly
and easily.
Leadership Categorization Theory In leadership research, these ideas
developed into leadership categorization theory. According to this theory, indi-
viduals naturally classify people as leaders or nonleaders using implicit theo-
ries. Implicit leadership theories are preconceived notions about the
attributes (e.g., traits and behaviors) associated with leaders.35 They refl ect the
structure and content of “cognitive categories” used to distinguish leaders from
nonleaders.
These attributes, or leadership prototypes, are mental images of the charac-
teristics that make a “good” leader, or that a “real” leader would possess. Indi-
viduals engage in a two-stage categorization process.36 First, relevant prototypes,
such as those shown in Table 13.1, are activated and the target person is com-
pared with the prototype. Second, the target person is categorized as a leader or
nonleader depending on the fi t with the prototype.
For example, think of someone you consider to be a great leader. Make a list
of attributes you associate with that person as a leader. These images that come
to mind represent your implicit theory of leadership. The words you listed repre-
sent your “prototypes” for effective leadership. Now look at Table 13.1. Are the
attributes you listed in the table? Chances are they are in the list, which is a mea-
sure of the implicit leadership theories developed in research by Lynn Offermann
and colleagues.38
• Implicit leadership
theories are preconceived
notions about the attributes
associated with leaders that
refl ect the structure and
content of “cognitive
categories” used to
distinguish leaders from
nonleaders.
• Prototypes are a mental
image of the characteristics
that comprise an implicit
theory.
Prototype Description
Sensitivity Sympathetic, sensitive, compassionate, understanding
Dedication Dedicated, disciplined, prepared, hard-working
Tyranny Domineering, power-hungry, pushy, manipulative
Charisma Charismatic, inspiring, involved, dynamic
Attractiveness Attractive, classy, well-dressed, tall
Masculinity Male, masculine
Intelligence Intelligent, clever, knowledgeable, wise
Strength Strong, forceful, bold, powerful
Table 13.1 Implicit Leadership Theories Prototypes
Source: Offermann, L. R., Kennedy, John K., Jr., & Wirtz, P. W. (1994). Implicit leadership theories: Content, structure,
and generalizability. Leadership Quarterly, 5, 43–58.
c13LeadershipEssentials.indd Page 306 6/29/11 8:31 PM ff-446c13LeadershipEssentials.indd Page 306 6/29/11 8:31 PM ff-446 Schermerhorn_OBSchermerhorn_OB
Follower-Centered Approaches 307
Through sampling individuals about their implicit theories, research has
identifi ed eight predominant factors, both positive and negative, in peoples’
images of leaders: sensitivity, dedication, tyranny, charisma, attractiveness, mas-
culinity, intelligence, and strength. The prototypes show that people view lead-
ers in a positive fashion and hold them to high standards. However, the negative
prototypes also reveal that people recognize the possibility for leaders, who are
in positions of power, to use that power negatively, such as to dominate, control,
and manipulate others.
Since these factors were developed from an American sample, we should
expect differences in prototypes by country and by national culture. For example,
a typical business leader prototype in Japan is described as responsible, educated,
trustworthy, intelligent, and disciplined, whereas the counterpart in the United
States is portrayed as determined, goal-oriented, verbally skilled, industrious, and
persistent.39 More in-depth insights on such prototypes, as related to culture, are
provided by the broadscale Project GLOBE discussed in the next chapter.
Implicit Followership Theories
Although research on implicit theories has been around since the early 1980s, it
wasn’t until 2010 that these ideas were applied to followers. This work is now
rapidly developing as the study of followership. Followership is defi ned as the
behaviors of individuals acting in relation to leaders.40 To understand these behav-
iors, researchers are investigating whether an association exists between follow-
ers’ implicit theories and the nature of their interactions with leaders.
Followership Categorization Theory Paralleling the approach described
earlier in leadership categorization theory, Dr. Thomas Sy developed a measure
of implicit followership theory (IFT) that we can refer to as followership cat-
egorization theory.41 Again using the concept of implicit theories, this research
gathered the prototypical behavior of followers as described by leaders.
Using a sample of managers, the investigator asked leaders to identify char-
acteristics associated with effective followers, ineffective followers, and subordi-
nates. He then analyzed the responses to see whether categories of prototypes
emerged. The result, as shown in Table 13.2, is an 18-item implicit followership
• Followership is defi ned
as the behaviors of
individuals acting in
relation to leaders.
• Implicit followership
theories are preconceived
notions about prototypical
and antiprototypical
followership behaviors and
characteristics.
Prototypical/
Antiprototypical Category Description
Prototypical Industry Hardworking, Productive, Goes above and
beyond
Prototypical Enthusiasm Excited, Outgoing, Happy
Prototypical Good Citizen Loyal, Reliable, Team player
Antiprototypical Conformity Easily infl uenced, Follows trends, Soft spoken
Antiprototypical Insubordination Arrogant, Rude, Bad Tempered
Antiprototypical Incompetence Uneducated, Slow, Inexperienced
Table 13.2 Implicit Followership Theories Prototypes and Antiprototypes
Source: Sy, T. (2010). What do you think of followers? Examining the content, structure, and consequences of
implicit followership theories. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 113(2), 73–84.
c13LeadershipEssentials.indd Page 307 6/29/11 8:31 PM ff-446c13LeadershipEssentials.indd Page 307 6/29/11 8:31 PM ff-446 Schermerhorn_OBSchermerhorn_OB
308 13 Leadership Essentials
theory (IFT) scale that contains two main factors: followership prototype and fol-
lowership antiprototype. Followership prototype consists of factors associated
with good followers, including being “industrious,” having enthusiasm, and being
a good organizational citizen. Followership antiprototype consists of behaviors
associated with ineffective followership, including conformity, insubordination,
and incompetence.
Although this work is very new, it has important practical implications. For
example, if we think about leaders and recognize they have implicit theories of
followers represented by follower prototypes, these prototypes may play a key
role in shaping leaders’ judgments of and reactions to followers. Remember that
categorization processes are spontaneous and automatic. This suggests that lead-
ers make assessments of followers very quickly and very early on in the relation-
ship. Followers who fulfi ll leaders’ prototypes will be judged more positively than
those who match the follower antiprototype. It could also be that leaders’ implicit
followership theories (IFTs) may predispose them to certain socioemotional
experiences. For example, leaders who endorse more prototypic perceptions of
followers may be more likely to generate more positive affective tones in their
workgroups, whereas leaders who endorse more antiprototypic perceptions of
followers may generate more negative emotion with the group.
The Social Construction of Followership Using a somewhat different
approach, Melissa Carsten and colleagues are exploring followership through a
lens of “social construction.”42 According to social construction approaches,
individual behavior is “constructed” in context, as people act and interact in
situations. Social constructions are infl uenced by two things: the individuals’
implicit theories about how they should act, and the nature of the situation in
which they fi nd themselves. For example, have you ever been in situations
where you think you should do one thing but fi nd yourself doing another? This
is because your implicit belief is interacting with the situation to infl uence your
behavior.
Using a social construction approach, Carsten and colleagues found that fol-
lowers tend to act in different ways according to their beliefs and the context.
Some followers hold passive beliefs, viewing their roles in the classic sense of
following—as passive, deferential, and obedient to authority (i.e., a passive
belief). Others hold proactive beliefs, viewing their role as expressing opinions,
taking initiative, and constructively questioning and challenging leaders (i.e., a
proactive belief). These proactive followership beliefs more closely resemble
leading (e.g., followers acting as leaders) than following. Not surprisingly, proac-
tive beliefs were found to be strong among “high potentials”—people who have
been identifi ed by their organizations as demonstrating the skills and capabilities
to be promoted to higher-level leadership positions in their organization. This
makes sense. It suggests that one key to advancement in organizations is being
able to demonstrate the ability to lead not only downward, but upward.
Because social construction is dependent on context, fi ndings also show that
not everyone is able to act according to their followership beliefs. This occurs
when the work environment does not support the belief. Individuals holding
proactive beliefs reported they could not be proactive when they were operating
in authoritarian or bureaucratic work climates because these environments sup-
pressed their ability to take the initiative and speak up. In this environment they
were frustrated—they felt stifl ed and were not able to work to their potential.
• Social construction
approaches describe
individual behavior as
“constructed” in context, as
people act and interact in
situations.
• Passive followership
beliefs are beliefs that
followers should be
passive, deferent, and
obedient to authority.
• Proactive followership
beliefs are beliefs that
followers should express
opinions, take initiative,
and constructively question
and challenge leaders.
c13LeadershipEssentials.indd Page 308 6/29/11 8:31 PM ff-446c13LeadershipEssentials.indd Page 308 6/29/11 8:31 PM ff-446 Schermerhorn_OBSchermerhorn_OB
Inspirational and Relational Leadership Perspectives 309
Alternatively, individuals with passive beliefs reported cases where an empower-
ing climate encouraged them to offer ideas and opinions, but these situations
were uncomfortable because their natural inclinations as followers were to follow
rather than be empowered. They were stressed by leaders’ demands that they be
more proactive, and weren’t comfortable engaging in those behaviors. These
cases of mismatch created dissonance for these individuals, leading to varying
levels of stress and discontent.
Although this work is still developing, similar to discussions of the impor-
tance of person–job fi t, when the mismatch between one’s followership beliefs
and the work context is ongoing and pervasive it is likely to create strong feelings
of dissonance. These feelings can be detrimental to workplace functioning, such
as making one dissatisfi ed or highly stressed in their job, and potentially leading
to high levels of burnout.
The role of the follower is also considered in inspirational and relational perspec-
tives to leadership. Like follower-centered approaches, these perspectives con-
sider how followers view and interact with leaders.
Charismatic Leadership
One of the reasons leadership is considered so important is simply because most
of us think of leaders as highly inspirational individuals—heroes and heroines.
We think of prominent individuals who appear to have made a signifi cant differ-
ence by inspiring followers to work toward great accomplishments. In the study
of leadership, this inspirational aspect has been studied extensively under the
notions of charismatic leadership.
Studies of charismatic leadership have provided an extensive body of evi-
dence indicating that charismatic leaders, by force of their personal abilities,
are capable of having a profound and extraordinary effect on followers.43 Find-
ings show that charismatic leaders are high in need for power and have high
feelings of self-effi cacy and conviction in the moral rightness of their beliefs.
Their need for power motivates them to want to be leaders, and this need is then
reinforced by their conviction of the moral rightness of their beliefs. The feeling
of self-effi cacy, in turn, makes these individuals believe they are capable of being
leaders. These traits also infl uence such charismatic behaviors as role modeling,
image building, articulating simple and dramatic goals, emphasizing high expec-
tations, showing confi dence, and arousing follower motives.
Some of the more interesting and important work based on aspects of charis-
matic theory involves a study of U.S. presidents.44 The research showed that behav-
ioral charisma was substantially related to presidential performance and that the
kind of personality traits described in the theory, along with response to crisis
among other things, predicted behavioral charisma for the sample of presidents.45
The charisma trait also has a potential negative side as seen in infamous lead-
ers such as Adolf Hitler and Josef Stalin, who had been considered charismatic.
• Charismatic leaders
are those leaders who are
capable of having a
profound and extraordinary
effect on followers.
LEARNING ROADMAP Charismatic Leadership / Transactional and Transformational
Leadership /
Leader–Member Exchange Theory
Inspirational and Relational Leadership Perspectives
c13LeadershipEssentials.indd Page 309 6/29/11 8:31 PM ff-446c13LeadershipEssentials.indd Page 309 6/29/11 8:31 PM ff-446 Schermerhorn_OBSchermerhorn_OB
310 13 Leadership Essentials
Negative, or “dark-side,” charismatic leaders emphasize personalized power and
focus on themselves—whereas positive, or “bright-side,” charismatic leaders
emphasize socialized power that tends to positively empower their followers.46
This helps explain the differences between a dark-side leader such as David
Koresh, leader of the Branch Davidian sect, and a bright-side leader such as
Martin Luther King Jr.47
Jay Conger and Rabindra Kanungo have developed a three-stage charismatic
leadership model.48 In the initial stage the leader critically evaluates the status
quo. Defi ciencies in the status quo lead to formulations of future goals. Before
developing these goals, the leader assesses available resources and constraints
that stand in the way of the goals. The leader also assesses follower abilities,
needs, and satisfaction levels. In the second stage, the leader formulates and
articulates the goals along with an idealized future vision. Here, the leader empha-
sizes articulation and impression-management skills. Then, in the third stage, the
leader shows how these goals and the vision can be achieved. The leader empha-
sizes innovative and unusual means to achieve the vision.
Martin Luther King Jr. illustrated these three stages in his nonviolent civil
rights approach, thereby changing race relations in this country. Conger and
Kanungo have argued that if leaders use behaviors such as vision articulation,
environmental sensitivity, and unconventional behavior, rather than maintaining
the status quo, followers will tend to attribute charismatic leadership to them.
Such leaders are also seen as behaving quite differently from those labeled “non-
charismatic.”49
Transactional and Transformational Leadership
Building on notions originated by James MacGregor Burns, as well as on ideas
from charismatic leadership theory, Bernard Bass has developed an approach that
focuses on both transactional and transformational leadership.50
Transactional Leadership Transactional leadership involves leader–follower
exchanges necessary for achieving routine performance agreed upon between lead-
ers and followers. Transactional leadership is similar to most of the leadership
approaches mentioned earlier. These exchanges involve four dimensions:
1. Contingent rewards—various kinds of rewards in exchange for mutually
agreed-upon goal accomplishment.
2. Active management by exception—watching for deviations from rules and
standards and taking corrective action.
3. Passive management by exception—intervening only if standards not met.
4. Laissez-faire—abdicating responsibilities and avoiding decisions.
Transformational leadership goes beyond this routine accomplishment, how-
ever. For Bass, transformational leadership occurs when leaders broaden and
elevate their followers’ interests, when they generate awareness and acceptance
of the group’s purposes and mission, and when they stir their followers to look
beyond their own self-interests to the good of others.
Transformational Leadership Transformational leadership has four dimen-
sions: charisma, inspiration, intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration.
• Transactional
leadership involves
leader–follower exchanges
necessary for achieving
routine performance
agreed upon between
leaders and followers.
• Transformational
leadership occurs when
leaders broaden and
elevate followers’ interests
and stir followers to look
beyond their own interests
to the good of others.
c13LeadershipEssentials.indd Page 310 6/29/11 8:31 PM ff-446c13LeadershipEssentials.indd Page 310 6/29/11 8:31 PM ff-446 Schermerhorn_OBSchermerhorn_OB
Inspirational and Relational Leadership Perspectives 311
Charisma provides vision and a sense of mission, and it instills pride along with
follower respect and trust. For example, Steve Jobs, who founded Apple Com-
puter, showed charisma by emphasizing the importance of creating the Macintosh
as a radical new computer and has since followed up with products such as the
iPod, iPhone, and iPad.
Inspiration communicates high expectations, uses symbols to focus efforts,
and expresses important purposes in simple ways. As an example, in the movie
Patton, George C. Scott stood on a stage in front of his troops with a wall-sized
American fl ag in the background and ivory-handled revolvers in holsters at his
side. Soldiers were told not to die for their country but make the enemy die for
theirs. Intellectual stimulation promotes intelligence, rationality, and careful
problem solving. For instance, your boss encourages you to look at a very diffi –
cult problem in a new way. Individualized consideration provides personal
attention, treats each employee individually, and coaches and advises. This occurs,
for example, when your boss drops by and makes remarks reinforcing your worth
as a person.
Bass concludes that transformational leadership is likely to be strongest at
the top-management level, where there is the greatest opportunity for propos-
ing and communicating a vision. However, for Bass, it is not restricted to the
top level; it is found throughout the organization. Furthermore, transforma-
tional leadership operates in combination with transactional leadership. Lead-
ers need both transformational and transactional leadership in order to be
successful, just as they need to display both leadership and management
abilities.51
Reviews have summarized a large number of studies using Bass’s transforma-
tional approach. These reviews report signifi cant favorable relationships between
Bass’s leadership dimensions and various aspects of performance and satisfac-
tion, as well as extra effort, burnout and stress, and predispositions to act as
innovation champions on the part of followers. The strongest relationships tend
to be associated with charisma or inspirational leadership, although in most cases
the other dimensions are also important. These fi ndings are consistent with those
reported elsewhere.52 They broaden leadership outcomes beyond those cited in
many leadership studies.
Issues in Charismatic and Transformational Leadership In respect to
leaders and leadership development, it is reasonable to ask: Can people be
trained in charismatic/transformational leadership? According to research in this
area, the answer is yes. Bass and his colleagues have put a lot of work into devel-
oping such training efforts. For example, they have created a workshop where
leaders are given initial feedback on their scores on Bass’s measures. The leaders
then devise improvement programs to strengthen their weaknesses and work
with the trainers to develop their leadership skills. Bass and Avolio report fi ndings
that demonstrate the benefi cial effects of this training. They also report the effec-
tiveness of team training and programs tailored to individual fi rms’ needs.53 Simi-
larly, Conger and Kanungo propose training to develop the kinds of behaviors
summarized in their model.
Approaches with special emphasis on vision often emphasize training.
Kouzes and Posner report results of a week-long training program at AT&T. The
program involved training leaders on fi ve dimensions oriented around develop-
ing, communicating, and reinforcing a shared vision. According to Kouzes and
• Charisma provides
vision and a sense of
mission, and it instills pride
along with follower respect
and trust.
• Inspiration
communicates high
expectations, uses symbols
to focus efforts, and
expresses important
purposes in simple ways.
• Intellectual
stimulation promotes
intelligence, rationality and
careful problem solving, by
for example, encouraging
looking at a very diffi cult
problem in a new way.
• Individualized
consideration provides
personal attention, treats
each employee individually,
and coaches and advises.
c13LeadershipEssentials.indd Page 311 6/29/11 8:31 PM ff-446c13LeadershipEssentials.indd Page 311 6/29/11 8:31 PM ff-446 Schermerhorn_OBSchermerhorn_OB
312 13 Leadership Essentials
Posner, leaders showed an average 15 percent increase in these visionary
behaviors 10 months after participating in the program.54 Similarly, Sashkin and
Sashkin have developed a leadership approach that emphasizes various aspects
of vision and organizational culture change. They discuss a number of ways to
train leaders to be more visionary and to enhance cultural change.55 All of these
leadership training programs involve a heavy hands-on workshop emphasis so
that leaders do more than just read about vision.
ETHICS IN OB
CEO PAY—IS IT EXCESSIVE?
In corporate America today, there seems to be a perception that
CEOs have a tremendous infl uence on company success,
whereas workers are more or less interchangeable. In fact, CEO
compensation is typically over 260 times greater than the
compensation provided to the median full-time employee. A
typical CEO will earn more in one workday than the average
worker will earn all year.
While the pay gap between top executives and the average
American worker has traditionally been relatively large, it has
grown tremendously over the past few decades. For the decade
1995–2005, CEO compensation rose nearly 300 percent while
the average employee salary rose less than 5 percent—both
occurring during a timeframe in which average corporate profi ts rose by a little over
100 percent.
In support of rising CEO salaries, the argument has been made that companies have to
pay a lot to attract the best executive talent and need to pay for performance. However, pay
levels are now such that many CEOs are assured of getting rich no matter how the
company performs. In fact, over 80 percent of executives receive bonuses even during
down years for the stock market.
In the midst of the recent economic downturn, one might expect this gap to be
signifi cantly reduced. Surprisingly, though, that has not occurred, and the pay gap
remains very high by historical standards. Many people continue to be shocked by the
exorbitant salaries and bonuses received by top executives, especially at a time when
many companies are laying off employees and freezing salaries among lower-level
workers.
An underlying question seems to be whether it is ethical for a company to eliminate
hundreds or thousands of jobs while its CEO remains very highly compensated.
What Do You Think? Is it ethical for executives to reap such high rewards when
employees are being laid off and shareholders are seeing little to no return on their
investment? Should CEO pay be capped at some multiple of the average worker’s
pay? Should CEOs be forced to take a pay cut during this diffi cult fi nancial period?
What are the consequences (both positive and negative) of unrestricted CEO sala-
ries? If you were the CEO of a company that was struggling fi nancially and was in
the process of laying off thousands of employees, would you voluntarily give up some
of your compensation?
c13LeadershipEssentials.indd Page 312 6/29/11 8:31 PM ff-446c13LeadershipEssentials.indd Page 312 6/29/11 8:31 PM ff-446 Schermerhorn_OBSchermerhorn_OB
Inspirational and Relational Leadership Perspectives 313
A second issue in leadership and leadership development involves this ques-
tion: Is charismatic/transformational leadership always good? As pointed out ear-
lier, dark-side charismatics, such as Adolf Hitler, can have a negative effect on
followers. Similarly, charismatic/transformational leadership is not always helpful.
Sometimes emphasis on a vision diverts energy from more important day-to-day
activities. It is also important to note that such leadership by itself is not suffi cient.
That leadership needs to be used in conjunction with all of the leadership theo-
ries discussed in this chapter. Finally, charismatic and transformational leadership
is important not only at the top of an organization. A number of experts argue
that for an organization to be successful, it must apply at all levels of organiza-
tional leadership.
Leader–Member Exchange Theory
While charismatic and inspirational theories emphasize leader behavior, relational
leadership theories adopt a different perspective: They view leadership as pro-
duced in the relationship between leaders and followers. The most prominent of
these theories is leader–member exchange (LMX) theory.
LMX theory shows that leaders develop differentiated relationships with sub-
ordinates in their work groups.56 Some relationships are high-quality (high LMX)
“partnerships,” characterized by mutual infl uence, trust, respect, and loyalty.
These relationships are associated with more challenging job assignments,
increased leader attention and support, and more open and honest communica-
tion. Other relationships are low quality (low LMX), more in line with traditional
supervisory relationships. Low-quality relationships are characterized by formal
status and strict adherence to rules of the employment contract. They have low
levels of interaction, trust, and support.
According to LMX theory, leadership is generated when leaders and followers
are able to develop “incremental infl uence” with one another that produces
behavior above and beyond what is required by the work contract. Returning to
our discussion of managers and leaders at the beginning of the chapter, we can
state that LMX approaches assume that managers are leaders when, through
development of high-quality relationships, they are able to generate “willing fol-
lowership” with subordinates in their work unit.
These differentiated relationships are important for subordinates because
they have strong associations with work outcomes.57 Research shows that high-
quality LMX is associated with increased follower satisfaction and productivity,
decreased turnover, increased salaries, and faster promotion rates. Low-quality
relationships are associated with negative work outcomes, including low job
satisfaction and commitment, greater feelings of unfairness, lower performance,
and higher stress. Recent discussions of LMX suggest that to generate strong
leadership, managers should try to develop high-quality relationships with all
subordinates.
The LMX approach continues to receive increasing emphasis in organiza-
tional behavior research literature worldwide. The evidence for the benefi ts of
high-quality relationships is robust, and the implications for both managers and
employees are quite clear. Relationships matter, and working to develop them—
whether you are a leader or a follower—is critical in terms of both organizational
and personal career outcomes.
• Leader–member
exchange (LMX) theory
emphasizes the quality of
the working relationship
between leaders and
followers.
c13LeadershipEssentials.indd Page 313 6/29/11 8:31 PM ff-446c13LeadershipEssentials.indd Page 313 6/29/11 8:31 PM ff-446 Schermerhorn_OBSchermerhorn_OB
314 13 Leadership Essentials
13 study guide
Key Questions
and Answers What is leadership?
• Leadership is the process of infl uencing others to understand and agree about what
needs to be done and how to do it, and the process of facilitating individual and
collective efforts to accomplish shared objectives.
• Leadership and management differ in that management is designed to promote
stability or to make the organization run smoothly, whereas the role of leadership is
to promote adaptive change.
• Trait or great-person approaches argue that leader traits have a major impact on
differentiating between leaders and nonleaders or predicting leadership outcomes.
• Traits are considered relatively innate and hard to change.
• Similar to trait approaches, behavioral theories argue that leader behaviors have a
major impact on outcomes.
• The Michigan and Ohio State approaches are important leader behavior theories.
• Leader behavior theories are especially suitable for leadership training.
What is situational contingency leadership?
• Leader situational contingency approaches argue that leadership, in combination
with various situational contingency variables, can have a major impact on out-
comes.
• The effects of traits are enhanced to the extent of their relevance to the situational
contingencies faced by the leader.
• Strong or weak situational contingencies infl uence the impact of leadership traits.
• Fiedler’s contingency theory, House’s path-goal theory, Hersey and Blanchard’s
situational leadership theory, and substitutes for leadership theory are particularly
important specifi c situational contingency approaches.
• Sometimes, as in the case of the substitutes for leadership approach, the role of
situational contingencies replaces that of leadership, so that leadership has little or
no impact in itself.
What are follower-centered approaches to leadership?
• Follower-centered approaches focus on how followers view leaders and how they
view themselves. The former are called implicit leadership theories (ILTs), and the
latter are called implicit followership theories (IFTs).
• Implicit leadership theories (ILTs) are part of leadership categorization theory. They
describe the cognitive categorization processes individuals use to identify character-
istics, or prototypes, of traits and behaviors they associate with leaders (and
nonleaders).
c13LeadershipEssentials.indd Page 314 6/29/11 8:31 PM ff-446c13LeadershipEssentials.indd Page 314 6/29/11 8:31 PM ff-446 Schermerhorn_OBSchermerhorn_OB
Terms to Know 315
• Typical prototypes of leaders are sensitivity, dedication, tyranny, charisma,
attractiveness, masculinity, intelligence, and strength. They refl ect both the positive
and negative elements of leaders.
• Followership is defi ned as the behaviors of individuals acting in relation to leaders.
Followership categorization theory is the study of implicit followership theories that
leaders hold of followers.
• Prototypical follower behaviors have been identifi ed as industriousness (e.g.,
hard-working), having enthusiasm, and being a good citizen. Follower antiprototypes
include conformity, insubordination, and incompetence.
• Implicit followership theories have also been studied relative to social constructions
of follower roles. Social construction approaches consider individuals’ beliefs
regarding how they should act and the contexts in which they act.
• Social construction perspectives of followership have identifi ed passive and proactive
followership beliefs. Passive beliefs are consistent with classic defi nitions of followers
as obedient, passive, and deferential, while proactive beliefs refl ect include express-
ing opinions, taking the initiative, and constructively challenging leaders.
What are inspirational and relational leadership perspectives?
• Inspirational and relational leadership perspectives focus on how leaders motivate
and build relationships with followers to achieve performance beyond expectations.
• Particularly important among inspirational approaches are Bass’s transformational/
transactional theory and House’s and Conger and Kanungo’s charismatic perspectives.
• Transformational behaviors include charisma, inspiration, intellectual stimulation, and
individualized consideration. Transactional behaviors include contingent reward,
management-by-exception, and laissez-faire leadership.
• Charismatic/transformational leadership is not always good, as shown by the example
of Adolf Hitler.
• The most prominent relational leadership theory is leader–member exchange (LMX).
• LMX describes how leaders develop relationships with some subordinates that are
high quality and some that are low quality. Subordinates in high-quality relationships
receive much better benefi ts and outcomes than those in low-quality LMX.
• The most effective leaders should develop high-quality relationships with all
subordinates.
Terms to Know
Achievement-oriented
leadership (p. 300)
Behavioral perspective (p. 294)
Charisma (p. 311)
Charismatic leaders (p. 309)
Consideration (p. 294)
Directive leadership (p. 300)
Followership (p. 307)
Implicit followership theories
(IFTs) (p. 307)
Implicit leadership theories
(ILTs) (p. 306)
Individualized consideration (p. 311)
Initiating structure (p. 294)
Inspiration (p. 311)
Intellectual stimulation (p. 311)
Leader match training (p. 298)
Leader–member exchange (LMX)
theory (p. 313)
Leadership (p. 292)
Leadership grid (p. 294)
Least-preferred co-worker (LPC)
scale (p. 297)
Participative leadership (p. 300)
c13LeadershipEssentials.indd Page 315 6/29/11 8:31 PM ff-446c13LeadershipEssentials.indd Page 315 6/29/11 8:31 PM ff-446 Schermerhorn_OBSchermerhorn_OB
316 13 Leadership Essentials
Passive followership beliefs (p. 308)
Path-goal view of managerial
leadership (p. 300)
Proactive followership beliefs (p. 308)
Prosocial power motivation (p. 296)
Prototypes (p. 306)
Romance of leadership (p. 305)
Situational control (p. 297)
Situational leadership model (p. 301)
Social construction (p. 308)
Substitutes for leadership (p. 304)
Supportive leadership (p. 300)
Trait perspectives (p. 293)
Transactional leadership (p. 310)
Transformational leadership (p. 310)
Self-Test 13
Multiple Choice
1. Leadership is ____________. (a) equivalent to management (b) being in charge
(c) the process of infl uencing others to get things done (d) holding a formal position
2. In comparing leadership and management, ____________. (a) leadership promotes
stability and management promotes change (b) leadership promotes change and
management promotes stability (c) leaders are born but managers are developed
(d) the two are pretty much the same
3. The earliest theory of leadership stated that individuals become leaders because of
____________. (a) the behavior of those they lead (b) the traits they possess (c) the
particular situation in which they fi nd themselves (d) being very tall
4. The behavioral approaches to leadership show that the most common types of
leadership behaviors relate to ____________. (a) empowering and motivating
(b) directing and controlling (c) guiding and visioning (d) relationships and tasks
5. Leadership grid research suggests that the most effective managers are (a) high, high
(b) high, low (c) low, high (d) middle of the road
6. Leader traits will have less of an impact in a(n) ____________situation than in
a(n) ____________ situation. (a) prototypical, antiprototypical (b) implicit, explicit
(c) weak, strong (d) favorable, unfavorable
7. A key fi nding in Fiedler’s contingency theory is the importance of ____________.
(a) leader match (b) implicit theories (c) prosocial power motivation (d) task-oriented
leadership behavior
8. Path-goal has its roots in the ____________ theory of motivation. (a) hierarchy
(b) equity (c) manifest need (d) expectancy
9. Substitutes for leadership research suggests that in certain situations leadership
____________. (a) has no substitutes (b) is contingent upon traits (c) makes no
difference (d) substitutes for management
10. When followers attribute superior qualities to leaders, it is referred to as
____________. (a) substitutes for leadership (b) romance of leadership (c) implicit
leadership theories (d) follower-centered approaches to leadership
11. The idea that leadership resides in the minds of followers represents the
____________ in leadership. (a) cognitive revolution (b) contingency approach
(c) behavioral approach (d) substitutes neutralizer
12. ____________ is defi ned as the behaviors of individuals acting in relation to leaders.
(a) Subordination (b) Prototyped (c) Implicit theory (d) Followership
13. Conformity, insubordination, and incompetence represent followership ____________.
(a) prototypes (b) antiprototypes (c) social construction (d) dissonance
c13LeadershipEssentials.indd Page 316 7/25/11 2:47 PM ff-446c13LeadershipEssentials.indd Page 316 7/25/11 2:47 PM ff-446 Schermerhorn_OBSchermerhorn_OB
Next Steps 317
14. Findings regarding charismatic leadership indicate that ____________. (a) anyone
can be a charismatic leader (b) charisma is the most desirable leadership style
(c) there is a potential negative side to charismatic leadership (d) charismatics are
found to have the best interests of followers in mind
15. Research showing that leaders develop differentiated relationship with followers is
known as ____________. (a) leader-member exchange theory (b) transformational
leadership theory (c) transactional leadership theory (d) follower-centered theory
Short Response
16. Defi ne “leadership” and contrast it with “management.”
17. How do situational contingency theories relate to behavioral approaches to leader-
ship theory?
18. Describe the difference between transactional and transformational theories of
leadership.
19. What are the characteristics of low and high LMX relationships?
Applications Essay
20. Your manager at work just called you into the offi ce to inform you that you are
being promoted to supervisor. You are excited and nervous at the same time: You
want to do a good job in this position but you are not sure how. Your friend is
taking an OB course, so you decided to ask him for advice. What does he tell you?
Next Steps
Top Choices from
The OB Skills
Workbook
Cases for Critical
Thinking
Team and Experiential
Exercises
Self-Assessment
Portfolio
• The New Vice President • Interview a Leader
• Leadership Skills
Inventories
• Leadership and
Participation in Decision
Making
• Student Leadership
Practices Inventory
• Least-Preferred Co-worker
Scale
• Leadership Style
• “TT” Leadership Style
c13LeadershipEssentials.indd Page 317 6/29/11 8:31 PM ff-446c13LeadershipEssentials.indd Page 317 6/29/11 8:31 PM ff-446 Schermerhorn_OBSchermerhorn_OB
318
Ready About: Don’t Lose Your Bearings
Mark Berns has a fl air for navigating treacherous waters.
A passionate sailor, Berns also heads Ready About, a consulting fi rm that guides companies through potentially
disruptive changes, such as strategic realignments, mergers,
and acquisitions.
Plans for organizational change often look lucrative on paper and
meet resounding approval at the highest levels of management. But
they can go awry when they fail to
account for a company’s intangible—but
often most valuable—assets. These can
include group or corporate culture,
operational strategy, and trusted
avenues of internal communication. It
doesn’t help matters if key employees
resist the coming change because they
resent the strategy or don’t have
enough information about what’s going
to happen.
Enter Ready About, named after the command a captain issues to
make sure his crew is ready to chart a new course. Berns and his
team help organizations thrive before and after big changes. They
specialize in organizational strategy, team effectiveness, and mergers
and acquisitions.
Whether brought into a company to manage change or keeping in
close contact as a consulting partner, Ready About makes sure
companies stay watchful of the “soft” assets that bring them value.
Berns himself has been involved in more than 100 acquisitions, and
he’s quick to emphasize the importance of culture in defi ning an
organization. “I see culture as the story we tell about ourselves,” he
says. “It’s mission, vision, and our relationships with each other and the broader world. It’s the all-out company
effort to support a food pantry. It’s even that we always dress casually and have muffi ns on Friday.”a
FYI: 83% of mergers fail to increase shareholder value.c
Quick Summary
• Ready About helps clients manage and survive large organizational changes such as mergers, acquisitions, and
strategy realignments.
• Immersed in day-to-day operations, many companies lack the perspective to understand how organizational change
will affect their soft assets, such as company culture and successful internal communication.
• Ready About’s consulting emphasizes helping companies understand and monitor the health of these resources
while managing operational or material change.
“If culture is a
company’s DNA,
acquisitions are a bit
like gene splicing.
You want to combine
the best of both
worlds so you don’t
end up with Franken-
stein, Inc.”
—Mark Berns.b
c14LeadershipChallengesandOrganizationalChange.indd Page 318 7/23/11 7:17 PM ff-446c14LeadershipChallengesandOrganizationalChange.indd Page 318 7/23/11 7:17 PM ff-446 Schermerhorn_OBSchermerhorn_OB
319➠
14 Leadership Challenges
and Organizational Change
the key point
Some challenges of leadership and organizational change are quite new; others have been recog-
nized for decades. In leadership, these issues are addressed relative to moral persuasion, cultural
differences, and strategy. Moreover, one of the key challenges to leaders, as illustrated in the
Ready About chapter opener, is managing change.
chapter at a glance
What Is Moral Leadership?
What Is Shared Leadership?
How Do You Lead Across Cultures?
How Do You Lead Organizational Change?
what ’s inside?
ETHICS IN OB
COLLEGE ATHLETES MAKE ETHICAL CHOICES
FINDING THE LEADER IN YOU
PATRICIA KARTER USES CORE VALUES AS HER GUIDE
OB IN POPULAR CULTURE
AUTHENTIC LEADERSHIP AND BRAVEHEART
RESEARCH INSIGHT
CEO VALUES MAKE A DIFFERENCE
you can’t do it alone
c14LeadershipChallengesandOrganizationalChange.indd Page 319 7/23/11 7:17 PM ff-446c14LeadershipChallengesandOrganizationalChange.indd Page 319 7/23/11 7:17 PM ff-446 Schermerhorn_OBSchermerhorn_OB
320 14 Leadership Challenges and Organizational Change
All of us are aware of recent concerns about moral leadership issues. American Inter-
national Group (AIG), for example, joined the growing list of fi rms such as Enron and
Merrill Lynch, which at one time had highly questionable leadership. It appears that
leaders of various government, religious, and educational entities made decisions
based on short-term individual gain rather than long-term collective benefi t.
As these problems have gained attention and scrutiny, there has been a stronger
emphasis in research on topics including authentic leadership, servant leadership,
spiritual leadership, and ethical leadership. These are the topics we will cover in
our treatment of moral leadership. Essentially the moral leader is attempting to
use transcendent values to stimulate action that is considered benefi cial. The chal-
lenge of moral leadership starts with who you are and what you think the job of
a leader should be.
Authentic Leadership
Authentic leadership essentially argues “know thyself.”1 It involves both owning
one’s personal experiences (values, thoughts, emotions, and beliefs) and acting in
accordance with one’s true self (expressing what you really think and believe,
and acting accordingly). Although no one is perfectly authentic, authenticity is
something to strive for. It refl ects the unobstructed operation of one’s true or core
self. It also underlies virtually all other aspects of leadership, regardless of the
particular theory or model involved.
Those high in authenticity are thought to have optimal self-esteem, or genu-
ine, true, stable, and congruent self-esteem, as opposed to fragile self-esteem
based on outside responses. Leaders who desire authentic leadership should have
genuine relationships with followers and associates and display transparency,
openness, and trust.2 All of these points draw on psychological well-being empha-
sized in positive psychology literature.3 For instance, Nelson Mandela is consid-
ered an authentic leader.
In positive psychology we fi nd emphasis on self-effi cacy, which is an indi-
vidual’s belief about the likelihood of successfully completing a specifi c task;
optimism, the expectation of positive outcomes; hope, the tendency to look for
alternative pathways to reach a desired goal; and resilience, the ability to bounce
back from failure and keep forging ahead. An increase in any one of these traits
is seen as increasing the others. These are important traits for a leader to demon-
strate and are believed to positively infl uence his or her followers.
Perhaps the most important aspect of authentic leadership is the notion that
being a leader begins with you and your perspective on leading others. But being
authentic is just one aspect of moral leadership. A second feature is your view of
the leader’s task.
Spiritual Leadership
In contrast to authentic leadership, spiritual leadership can be seen as a fi eld of
inquiry within the broader setting of workplace spirituality.4 Western religious
• Self-effi cacy is a
person’s belief that he or
she can perform
adequately in a situation.
• Optimism is the
expectation of positive
outcomes.
• Hope is the tendency to
look for alternative
pathways to reach a
desired goal.
• Resilience is the ability
to bounce back from failure
and keep forging ahead.
LEARNING ROADMAP Authentic Leadership / Spiritual Leadership / Servant Leadership /
Ethical Leadership
Moral Leadership
c14LeadershipChallengesandOrganizationalChange.indd Page 320 7/23/11 7:17 PM ff-446c14LeadershipChallengesandOrganizationalChange.indd Page 320 7/23/11 7:17 PM ff-446 Schermerhorn_OBSchermerhorn_OB
Moral Leadership 321
theology and practice coupled with leadership ethics and values provide much of the
base for the actions of a spiritual leader. As one might expect with a view based on
religion, there is considerable disagreement. One key point of contention is whether
spirituality and religion are the same. To some, spirituality stems from their religion.
For others, it does not. Researchers note that organized religions provide rituals, rou-
tines, and ceremonies, thereby providing a vehicle for achieving spirituality. Of
course, one could be considered religious by following religious rituals but could
lack spirituality, or one could refl ect a strong spirituality without being religious.
Even though spiritual leadership does not yet have a strong research base in
organizational behavior, there has been some research resulting in the term Spir-
itual Leadership Theory, or SLT. It is a causal leadership approach for organiza-
tional transformation designed to create an intrinsically motivated, learning orga-
nization. Spiritual leadership includes values, attitudes, and behaviors required to
intrinsically motivate the leader and others to have a sense of spiritual survival
through calling and membership. In other words, the leader and followers experi-
ence meaning in their lives, believe they make a difference, and feel understood
and appreciated. Such a sense of leader and follower survival tends to create
OB IN POPULAR CULTURE
AUTHENTIC LEADERSHIP AND BRAVEHEART
Contemporary leadership styles are based heavily on the values of
leaders. Authentic leadership exists when a leader knows her or his
values and leads in accordance with them. An authentic leader will
develop genuine relationships with others. Characteristics associated
with this style of leadership include self-effi cacy, optimism, hope, and
resilience.
Braveheart is an account loosely based on the life of William
Wallace, the Guardian of Scotland, who helped liberate Scotland from
England. In the movie, nobleman Robert the Bruce (Angus Mac-
fayden), the seventeenth Earl of Scotland, fi nds out that Wallace (Mel Gibson) has started
a rebellion. He reports to his father, who advises him to embrace the movement while he
opposes it. Frustrated, the younger Bruce describes Wallace as a commoner who fi ghts
with passion and inspires others. When the father suggests a meeting with the nobles, the
younger Bruce complains that they are all talk (with no action).
William Wallace brings about change because he fi ghts not for himself, but for the
rights of all Scotsmen. He exhibits self-effi cacy in his belief that he can defeat the English
when others have been unsuccessful. He is optimistic that he can obtain freedom for
Scotland—even to the point of death. There is a hope that this freedom will allow fellow
Scotsmen to live a life he dreams about. Finally, he is resilient, fi ghting against incredible
odds, including betrayal by the Scottish nobles.
Get to Know Yourself Better At its core, authentic leadership is about knowing
yourself. This requires not only understanding your strengths and weaknesses, but
also knowing your core values and acting in line with them. The OB Skills Workbook
provides self-assessments that paint a picture of you as a leader. Is your leadership
style in accordance with your core values? What factors work against your ability to be
authentic as a leader, and how do you deal with these?
c14LeadershipChallengesandOrganizationalChange.indd Page 321 7/23/11 7:17 PM ff-446c14LeadershipChallengesandOrganizationalChange.indd Page 321 7/23/11 7:17 PM ff-446 Schermerhorn_OBSchermerhorn_OB
322 14 Leadership Challenges and Organizational Change
value congruence across the strategic, empowered team and at the individual
level; it ultimately encourages higher levels of organizational commitment, pro-
ductivity, and employee well-being.
Figure 14.1 summarizes a causal model of spiritual leadership. It shows three
core qualities of a spiritual leader: Vision—defi ning the destination and journey,
refl ecting high ideals, encouraging hope/faith; Altruistic love—trust/loyalty as
well as forgiveness/acceptance/honesty, courage, and humility; Hope/Faith—
endurance, perseverance, do what it takes, have stretch goals.
Servant Leadership
Servant leadership, developed by Robert K. Greenleaf, is based on the notion that
the primary purpose of business should be to create a positive impact on the
organization’s employees as well as the community. In an essay he wrote about
servant leadership in 1970, Greenleaf said: “The servant-leader is servant fi rst. . . .
It begins with the natural feeling that one wants to serve, to serve fi rst. Then con-
scious choice brings one to aspire to lead.”5
The servant leader is attuned to basic spiritual values and, in serving these,
assists others including colleagues, the organization, and society. Viewed in this
way servant leadership is not a unique example of leadership but rather a special
kind of service. The servant leader helps others discover their inner spirit, earns
and keeps the trust of their followers, exhibits effective listening skills, and places
the importance of assisting others over self-interest. It is best demonstrated by
those with a vision and a desire to serve others fi rst rather than by those seeking
leadership roles. Servant leadership is usually seen as a philosophical movement,
with the support of the Greenleaf Center for Servant Development, an interna-
tional nonprofi t organization founded by Robert K. Greenleaf in 1964 and head-
quartered in Indiana. The Center promotes the understanding and practice of
servant leadership, holds conferences, publishes books and materials, and spon-
sors speakers and seminars throughout the world.
Leader Values, Attitudes,
and Behaviors
Follower Needs for
Spiritual Survival
Organizational
Outcomes
Effort
(Hope/Faith)
Works
Reward
(Altruistic
Love)
Membership
Be Understood
Be Appreciated
Calling
Make a Difference
Life has Meaning
Organizational
Commitment
Productivity
Employee Well-being
Performance
(Vision)
Figure 14.1 Causal model of spiritual leadership theory.
Source: Lewis W. Fry, Steve Vitucci, and Marie Cedillo, “Spiritual Leadership and Army Trans-
formation: Theory, Measurement, and Establishing a Baseline,” The Leadership Quarterly 16.5
(2005), p. 838.
c14LeadershipChallengesandOrganizationalChange.indd Page 322 7/23/11 7:17 PM ff-446c14LeadershipChallengesandOrganizationalChange.indd Page 322 7/23/11 7:17 PM ff-446 Schermerhorn_OBSchermerhorn_OB
Moral Leadership 323
Similarities with Ethical Leadership Differences from Ethical Leadership
Authentic Key similarities: Key differences:
Leadership � Concern for others (altruism) � Ethical leaders emphasize moral management
� Ethical decision making (more transactional) and “other” awareness.
� Integrity � Authentic leaders emphasize authenticity and
� Role modeling self-awareness.
Spiritual Key similarities: Key differences:
Leadership � Concern for others (altruism) � Ethical leaders emphasize moral management.
� Integrity � Spiritual leaders emphasize visioning, hope/faith;
� Role modeling work as vocation.
Transformational Key similarities: Key differences:
Leadership � Concern for others (altruism) � Ethical leaders emphasize ethical standards and
� Ethical decision making moral management (more transactional).
� Integrity � Transformational leaders emphasize vision,
� Role modeling values, and intellectual stimulation.
Figure 14.2 Similarities and differences between ethical, spiritual, authentic, and transforma-
tional theories of leadership.
Source: Michael E. Brown and Linda K. Trevino, “Ethical Leadership: A Review and Future Directions,”
The Leadership Quarterly 17.6 (December 2006), p. 598.
While servant leadership is not rooted in OB research, its guiding philosophy
is consistent with that of the other aspects of moral leadership discussed here. In
this case, the power of modeling service is the basis for infl uencing others. You
lead to serve and ask others to follow; their followership then becomes a special
form of service.
Ethical Leadership
There is no simple defi nition of ethical leadership. However, many believe that
ethical leadership is characterized by caring, honest, principled, fair, and bal-
anced choices by individuals who act ethically, set clear ethical standards, com-
municate about ethics with followers, and reward as well as punish others
based on ethical or unethical conduct.6 Figure 14.2 summarizes the similarities
and differences among ethical, authentic, spiritual, and transformational leader-
ship. A key similarity cutting across all these dimensions is role modeling. Altru-
ism, or concern for others, and integrity are also important similarities. Leaders
infl uence others by appealing to transcendent values. In terms of differences,
authentic leaders stress authenticity and self-awareness and tend to be more
transactional than do the other leaders. Ethical leaders emphasize moral con-
cerns, while spiritual leaders stress visioning, hope, and faith, as well as work
as a vocation.
Transformational leaders emphasize values, vision, and intellectual stimu-
lation. Taken as a whole, it is clear that any of these related approaches are
important and ready for systematic empirical and conceptual development.
Even servant leadership would lend itself to further developments.7 Despite the
lack of research, ethical leadership can and should be a driving force for
improving today and tomorrow’s leaders. Take a look at Ethics in OB for one
example.8
c14LeadershipChallengesandOrganizationalChange.indd Page 323 7/23/11 7:17 PM ff-446c14LeadershipChallengesandOrganizationalChange.indd Page 323 7/23/11 7:17 PM ff-446 Schermerhorn_OBSchermerhorn_OB
324 14 Leadership Challenges and Organizational Change
ETHICS IN OB
COLLEGE ATHLETES MAKE ETHICAL CHOICES
During a volleyball game, player A hits the ball over the net. The
ball barely grazes off player B’s fi ngers and lands out of bounds.
However, the referee does not see player B touch the ball.
Because the referee is responsible for calling rule violations,
player B is not obligated to report the violation and lose the point.
Do you “strongly agree,” “agree,” are “neutral” about, “disagree,”
or “strongly disagree” that player B should be silent? At an
increasing rate, athletes are answering “strongly agree.” In other
words, winning is more important than fair play.
The above is one example of work conducted by Sharon
Stoll, a University of Idaho faculty member and administrator, to
see if athletes are as morally developed as the normal popula-
tion. A 20-year study of some 80,000 high school, college, and professional athletes,
showed that the athletes’ responses on moral reasoning are less ethical than those of
nonathletes. From the time male athletes enter big-time sports, their moral reasoning
does not improve and it sometimes declines. The same has also recently become true of
female athletes.
As part of a leadership role in this problem, Stoll has developed an educational program
as a component of “Winning with Character.” The universities of Georgia and Maryland,
among other athletic programs, hold weekly group discussions with athletes about ethical
problem areas.
Make Ethics Personal Would you expect the ethical response differences
between athletes and nonathletes? What kinds of details might you suggest be
included in the weekly group discussions?
Shared leadership is defi ned as a dynamic, interactive infl uence process among
individuals in groups for which the objective is to lead one another to the achieve-
ment of group or organizational goals, or both. This infl uence process often
involves peer or lateral infl uence; at other times it involves upward or downward
hierarchical infl uence. The key distinction between shared leadership and tradi-
tional models of leadership is that the infl uence process involves more than just
downward infl uence on subordinates by an appointed or elective leader. Rather,
leadership is broadly distributed among a set of individuals instead of centralized
in the hands of a single individual who acts in the role of a superior.9
Shared Leadership in Work Teams
So far our treatment of leadership has tended to treat it as vertical infl uence. The
notion of vertical leadership is best depicted by the old Westerns of Hollywood
• Shared leadership is a
dynamic, interactive
infl uence process through
which individuals in teams
lead one another.
LEARNING ROADMAP Shared Leadership in Work Teams / Shared Leadership and
Self-Leadership
Shared Leadership
c14LeadershipChallengesandOrganizationalChange.indd Page 324 7/23/11 7:17 PM ff-446c14LeadershipChallengesandOrganizationalChange.indd Page 324 7/23/11 7:17 PM ff-446 Schermerhorn_OBSchermerhorn_OB
Shared Leadership 325
fame. A single rider wearing a white hat and riding a white horse—the bad
guys wear black hats and ride black horses—arrives in town. The townsfolk
are passive and docile while they stand by and watch as the hero cleans up the
town, eliminates the bad guys, and declares, “My work here is done.” You
should recognize that leadership is not restricted to the vertical infl uence of the
lone fi gure in a white hat but extends to other people as well. Shared and ver-
tical leadership can be more specifi cally illustrated in terms of self-directing
work teams.
Locations of Shared Leadership Leadership can come from outside or
inside the team. Within a team, leadership can be assigned to one person,
rotate across team members, or even be shared simultaneously as different
needs arise across time.10 Outside the team, leaders can be traditional, formally
designated, fi rst-level supervisors, or outside vertical (top down) leaders of a
self-managing team whose duties tend to be quite different from those of a
traditional supervisor. Often these nontraditional leaders are called coordina-
tors or facilitators. A key part of their job is to provide resources to their unit
and serve as a liaison with other units, all without the authority trappings of
traditional supervisors. Here, team members tend to carry out traditional man-
agerial/leadership functions internal to the team along with direct performance
activities.
The activities or functions vary and could involve a designated team role or
even be defi ned more generally as a process to facilitate shared team perfor-
mance. In the latter case, you are likely to see job rotation activities, along with
skill-based pay, where workers are paid for the mix and depth of skills they pos-
sess as opposed to the skills of a given job assignment they might hold.
Desired Shared Conditions The key element to successful team performance
is to create and maintain conditions for that performance. Although a wide vari-
ety of characteristics may be important for the success of a specifi c effort, fi ve
important characteristics have been identifi ed across projects: (1) effi cient, goal-
directed effort; (2) adequate resources; (3) competent, motivated performance;
(4) a productive, supportive climate; and (5) a commitment to continuous
improvement.
Effi cient, Goal-Directed Effort The key here is to coordinate the effort both
inside and outside the team. Team leaders can play a crucial role and need to
coordinate individual efforts with those of the team, as well as team efforts with
those of the organization or major subunit. Among other things, such coordina-
tion calls for shared visions and goals.
Leaders Unlock Talent Through
Diversity
Max DePree is a noted author and former CEO of the innovative
furniture maker Herman Miller, Inc. He says “It is fundamental that
leaders endorse the concept of persons” and that “this begins with
an understanding of the diversity of people’s gifts, talents, and skills.”
c14LeadershipChallengesandOrganizationalChange.indd Page 325 7/23/11 7:17 PM ff-446c14LeadershipChallengesandOrganizationalChange.indd Page 325 7/23/11 7:17 PM ff-446 Schermerhorn_OBSchermerhorn_OB
326 14 Leadership Challenges and Organizational Change
Adequate Resources Teams rely on their leaders to obtain enough equip-
ment, supplies, and so on to carry out the team’s goals. These are often handled
by the outside facilitator and almost always involve internal and external negotia-
tions enabling the facilitator to do his or her negotiating outside the team.
Competent, Motivated Performance Team members need the appropriate
knowledge, skills, abilities, and motivation to perform collective tasks well. Lead-
ers may be able to infl uence team composition so as to enhance shared effi cacy
and performance. We often see this demonstrated with short-term teams such as
task forces.
A Productive, Supportive Climate Here, we are talking about high levels of
cohesiveness, mutual trust, and cooperation among team members. Sometimes
these aspects are part of a team’s “interpersonal climate.” Team leaders contribute
to this climate by role-modeling and supporting relationships that build the high
levels of cohesion, trust, and collaboration. Team leaders can also work to enhance
shared beliefs about team effi cacy and collective capability.
Commitment to Continuous Improvement and Adaptation A successful
team should be able to adapt to changing conditions. Again, both internal and
external team leaders may play a role. The focus on continuous improvement
may be through formal mechanisms. Often, however, teams recognize that a fail-
ure to strive for improvement actually results in a deterioration of performance.
Shared Leadership and Self-Leadership
These shared and vertical self-directing team activities tend to encourage self-
leadership activities. Self-leadership can help both the individual and the team.
All members, at one point or another, are expected to be leaders. Self-leadership
represents a portfolio of self-infl uence strategies that positively infl uence indi-
vidual behavior, thought processes, and related activities. Self-leadership activities
are divided into three broad categories: behavior-focused, natural-reward, and
constructive-thought-pattern strategies.11
Behavior-Focused Strategies Behavior-focused strategies tend to increase
self-awareness, leading to the handling of behaviors involving necessary but not
always pleasant tasks. These strategies include personal observation, goal setting,
reward, self-correcting feedback, and practice. Self-observation involves examin-
ing your own behavior in order to increase awareness of when and why you
engage in certain behaviors. Such examination identifi es behaviors that should be
changed, enhanced, or eliminated. Poor performance could lead to informal self-
notes documenting the occurrence of unproductive behaviors. Such heightened
awareness is a fi rst step toward behavior change.
Self-Rewards It helps if you, as a team member, set high but reachable goals
and provide yourself with rewards when they are reached. Self-rewards can be
quite useful in moving behaviors toward goal attainment. Self-rewards can be real
(e.g., a steak dinner or a new outfi t) or imaginary (imagining a steak dinner or a
new outfi t). Also, such things as the rehearsal of desired behaviors you know will
lead to self-established goals before the actual performance can prove quite
c14LeadershipChallengesandOrganizationalChange.indd Page 326 7/23/11 7:17 PM ff-446c14LeadershipChallengesandOrganizationalChange.indd Page 326 7/23/11 7:17 PM ff-446 Schermerhorn_OBSchermerhorn_OB
Leadership across Cultures 327
useful. Rehearsals allow you to perfect skills that will be needed when the actual
performance is required.
Constructive Thought Patterns Constructive thought patterns focus on the
creation or alteration of cognitive thought processes. Self-analysis and improve-
ment of belief systems, mental imagery of successful performance outcomes, and
positive self-talk can help. Developing a mental image of the necessary actions
allows you to think about what needs to be accomplished and how it will be
accomplished before the stress of performance takes hold.
These activities can infl uence and control the team members’ thoughts
through the use of cognitive strategies designed to facilitate ways of thinking that
can positively affect performance. Where these activities occur, they tend to serve
as partial substitutes for hierarchical leadership even though they may be encour-
aged in a shared situation in contrast to a vertical leadership setting.
A fi nal thought is in order before we move on. Leadership should not be
restricted to the traditional style of vertical leadership, nor should the focus be
primarily on shared leadership. Shared leadership appears in many forms and is
often used successfully in combination with vertical leadership. As with a number
of the leadership approaches discussed in this book, various contingencies oper-
ate that infl uence the emphasis that should be devoted to each of the leadership
perspectives.
At some point in your career you will confront the challenge of cross-cultural
leadership. This may come in the form of leading team members from different
cultures, or it may come when you are offered your fi rst international assignment.
Or it might happen when you are asked to join in a cooperative venture with a
foreign-based supplier or distributor. There are a wide variety of approaches to
meeting the challenge of cross-cultural leadership. A major research project con-
ducted by an international team of researchers provides an excellent overview of
the factors you need to consider. Called Project GLOBE, it outlines the common
dimensions of leadership that are important, as well as the signifi cant differences
in how effective managers lead in different cultures.
LEARNING ROADMAP The GLOBE Perspective / Leadership Aspects and Culture /
Culturally Endorsed Leadership Matches /
Universally Endorsed Aspects of Leadership
Leadership across Cultures
Innocent Protects Its Identity
Coco-Cola invested $44 million in Innocent, the highly
regarded British maker of healthy smoothies. Innocent uses
recycled bottles, gives 10 percent of profi ts to charity, and
follows ethical marketing practices, all while selling a product
consumers love. By not allowing Coke to have a majority stake
for its millions, Innocent plans to keep its identity and integrity
while gaining the advantages of Coke’s global reach.
c14LeadershipChallengesandOrganizationalChange.indd Page 327 7/23/11 7:17 PM ff-446c14LeadershipChallengesandOrganizationalChange.indd Page 327 7/23/11 7:17 PM ff-446 Schermerhorn_OBSchermerhorn_OB
328 14 Leadership Challenges and Organizational Change
The GLOBE Perspective
Project GLOBE (Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness
Research Program) is an ambitious program involving over 17,000 managers from
951 organizations functioning in 62 nations throughout the world. The project,
which is led by Robert House, has involved over 140 country co-investigators, as
well as a coordinating team and a number of research associates.1
2
The GLOBE approach argues that leadership variables and cultural variables
can be meaningfully applied at societal and organizational levels. Congruence
between cultural expectations and leadership is expected to yield superior per-
formance. The central assumption behind the model, shown in Figure 14.3, is that
the attributes and entities that differentiate a specifi ed culture predict organiza-
tional practices, leader attributes, and behaviors that are most often carried out
and are most effective in that culture.
A variety of leadership assumptions are evident in the Globe theoretical
model as summarized in Figure 14.3. For example, societal cultural norms, values,
and practices affect leaders’ attributes and behaviors, as do organizational forms,
cultures, and practices. Founders and organization members are immersed in
their own societal cultures as well as in the prevailing practices in their industries.
Societal cultural norms, values, and practices also affect organizational culture
and practices. Both societal culture and organizational culture, in turn, infl uence
the culturally endorsed leadership prototype. And leader attributes and behaviors
affect organizational forms, cultures, and practices.
Figure 14.3 also shows that acceptance of leaders by followers facilitates lead-
ership effectiveness. Leaders who are not accepted by organization members will
fi nd it more diffi cult and arduous to infl uence these members than leaders who
3
4
2
1
5
6
7
9
10
Societal
Cultures,
Norms, &
Practices
Culturally Endorsed
Implicit Leader Theory
(CLT) or Leadership
Prototype
Organizational
Form, Culture,
& Practices
Leader Attribute
& Behaviors
Leader Acceptance
Leader Effectiveness
Figure 14.3 A simplifi ed version of the original GLOBE theoretical model.
Source: See Robert J. House, Paul J. Hanges, Mansour Javidan, Peter W. Dorfman, and Vipin Gupta
(eds.), Culture, Leadership, and Organizations (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2004).
c14LeadershipChallengesandOrganizationalChange.indd Page 328 7/23/11 7:17 PM ff-446c14LeadershipChallengesandOrganizationalChange.indd Page 328 7/23/11 7:17 PM ff-446 Schermerhorn_OBSchermerhorn_OB
Leadership across Cultures 329
are accepted. Furthermore, leader effectiveness over time increases leader accep-
tance. Demonstrated leader effectiveness causes some members to adjust their
behaviors toward the leader in positive ways. Those followers who do not accept
the leader are likely to leave the organization either voluntarily or involuntarily.
Leadership Aspects and Culture
So far the GLOBE researchers have identifi ed and studied six broad-based dimen-
sions that can be more or less effective in different cultures. These leadership
dimensions are as follows.
• Charismatic/value-based—the extent to which the leader inspires, motivates,
and expects high-performance outcomes
• Team-oriented—the degree to which the leader stresses team building and
implementation of a common goal among team members
• Participative—the degree to which subordinates are involved in making an
implementation
• Humane-oriented—the degree to which the leader stresses support, consid-
eration, compassion, and generosity
• Autonomous—the degree to which the leader stresses independent and
individualistic leadership
• Self-protective—the degree to which the leader stresses ensuring the safety
and security of the individual, self-centered, and face saving
In addition to these leadership dimensions, the GLOBE researchers also iden-
tifi ed and studied variations in national cultures. They chose to emphasize cultural
aspects known to have some relationship to effective leadership. The presump-
tion was that leaders in different cultures would be required to adjust their
approaches to best fi t these cultural differences. In other words, effective leader-
ship is based on a good fi t of leadership approach and culture. The nine dimen-
sions of societal/cultural used in the GLOBE studies are:
1. Assertiveness: assertive, confrontational, and aggressive approaches in
relationships versus nonconfrontational approaches
2. Future orientation: future-oriented behaviors such as delaying gratifi cation
and investing in the future versus a stress on immediate gratifi cation
3. Gender egalitarianism: belief that the collective minimizes gender inequality
versus asserting major differences by gender
4. Uncertainty avoidance: reliance on social norms, rules, and the like to
alleviate future unpredictability versus adaptation to rapid change
5. Power distance: expectation that power is equally distributed versus large
differences in the power of positions and individuals
6. Institutional collectivism: organization/society rewards and collective
resources/action versus individual rewards
7. In-group collectivism: individual’s expression of pride, loyalty, and similar
attitudes in organizations/families versus individualism
8. Performance orientation: the collective’s encouragement/reward of group for
performance improvement versus rewards for membership
9. Humane orientation: the collective encouragement/reward of individuals for
being fair, generous, and kind.
c14LeadershipChallengesandOrganizationalChange.indd Page 329 7/23/11 7:17 PM ff-446c14LeadershipChallengesandOrganizationalChange.indd Page 329 7/23/11 7:17 PM ff-446 Schermerhorn_OBSchermerhorn_OB
330 14 Leadership Challenges and Organizational Change
Although each culture has its own unique pattern across these nine dimen-
sions, nations do have enough similarities to be grouped in societal clusters. These
clusters often form around geographic areas where there is a common language
and an extensive pattern of interaction. For example, Argentina is a member of the
Latin American societal cluster, whereas India is a member of the Southern Asian
societal cluster. Figure 14.4 shows some of the major societal clusters identifi ed in
Project GLOBE and highlights a representative country for each cluster.
Culturally Endorsed Leadership Matches
So far GLOBE researchers have matched cultural and leadership dimensions for
over 62 countries and have collapsed them to form 10 geographic clusters. For the
six broad-based leadership dimensions, Figure 14.4 shows the degree to which a
particular aspect of leadership is endorsed with an H for highly endorsed, an M for
moderately endorsed, and an L for not endorsed. Where an emphasis on a specifi c
leadership dimension is matched with an H on a cultural dimension, it is labeled
a culturally endorsed leadership dimension. This aspect of leadership is char-
acteristic of what individuals in the culture expect from an effective leader.
Perhaps the best way to grasp this complicated perspective is to examine the
patterns across the leadership dimensions by cluster in Figure 14.4. For example,
in the United States the charismatic dimension is highly endorsed, whereas the
protective dimension is not. For team orientation, endorsement is medium. In
Russia, the self-protective dimension is culturally endorsed. Note the differences
in the degree to which specifi c dimensions of leadership are endorsed or refuted.
For instance, there is a very sharp contrast between the Anglo cluster (of which
the United States is a part) and the Middle East.
• A culturally endorsed
leadership dimension is
one that members of a
culture expect from
effective leaders.
Leadership Dimensions
Charismatic/
Sample Value- Team- Partici- Humane- Autono- Self-
Country Societal Cluster Based Oriented pative Oriented mous Protective
Russia Eastern Europe M M L M H H
Argentina Latin America H H M M L H
France Latin Europe H M M L L M
China Confucian Asia M H L H M H
Sweden Nordic Europe H M H L M L
United States Anglo H M H H M L
Nigeria Sub-Saharan Africa M M M H L L
India Southern Asia H H L H M H
Germany Germanic Europe H L H M H L
Egypt Middle East L L L M M H
Figure 14.4 Summary of GLOBE comparisons for culturally endorsed leadership dimensions.
Source: Mansour Javidan, Peter W. Dorfman, Mary Sully de Luque, and Robert J. House, “In the
Eye of the Beholder: Cross Cultural Lessons in Leadership from Project GLOBE,” Academy of Man-
agement Perspectives 20.7 (2006), pp. 67–90.
Note: H 5 high rank; M 5 medium rank; L 5 low rank as a culturally endorsed leadership dimension.
c14LeadershipChallengesandOrganizationalChange.indd Page 330 7/23/11 7:17 PM ff-446c14LeadershipChallengesandOrganizationalChange.indd Page 330 7/23/11 7:17 PM ff-446 Schermerhorn_OBSchermerhorn_OB
Leadership across Cultures 331
Universally Endorsed Aspects of Leadership
Finally, GLOBE seeks to understand which attributes of leadership are universally
endorsed. To date, across the sampled countries, some aspects of leadership are
associated with effective leadership while others portray ineffective leadership. Lead-
ership described in terms of integrity, charismatic-visionary, charismatic-inspirational,
and team-oriented are almost universally endorsed as indications of outstanding
leadership. Leadership described in terms of irritability, egocentricity, noncoopera-
tiveness, malevolence, as well as being a loner, dictatorial, and ruthless, are identifi ed
as indicators of ineffective leadership. Some aspects of leadership were seen as
effective in only some national samples and involved characterizing leaders as indi-
vidualistic, status conscious, risk taking, or self-sacrifi cing.
RESEARCH INSIGHT
Although there has been a lot of discussion about how the values of the
CEO impact performance, comparatively few comprehensive studies
have been done. Recently, Y. Berson, S. Oreg, and T. Dvir started to
remedy this gap with a study of CEO values, organizational culture, and
performance. They suggested that individuals are drawn to and stay
with organizations that have value priorities similar to their own. That
includes the CEO. Furthermore, the CEO reinforces some values over
others, and this has a measurable impact on the organizational culture.
The organizational culture, then, emphasizes some aspects of perfor-
mance over others.
The researchers hypothesized and found the following in a study of some 22 CEOs and their fi rms
in Israel: CEOs tend to place a high priority on self-direction or security or benevolence. This priority
tends to emphasize a particular type of organizational culture. Specifi cally, when a CEO values
self-direction, there is more cultural emphasis on innovation; when a CEO values security, there is
more cultural emphasis on bureaucracy; and when a CEO values benevolence, the culture is more
supportive of its members. Then they linked aspects of organizational culture with specifi c elements
of performance (organizational outcomes). More innovation was associated with higher sales growth.
A bureaucratic culture was linked to effi ciency, while a supportive culture was associated with greater
employee satisfaction. In sum, CEO values are linked to organizational culture, which, in turn, is
associated with
organizational
outcomes. Sche-
matically, it looks
like this:
CEO Values Make a Difference
What Do You Think? Do you think this study would transfer to fi rms located in North America? Is it
possible that fi rms with an established innovative culture select a CEO that values self-direction?
CEO Values
Self-direction,
Security,
Benevolence
Organizational Culture
Innovation,
Bureaucratic,
Supportive
Organizational Outcomes
Sales growth,
Efficiency,
Satisfaction
Source: Yair Berson, Shaul Oreg, and Taly Dvir, “CEO Values, Organizational Culture and Firm Outcomes.” Journal of Organiza-
tional Behavior 29 (2008), pp. 615–633.
c14LeadershipChallengesandOrganizationalChange.indd Page 331 7/23/11 7:17 PM ff-446c14LeadershipChallengesandOrganizationalChange.indd Page 331 7/23/11 7:17 PM ff-446 Schermerhorn_OBSchermerhorn_OB
332 14 Leadership Challenges and Organizational Change
The important point to remember is that there are dramatically different
expectations for leaders in different cultures. Leading across cultures is far from
simple, as this overview of the GLOBE project suggests. Throughout the book we
have stressed integrity, and the discussion of shared leadership emphasizes a
team orientation. These aspects of leadership appear to be important in most
cultures. In many respects the GLOBE perspective on leadership highlights the
diffi culty in prescribing exactly what a leader should do in our increasingly global
economy. As your career progresses and you become more engaged in cross-
cultural leadership, it will be important for you to go beyond a universalist view
to study cultural expectations. Each culture is unique, and the pattern of cultural
expectations for leaders is also unique.
Leaders can also change the situation facing them and their followers. Change
leadership deals with the idea that an organization needs to master the challenges
of change while creating a satisfying, healthy, and effective workplace for its
employees. For over a decade fi rms have dealt with a “new economy [that] has
ushered in great business opportunities—and great turmoil.”13 The terms turmoil
and turbulence are particularly salient in the current economic environment. In
addition to the traditional challenges, the forces of globalization provide a num-
ber of problems and opportunities, and the new economy is constantly springing
surprises on even the most experienced organizational executives. Flexibility,
competence, and commitment are the rules of the day. People in the new work-
place must be comfortable dealing with adaptation and continuous change, along
with greater productivity, willingness to learn from the successes of others, total
quality, and continuous improvement.
To deal with all of these concerns and more, we will examine leaders as change
agents, phases of planned change, change strategies, and resistance to change.
Contexts for Leadership Action
During the recent recession, it became quite clear that leaders are facing new and
unique challenges. Not only have North American-based fi rms fully entered the
information age, they have recognized the need to innovate or die. The old titans
of the industrial age, the Fords, the GMs, the U.S. Steels, today look like remnants
of a bygone era. Now we send tweets instead of handwritten letters; we check
e-mails on our Blackberry or iPad anytime and anywhere; and we even display
our photos electronically on our blogs or social networking sites, instead of in
frames or photo albums. Increasingly, leaders in every level of the organization
are confronting the necessity and challenges of continual innovation and the
uncertainty of the age. Simply put, leaders need to be acutely aware of the setting
in which they lead.14 And the leadership needed in a routine setting is not the
same leadership that is needed in other contexts.15
Contextual leadership perspectives detail the conditions facing the leader and
then suggest the type of leadership that is needed for success. In organizational
LEARNING ROADMAP Contexts for Leadership Action / Leaders as Change Agents /
Planned Change Strategies /
Resistance to Change
Leading Organizational Change
c14LeadershipChallengesandOrganizationalChange.indd Page 332 7/23/11 7:17 PM ff-446c14LeadershipChallengesandOrganizationalChange.indd Page 332 7/23/11 7:17 PM ff-446 Schermerhorn_OBSchermerhorn_OB
Leading Organizational Change 333
behavior, the term context is used to describe the collection of opportunities and
constraints that affect the occurrence and meaning of behavior as well as the
relationships among variables.16 The different contexts may be described in terms
of the stability and uncertainty facing the leader and his or her other unit.
For most managers there are three major sources of instability. The fi rst is
market and environmental instability. During a recession, for example, the market
is extremely unstable. Second is technological instability, where what is produced
and how it is produced are changing. For example, competitors may be innovat-
ing rapidly but in ways your fi rm cannot easily predict. Finally, there is fi rm insta-
bility with an emphasis on process and procedure or internal administration insta-
bility. An example is an internal production and delivery system that needs
changing, but the instability is so great that the design changes cannot keep up
with system demands. In other words, managers cannot clear the swamp because
the alligators keep eating the workers.
Four Leadership Contexts These sources of instability can be combined to
depict the overall character of the opportunities and constraints facing the leader.
For simplicity consider the four contexts in Figure 14.5.17 In context 1 (Stability),
stable conditions exist, and the focus is on adjusting and creating internal opera-
tions to enhance system goals. This is often the context for earlier leadership
perspectives. Note that to measure success, the leader should judge progress on
the basis of goals assigned to his or her unit.
In context 2 (Crisis), there are identifi able and dramatic departures from prior
practice and sudden threats to high-priority goals, providing little or no response
time. For many managers the current recession is such a crisis and calls for dra-
matic action and active leadership where charismatic and transformational leader-
ship can be particularly important. Although the situation appears dire, leaders are
aware of factors contributing to the crisis and can develop action plans to try and
weather the storm. For example, in a recession, downsizing is a way to preserve
• Context is the collection
of opportunities and
constraints that affect the
occurrence and meaning of
behavior and the
relationships among
variables.
Figure 14.5 Four situational contexts, the desired leadership, and how to measure success.
Source: Based on Osborn, Hunt, and Jauch (2002).
Context Stability: among Crisis: dramatic Dynamic equilibrium: Near the edge of
external environment, departure from prior organizations in change chaos: transition
structure, size, and practice and sudden mode often attributable zone delicately
technology threats to high- to competition, poised between
priority goals with technology, internal order and chaos
little or no response initiatives, or that many complex
time institutional evolution adaptive systems
seem to naturally
evolve toward
Desired Adjust to and create Focus on the crisis; Adjust leadership to Stress diversifi cation
Leadership internal operations interpret major causes; strategy of the fi rm; of approaches with
using basic stress transformational/ stress change leadership greater patterning
approaches with charismatic leadership with ethical leadership of attention and
clear direction and network develop-
supportive leadership ment to innovate
Success By performance on Adjustment to crisis; Movement toward Balance of stability
Measures assigned goals return to normalcy successful implementa- and dynamic
tion of proposed adaptation to
change programs increase fi tness
c14LeadershipChallengesandOrganizationalChange.indd Page 333 7/23/11 7:17 PM ff-446c14LeadershipChallengesandOrganizationalChange.indd Page 333 7/23/11 7:17 PM ff-446 Schermerhorn_OBSchermerhorn_OB
334 14 Leadership Challenges and Organizational Change
Finding the Leader in You
PATRICIA KARTER USES CORE VALUES AS HER GUIDE
Sweet is what one gets when
digging into one of Dancing Deer
Baking’s Cherry Almond Ginger
Chew cookies. Co-founded by Trish
Karter, Dancing Deer sells over
$10 million of cookies, cakes, and
brownies a year. Each product is
made with all-natural ingredients,
packaged in recycled materials, and
comes from inner-city Boston.
This story began for Karter in
1994 when she and her husband
made a $20,000 Angel investment
in a talented baker and set her up
in a former pizza shop. Karter
hadn’t planned on working in the
company, but growth came quickly
and for the company to prosper,
their baker partner, Suzanne
Lombardi, needed more support
and Karter jumped in. Customer
develop bakery mixes and
eventually, many more products
and a substantial relationship.
Instead of losing an opportunity,
by sticking with her values,
Karter’s fi rm gained more sales.
“There’s more to life than
selling cookies,” says the Dancing
Deer’s Web site, “but it’s not a bad
way to make a living.” And Karter
hopes growth will soon make
Dancing Deer “big enough to
make an impact, to be a social
economic force.” As she says on
www.dancingdeer.com: “It has
been an interesting journey. Our
successes are due to luck, a
tremendous amount of dedication
and hard work, and a commitment
to having fun while being true to
our principles. We have had
failures as well—and survived
them with a sense of humor.”
What’s the Lesson Here?
Do you know your core values? Do
those core values guide your
leadership decisions? Have you
ever had your core values tested,
and how did you respond?
demand led to product develop-
ment and expansion; many positive
press call outs and industry awards,
such as being recognized on
national TV as having the “best
cake in the nation” and winning
(the fi rst of 11) Sophie awards, the
food industry’s equivalent of the
Oscars, fueled growth further.
It isn’t always easy for a leader
to stay on course and in control
while changing structures, adding
people, and dealing with competi-
tion. But for Karter the anchor point
has always been clear—let core
values be the guide. Dancing Deer’s
employees get stock options and a
package of benefi ts well above the
industry standard; 35 percent of the
sales price from the fi rm’s Sweet
Home line of cake and cookie gifts
are donated to fund scholarships
for homeless and at-risk mothers.
When offered a chance to make a
large cookie sale to Williams-
Sonoma, Karter declined. Why?
Because to fulfi ll the order would
have required the use of preserva-
tives, and that violated the com-
pany’s values.
Williams-Sonoma was so
impressed that it contracted to
the fi rm until the economy improves. To judge success, the leader should monitor
the degree to which the unit is coping with the crisis and make sure it is on track
to return to normal operations. While those in the middle can face a crisis, in
cases of a dramatic downturn the fi rm may even bring in a new CEO.
In context 3 (Dynamic Equilibrium), organizational stability occurs only
within a range of shifting priorities with programmed change efforts. This is the
well-known dynamic equilibrium setting found in many analyses of corporate
strategy, strategic leadership, and change leadership.
Context 4 (Near the Edge of Chaos) is a transition zone poised between order
and chaos. Here, the system must rapidly adjust while maintaining suffi cient stabil-
ity to learn.18 While globally operating high-tech fi rms are classic examples of
those at the edge of chaos,19 more conventional analyses of today’s corporations
have suggested that many fi rms are moving toward the edge of chaos. Why? By
moving forward with a balance of exploration and exploitation, they fi nd superior
c14LeadershipChallengesandOrganizationalChange.indd Page 334 7/23/11 7:17 PM ff-446c14LeadershipChallengesandOrganizationalChange.indd Page 334 7/23/11 7:17 PM ff-446 Schermerhorn_OBSchermerhorn_OB
Leading Organizational Change 335
performance. Poised near the edge of chaos, fi rms
stress innovation, responsiveness, and adaptability
over routine effi ciency.
Near the edge of chaos, context 4 leaders
operate in uncertainty where no one person can
actually describe the challenges and opportunities
facing the fi rm. The context is just too complex.
With this level of complexity some of the tradi-
tional aspects of leadership are expected to yield
very poor performance. For example, transforma-
tional leadership often fails simply because no
single leader is capable of charting the necessary
goals and paths to keep the system viable.20 More
transactional leadership appears to provide stabil-
ity but often reinforces sticking to a failed approach.
The challenge is to stimulate innovation while
keeping the learning environment stable.
Patterning of Attention and Network Devel-
opment Recent research suggests that in order to
meet context challengers, leaders need to empha-
size two often neglected aspects of leadership, pat-
terning of attention and network development.21
Patterning of attention involves isolating and
communicating important information from a
potentially endless stream of events, actions, and
outcome. The term patterning is used to stress the
establishment of a norm where the leader is expect-
ed to ask questions, raise issues, and help gather
information for unit members. The leader is not tell-
ing others what the goal is or how to reach it. Nor
is the leader stressing an ideology or a moral position. The leader is merely stimu-
lating discussion among others in the setting. This discussion, in turn, produces
new knowledge and information as individuals develop coping strategies.
In combination, greater patterning of attention and network development
increases the size, interconnectedness, and diversity of the unit to provide a variety
of world views. By increasing the depth and breadth of talent in combination with
increased interaction, the chances are much greater that the unit will isolate reach-
able goals and develop a sustaining way of accomplishing them. Too much pattern-
ing of attention and/or network development, however, can decrease the chances
of effective adaptation. This becomes the case when there is too much talk and not
enough action. Managers must realize that patterning of attention and network
development is a delicate balancing act. Finally, network leadership can be an
important aspect of infl uence in many contexts. An example of how it is used to
establish a philanthropic entity can be found in the accompanying sidebar.22
Leaders as Change Agents
While change is the watchword for most fi rms, it is important to separate trans-
formational from incremental change. Some of this change may be described as
radical change, or frame-breaking change.23 This is transformational change,
• Patterning of attention
involves isolating and
communicating what
information is important and
what is given attention from
a potentially endless stream
of events, actions, and
outcome.
• Transformational
change radically shifts the
fundamental character of
an organization.
Networking Leadership for the Greater Good
Managers can emphasize leadership by encouraging the
formation of giving circles that bring people together for a
charitable purpose.
A number of charities may arise informally or as part of a
formal voluntary organization. Here are some tips for establish-
ing the circles.
• Find out who is interested in participating in a giving circle
comprised of employees who will contribute a fi xed amount
of money and/or time toward a charitable cause.
• Once the circle is
established, provide
a schedule of
meeting times and
locations.
• Assign an appropri-
ate number of
people, depending
on the size of the
group, to bring
forward a cause for
support.
• Educate members in a variety of activities and organizations
in order to get more people involved.
• Decide on the scope of the charitable cause, whether broad,
narrow, or variable.
• Keep in touch with other volunteer organizations and giving
circles.
c14LeadershipChallengesandOrganizationalChange.indd Page 335 7/23/11 7:17 PM ff-446c14LeadershipChallengesandOrganizationalChange.indd Page 335 7/23/11 7:17 PM ff-446 Schermerhorn_OBSchermerhorn_OB
336 14 Leadership Challenges and Organizational Change
which results in a major overhaul of the organiza-
tion or its component systems. Organizations
experiencing transformational change undergo
signifi cant shifts in basic characteristics, including
the overall purpose/mission, underlying values
and beliefs, and supporting strategies and struc-
tures.24 In today’s business environments, trans-
formational changes are often initiated by a criti-
cal event, such as a new CEO, a new ownership
brought about by merger or takeover, or a dra-
matic failure in operating results. When it occurs
in the life cycle of an organization, such radical
change is intense and all encompassing.25
The most common form of change is incre-
mental change, or frame-bending change. This
type of change, being part of an organization’s
natural evolution, is frequent and less traumatic
than other types of change. Typical incremental
changes include the introduction of new products,
technologies, systems, and processes. Although the nature of the organization
remains relatively the same, incremental change builds on the existing ways of
operating to enhance or extend them in new directions. The capability of improv-
ing continuously through incremental change is an important asset in today’s
demanding business environment.
The success of both radical and incremental change in organizations
depends in part on change agents who lead and support the change processes.
These are individuals and groups who take responsibility for changing the
existing behavior patterns of another person or even the entire social system.
Although change agents are sometimes consultants hired from outside the orga-
nization, most managers in today’s dynamic times are expected to act in the
capacity of change agents. Indeed, this responsibility is essential to the leader-
ship role. Simply put, being an effective change agent means being effective at
“change leadership.”
Planned and Unplanned Change Not all change in organizations is the result
of a change agent’s direction. Unplanned changes can occur spontaneously or
randomly. They may be disruptive, such as a wildcat strike that ends in a plant
closure, or benefi cial, such as an interpersonal confl ict that results in a new proce-
dure designed to improve the fl ow of work between two departments. When the
forces of unplanned change appear, the goal is to act quickly in order to minimize
negative consequences and maximize possible benefi ts. In many cases, an
unplanned change can be turned into an advantage.
In contrast, planned change is the result of specifi c efforts led by a change
agent. It is a direct response to someone’s perception of a performance gap—a
discrepancy between the desired and actual state of affairs. Performance gaps
may represent problems to be solved or opportunities to be explored. Most planned
changes are efforts intended to deal with performance gaps in ways that benefi t an
organization and its members. The processes of continuous improvement require
constant vigilance to spot performance gaps and to take action to resolve them.
• Incremental change
builds on the existing ways
of operating to enhance or
extend them in new
directions.
• Unplanned change
occurs spontaneously or
randomly.
• Planned change is a
response to someone’s
perception of a performance
gap—a discrepancy
between the desired and
actual state of affairs.
• Performance gap is a
discrepancy between the
desired and the actual
conditions.
How to Increase Your Chances of Success with
Transformational Change
• Develop a sense of
urgency.
• Have a powerful
guiding coalition.
• Have a compelling
vision.
• Communicate the
vision.
• Empower others to
act.
• Celebrate short-term wins.
• Build on accomplishments.
• Institutionalize results.
c14LeadershipChallengesandOrganizationalChange.indd Page 336 7/23/11 7:17 PM ff-446c14LeadershipChallengesandOrganizationalChange.indd Page 336 7/23/11 7:17 PM ff-446 Schermerhorn_OBSchermerhorn_OB
Leading Organizational Change 337
Forces and Targets for Change The driving forces for change are
ever present in and around today’s dynamic work settings. They are
found in the organization–environment relationship, with mergers, strategic alli-
ances, and divestitures among the examples of organizational attempts to rede-
fi ne their relationships in challenging social and political environments. They are
found in the organizational life cycle, with changes in culture and structure among
the examples of how organizations must adapt as they evolve from birth through
growth and toward maturity. They are found in the political nature of organiza-
tions, with changes in internal control structures, including benefi ts and reward
systems that attempt to deal with shifting political currents.
Planned change based on any of these forces can be internally directed toward
a wide variety of organizational components, most of which have already been
discussed in this book. As shown in Figure 14.6, these targets include organizational
Change Is Shorthand for Opportunity
For Fred Smith, founder and CEO of FedEx, “change is shorthand for
opportunity.” He claims, “You’ll get extinguished if you think you will not
have to change.” Organizational change calls for a high degree of trust
and outstanding communication capability.
Culture
Clarify or create core
beliefs and values
Tasks
Update job designs
for individuals and
groups
Strategy
Clarify or create
strategic and
operational plans
Structure
Update
organizational design
and coordination
mechanisms
Purpose
Clarify or create mission
and objectives
People
Update recruiting and
selection practices;
improve training and
development
Objectives
Set or modify specific
performance targets
Technology
Improve equipment,
facilities, and
work flows
Change
targets
Figure 14.6 Organizational
targets for planned change.
c14LeadershipChallengesandOrganizationalChange.indd Page 337 7/23/11 7:17 PM ff-446c14LeadershipChallengesandOrganizationalChange.indd Page 337 7/23/11 7:17 PM ff-446 Schermerhorn_OBSchermerhorn_OB
338 14 Leadership Challenges and Organizational Change
purpose, strategy, structure, and people, as well as objectives, culture, tasks, and
technology. When considering these targets, it must be recognized that they are
highly intertwined in the workplace. Changes in any one are likely to require or
involve changes in others. For example, a change in the basic tasks—what people
do—is inevitably accompanied by a change in technology—the way in which tasks
are accomplished. Changes in tasks and technology usually require alterations in
structures, including changes in the patterns of authority and communication as
well as in the roles of workers. These technological and structural changes can, in
turn, necessitate changes in the knowledge, skills, and behaviors of the members
of the organization.26 In all cases, tendencies to accept easy-to-implement, but ques-
tionable, “quick fi xes” to problems should be avoided.
Planned Change Strategies
There are a variety of power change strategies utilized to mobilize power, exert
infl uence over others, and get people to support planned change efforts. Three
pure strategies—force–coercion, rational persuasion, and shared power—are
described in Figure 14.7. Each of these strategies builds from the various bases of
social power. Note in particular that each power source has somewhat different
implications for the planned change process.27
Force–Coercion A force–coercion strategy uses authority, rewards, or pun-
ishments as primary inducements to change. Here, the leader acts unilaterally to
“command” change through the formal authority of his or her position, to induce
change via an offer of special rewards, or to bring about change through threats
of punishment. People respond to this strategy mainly out of the fear of being
punished if they do not comply with a change directive or out of the desire to
gain a reward if they do. Coercion compliance is usually temporary and continues
only as long as the leader is present. With reliance on legitimate authority and
rewards, compliance remains as long as supervision is visible and rewards keep
coming. The actions as a change agent using the force–coercion strategy might
match the following profi le:
You believe that people who run things are motivated by self-interest and by what
the situation offers in terms of potential personal gain or loss. Since you feel that
people change only in response to such motives, you try to fi nd out where their
• Force–coercion
strategy uses authority,
rewards, and punishments
to create change.
Power base Predicted outcomes
Rewards
Punishments
Legitimacy
Temporary
compliance
Long-term
internalization
Expertise
Long-term
internalization
Reference
Change strategy Change agent behavior
Force–coercion Unilateral action;
“command”
Rational persuasion;
expert testimony;
demonstration projects
Empowerment;
participative
decisions
Rational persuasion
Shared powers
Figure 14.7 Power bases, change strategies, and predicted change outcomes.
c14LeadershipChallengesandOrganizationalChange.indd Page 338 7/23/11 7:17 PM ff-446c14LeadershipChallengesandOrganizationalChange.indd Page 338 7/23/11 7:17 PM ff-446 Schermerhorn_OBSchermerhorn_OB
Leading Organizational Change 339
vested interests lie and then put the pressure on. If you have formal authority, you
use it. If not, you resort to whatever possible rewards and punishments you have
access to and do not hesitate to threaten others with these weapons. Once you fi nd
a weakness, you exploit it and are always wise to work “politically” by building
supporting alliances wherever possible.28
Rational Persuasion Change agents using a rational persuasion strategy
attempt to bring about change through the use of special knowledge, empirical
support, or rational arguments. This strategy assumes that rational people will be
guided by reason and self-interest in deciding whether or not to support a change.
Expert power is mobilized to convince others that the change will leave them
better off than before. It is sometimes referred to as an empirical-rational strategy
of planned change. When successful, this strategy results in a longer-lasting, more
naturalized change than does force–coercion. A change agent taking the rational
persuasion approach to a change situation might behave as follows:
You believe that people are inherently rational and are guided by reason in their
actions and decision making. Once a specifi c course of action is demonstrated to
be in a person’s self-interest, you assume that reason and rationality will cause the
person to adopt it. Thus, you approach change with the objective of communicat-
ing—through information and facts—the essential “desirability” of change from
the perspective of the person whose behavior you seek to infl uence. If this logic is
effectively communicated, you are sure of the person who is adopting the proposed
change.29
Shared Power A shared-power strategy actively involves the people who
will be affected by a change in planning and making key decisions relating to this
change. Sometimes called a normative-reeducative approach, this strategy tries to
develop directions and support for change through involvement and empower-
ment. It builds essential foundations, such as personal values, group norms, and
shared goals, so that support for a proposed change emerges naturally. Managers
using normative-reeducative approaches draw on the power of personal reference
and share power by allowing others to participate in planning and implementing
the change. Given this high level of involvement, the strategy is likely to result in
a longer-lasting and internalized change. A change agent who shares power and
adopts a normative-reeducative approach to change is likely to fi t this profi le:
You believe that people have complex motivations and behave as they do as a result
of sociocultural norms and commitments to these norms. You also recognize that
changes in these orientations involve changes in attitudes, values, skills, and sig-
nifi cant relationships, not just changes in knowledge, information, or intellectual
rationales for action and practice. Thus, when seeking to change others, you are
sensitive to the supporting or inhibiting effects of group pressures and norms. In
working with people, you try to fi nd out their side of things and identify their feelings
and expectations.30
Resistance to Change
In organizations, resistance to change is any attitude or behavior that indicates
unwillingness to make or support a desired alteration. Leaders often view any
resistance as something that must be “overcome” in order for change to be suc-
cessful. This is not always the case, however. It is helpful to view resistance to
• Rational persuasion
strategy uses facts, special
knowledge, and rational
argument to create change.
• Shared-power
strategy uses participatory
methods and emphasizes
common values to create
change.
• Resistance to change
is any attitude or behavior
that indicates unwillingness
to make or support a
desired change.
c14LeadershipChallengesandOrganizationalChange.indd Page 339 7/23/11 7:17 PM ff-446c14LeadershipChallengesandOrganizationalChange.indd Page 339 7/23/11 7:17 PM ff-446 Schermerhorn_OBSchermerhorn_OB
340 14 Leadership Challenges and Organizational Change
change as feedback that the leader can use to facilitate gaining change objec-
tives.31 The essence of this constructive approach to resistance is to recognize that
when people resist change, they are defending something that is important to
them that appears to be threatened.
Why People Resist Change People have many reasons to resist change—fear
of the unknown, insecurity, lack of a felt need to change, threat to vested inter-
ests, contrasting interpretations, and lack of resources, among other possibilities.
A work team’s members, for example, may resist the introduction of an advanced
workstation of computers because they have never used the operating system
and are apprehensive. They may wonder whether the new computers will even-
tually be used as justifi cation for “getting rid” of certain members of their depart-
ment, or they may believe that they have been doing their jobs just fi ne and do
not need the new computers. These and other viewpoints often create resistance
to even the best and most well-intended planned changes.
Resistance to the Change Itself Sometimes a leader experiences resistance
to the change itself. People may reject a change because they believe it is not
worth their time, effort, or attention. They may believe that the proposed change
asks them to do more for less. To minimize resistance in such cases, the leader
should make sure that everyone who may be affected by a change knows how it
satisfi es the following criteria.32
Benefi t—The change should have a clear advantage for the people being
asked to change; it should be perceived as “a better way.”
Compatibility—The change should be as compatible as possible with the
existing values and experiences of the people being asked to change.
Complexity—The change should be no more complex than necessary; it
must be as easy as possible for people to understand and use.
Triability—The change should be something that people can try on a
step-by-step basis and make adjustments as things progress.
Resistance to the Change Strategy Leaders must also be prepared to deal
with resistance to the change strategy. Someone who attempts to bring about
change via force–coercion, for example, may create resistance among individuals
who resent management of leadership by “command” or the use of threatened
punishment. People may resist a rational persuasion strategy in which the data
are suspect or the expertise of advocates is not clear. They may resist a shared-
power strategy that even appears manipulative and insincere.
Resistance to the Change Agent Resistance to a leader implementing the
change often involves personality differences and a poor history of relationships.
Leaders who are isolated and aloof from other persons in the change situation,
who appear self-serving, or who have a high emotional involvement in the
changes are especially prone to such problems. Research indicates that leaders
who differ from other persons on such dimensions as age, education, and socio-
economic status may encounter greater resistance to change.33
How to Deal with Resistance An informed leader has many options available
for dealing positively with resistance to change. Figure 14.8 summarizes insights
c14LeadershipChallengesandOrganizationalChange.indd Page 340 7/23/11 7:17 PM ff-446c14LeadershipChallengesandOrganizationalChange.indd Page 340 7/23/11 7:17 PM ff-446 Schermerhorn_OBSchermerhorn_OB
Leading Organizational Change 341
into how and when each of these methods may be used to deal with resistance to
change. Regardless of the chosen strategy, it is always best to remember that the
presence of resistance typically suggests that something can be done to achieve a
better fi t among the change, the situation, and the people affected. A good leader
deals with resistance to change by listening to feedback and acting accordingly.34
The fi rst approach in dealing with resistance to change is through education
and communication. The objective is to teach people about a change before it is
implemented and to help them understand the logic of the change. Education
and communication seem to work best when resistance is based on inaccurate or
incomplete information. A second way is the use of participation and involve-
ment. With the goal of allowing others to help design and implement the changes,
this approach asks people to contribute ideas and advice or to work on task
forces or committees that may be leading the change. This is useful when the
leader does not have all the information needed to successfully handle a problem
situation. Here, for instance, the increased use of patterning of attention and net-
work development by the leader may help resolve tensions.
Facilitation and support help to deal with resistance by providing help—both
emotional and material—for people experiencing the hardships of change. Here
a leader increases consideration by actively listening to problems and complaints.
This is matched with a greater initiating structure whereby the leader provides
training in the new ways and helps others to overcome performance pressures.
Facilitation and support are highly recommended when people are frustrated by
work constraints and diffi culties encountered in the change process.
A negotiation and agreement approach offers incentives to actual or potential
change resistors. Trade-offs are arranged to provide special benefi ts in exchange for
assurances that the change will not be blocked. It is most useful when dealing with
a person or group that will lose something of value as a result of the planned change.
People lack information
or have inaccurate
information
Use when Advantages Disadvantages
Creates willingness to help
with the change
Can be very time
consuming
Other people have
important information
and/or power to resist
Adds information to
change planning; builds
commitment to the change
Can be very time
consuming
Resistance traces to
resource or adjustment
problems
Satisfies directly specific
resource or adjustment
needs
Can be time consuming;
can be expensive
A person or group will
“lose” something because
of the change
Helps avoid major
resistance
Can be expensive; can
cause others to seek
similar “deals”
Other methods don’t
work or are too expensive
Can be quick and
inexpensive
Can create future
problems if people sense
manipulation
Speed is important and
change agent has power
Quick; overpowers
resistance
Risky if people get “mad”
Education &
communication
Participation &
involvement
Facilitation &
support
Negotiation &
agreement
Manipulation &
cooptation
Explicit &
implicit coercion
Method
Figure 14.8 Methods for dealing with resistance to change.
c14LeadershipChallengesandOrganizationalChange.indd Page 341 7/23/11 7:17 PM ff-446c14LeadershipChallengesandOrganizationalChange.indd Page 341 7/23/11 7:17 PM ff-446 Schermerhorn_OBSchermerhorn_OB
342 14 Leadership Challenges and Organizational Change
Frustrated managers may attempt to use manipulation and co-optation in covert
attempts to infl uence others, selectively providing information and consciously
structuring events so that the desired change occurs. Although manipulation and
co-optation are common when other tactics do not work, only the more astute and
experienced executives fi nd they can gain temporary reductions in resistance.
In a crisis, some leaders fi nd that in order to overcome resistance to change
they must resort to explicit or implicit coercion. Often, resistors are threatened with
a variety of undesirable consequences if they do not go along with the plan. In a
crisis, the temporary compliance to the change may be all that is necessary to
weather the storm. Unfortunately, crises are much rarer than the use of this approach.
When the crisis is past, even the temporary use of coercion means that leaders will
need to embark on a new change program that stresses facilitation and support.
Finally, it is important to recognize the history, change, and culture of the fi rm
as it undergoes planned change. Often a planned change will yield unanticipated
alterations in the culture of the organization. We will spend the next chapter delv-
ing into the concept of organizational culture and the necessity to promote inno-
vation, a unique kind of planned change.
14 study guide
Key Questions
and Answers What is moral leadership?
• Moral leadership includes authentic leadership, servant leadership, and spiritual and
ethical leadership.
• Authentic leadership emphasizes owning one’s personal experiences and acting in
accordance with one’s true or core self which underlies virtually all other aspects of
leadership.
• Servant leadership is where the leader is attuned to basic spiritual values and, in
serving these, serves others, including colleagues, the organization, and society.
• Spiritual leadership is a fi eld of inquiry within the broader setting of workplace
spirituality; it includes values, attitudes, and behaviors required to intrinsically motivate
self and others to have a sense of spiritual survival through calling and membership.
• Ethical leadership emphasizes moral concerns.
What is shared leadership?
• Shared leadership is a dynamic, interactive infl uence process among individuals in
groups for which the objective is to lead one another to the achievement of group or
organizational goals or both.
• The infl uence process often involves peer or lateral infl uence and at other times
involves upward or downward hierarchical infl uence within a team.
• Though broader than traditional vertical leadership, shared leadership may be used in
combination with it.
c14LeadershipChallengesandOrganizationalChange.indd Page 342 7/23/11 7:17 PM ff-446c14LeadershipChallengesandOrganizationalChange.indd Page 342 7/23/11 7:17 PM ff-446 Schermerhorn_OBSchermerhorn_OB
Terms to Know 343
• Self-leadership techniques can be used to improve the effectiveness of shared
leadership.
How do you lead across cultures?
• Cross-cultural leadership emphasizes Project GLOBE (Global Leadership and Organi-
zational Behavior Effectiveness Research Program), which involves 62 societies, 951
organizations, and about 140 country co-investigators.
• It assumes that the attributes and entities that differentiate a specifi ed culture predict
organizational practices and leader attributes and behaviors that are most often
carried out and most effective in that culture.
• It identifi es a number of potentially important aspects of culture that form the basis
for culturally based leader prototypes.
• It matches key aspects of leadership to the important aspects of culture to identify
endorsed elements of leadership.
• It suggests both universally endorsed elements of leadership and those unique to a
particular culture and group of nations.
How do you lead organizational change?
• Change leadership helps deal with the idea of an organization that masters the
challenges of both radical and incremental change while still creating a satisfying,
healthy, and effective employee workplace.
• Change leadership deals with leaders as change agents, phases of planned change,
change strategies, and resistance to change.
• Radical or transformational change results in a major overhaul of the organization or
its component systems.
• Incremental or frame-bending change as part of an organization’s natural evolution is
frequent and less traumatic than radical change.
• Change agents are individuals and groups who take responsibility for changing the
existing behavior pattern or social system; being a change agent is an integral part of
a manager’s leadership role.
• Planned change strategies consist of force–coercion, rational persuasion, and shared
power.
• Dealing with resistance to change involves education and communication, participation
and involvement, facilitation and support, negotiation and agreement, manipulation and
co-optation, and explicit or implicit agreement.
Context (p. 333)
Culturally endorsed leadership
dimension (p. 330)
Force–coercion strategy (p. 338)
Hope (p. 320)
Incremental change (p. 336)
Optimism (p. 320)
Patterning of attention (p. 335)
Performance gap (p. 336)
Planned change (p. 336)
Rational persuasion strategy (p. 339)
Resilience (p. 320)
Terms to Know
Resistance to change (p. 339)
Self-effi cacy (p. 320)
Shared leadership (p. 324)
Shared-power strategy (p. 339)
Transformational change (p. 335)
Unplanned change (p. 336)
c14LeadershipChallengesandOrganizationalChange.indd Page 343 7/23/11 7:17 PM ff-446c14LeadershipChallengesandOrganizationalChange.indd Page 343 7/23/11 7:17 PM ff-446 Schermerhorn_OBSchermerhorn_OB
344 14 Leadership Challenges and Organizational Change
Self-Test 14
Multiple Choice
1. Authentic leadership ____________. (a) is easily attainable (b) is the most common
type of leadership (c) involves acting in accordance with one’s true or core self
(d) focuses on awareness of others
2. Research on project GLOBE found that ____________. (a) some dimensions of
leadership are universally endorsed (b) there are no commonalities in leadership
across cultures (c) expectations for leaders are pretty similar across cultures
(d) risk-taking and self-sacrifi cing are the most important aspects of leadership
3. The ____________ leader helps others discover their inner spirit, earns and keeps the
trust of their followers, exhibits effective listening skills, and places the importance of
assisting others over self-interest. (a) ethical (b) shared (c) servant (d) spiritual
4. ____________ is a causal leadership approach for organizational transformation
designed to create an intrinsically motivated, learning organization. (a) Servant
leadership (b) Spiritual leadership (c) Shared leadership (d) Ethical leadership
5. Shared leadership ____________. (a) emphasizes managerial relationships (b) is an
extension of participative leadership (c) replaces vertical leadership (d) is a dynamic,
interactive infl uence process
6. Characteristics that are important for successful team performance include all but
which of the following? (a) a strong vertical leader (b) effi cient, goal directed effort
(c) commitment to continuous improvement (d) competent, motivated performance
7. Which of the following is not one of the three broad categories of self-leadership?
(a) constructive-thought-pattern strategies (b) natural-reward (c) behavior-focused
(d) achievement-focus
8. In shared leadership teams, non-traditional leaders are often called ____________.
(a) task leaders (b) project managers (c) facilitators (d) mentors
9. Contexts are usually described in terms of ____________ and ____________.
(a) high, low (b) stability, uncertainty (c) shared, vertical (d) individualism, collectivism
10. In edge of chaos contexts, transformational leadership ____________. (a) is highly
successful (b) is better than transactional (c) is the same as patterning of attention
(d) often fails
11. Two often neglected aspects of leadership are ____________ and ____________.
(a) transformational, transactional (b) shared, vertical (c) patterning of attention,
network development (d) strategic, contextual
12. Which type of change radically shifts the fundamental character of an organization?
(a) transformational (b) incremental (c) transactional (d) hierarchical
13. The most common form of change is ____________. (a) transformational
(b) incremental (c) transactional (d) hierarchical
14. In a ____________ strategy, leaders use authority, rewards or punishments as
primary inducements to change. (a) rational persuasion (b) shared power
(c) benefi t-compatibility (d) force-coercion
15. ____________ is a change approach in which managers offer incentives to actual or
potential change resistors. (a) Manipulation and co-optation (b) Explicit or implicit
coercion (c) Negotiation and agreement (d) Education and communication
c14LeadershipChallengesandOrganizationalChange.indd Page 344 7/23/11 7:17 PM ff-446c14LeadershipChallengesandOrganizationalChange.indd Page 344 7/23/11 7:17 PM ff-446 Schermerhorn_OBSchermerhorn_OB
- part 4 Influence Processes and Leadership
13 Leadership Essentials
Leadership
Managers versus Leaders
Trait Leadership Perspectives
Behavioral Leadership Perspectives
Situational Contingency Leadership
Fiedler’s Leadership Contingency View
Path-Goal View of Leadership
Hersey and Blanchard Situational Leadership Model
Substitutes for Leadership
Follower-Centered Approaches
Implicit Leadership Theories (ILTs)
Implicit Followership Theories
Inspirational and Relational Leadership Perspectives
Charismatic Leadership
Transactional and Transformational Leadership
Leader—Member Exchange Theory
Chapter 13 Study Guide
14 Leadership Challenges and Organizational Change
Moral Leadership
Authentic Leadership
Spiritual Leadership
Servant Leadership
Ethical Leadership
Shared Leadership
Shared Leadership in Work Teams
Shared Leadership and Self-Leadership
Leadership across Cultures
The GLOBE Perspective
Leadership Aspects and Culture
Culturally Endorsed Leadership Matches
Universally Endorsed Aspects of Leadership
Leading Organizational Change
Contexts for Leadership Action
Leaders as Change Agents
Planned Change Strategies
Resistance to Change
Chapter 14 Study Guide