Louisiana Native Americas – due in 20 hours

  
Assignment I- Louisiana Native Americas

Chapters 1-3, talked  in depths about the Native Americas(Indians). Please prepare an essay discussing the Native Americas that have emerged in Louisiana. Please make sure to include in your discussion  their origin.. (Louisiana Native Indians). APA FORMAT. Essay Needs an introduction, 2 body paragraphs, and a conclusion

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U.S.History

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Table of Contents Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Chapter 1: The Americas, Europe, and Africa Before 1492 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 1.1 The Americas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 1.2 Europe on the Brink of Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 1.3 West Africa and the Role of Slavery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Chapter 2: Early Globalization: The Atlantic World, 1492–1650 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 2.1 Portuguese Exploration and Spanish Conquest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 2.2 Religious Upheavals in the Developing Atlantic World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 2.3 Challenges to Spain’s Supremacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 2.4 New Worlds in the Americas: Labor, Commerce, and the Columbian Exchange . . . . 58 Chapter 3: Creating New Social Orders: Colonial Societies, 1500–1700 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 3.1 Spanish Exploration and Colonial Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 3.2 Colonial Rivalries: Dutch and French Colonial Ambitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 3.3 English Settlements in America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 3.4 The Impact of Colonization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 Chapter 4: Rule Britannia! The English Empire, 1660–1763 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 4.1 Charles II and the Restoration Colonies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 4.2 The Glorious Revolution and the English Empire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 4.3 An Empire of Slavery and the Consumer Revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 4.4 Great Awakening and Enlightenment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 4.5 Wars for Empire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 Chapter 5: Imperial Reforms and Colonial Protests, 1763-1774 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 5.1 Confronting the National Debt: The Aftermath of the French and Indian War . . . . . . 132 5.2 The Stamp Act and the Sons and Daughters of Liberty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 5.3 The Townshend Acts and Colonial Protest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 5.4 The Destruction of the Tea and the Coercive Acts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 5.5 Disaffection: The First Continental Congress and American Identity . . . . . . . . . . . 153 Chapter 6: America’s War for Independence, 1775-1783 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 6.1 Britain’s Law-and-Order Strategy and Its Consequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 6.2 The Early Years of the Revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 6.3 War in the South . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 6.4 Identity during the American Revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 Chapter 7: Creating Republican Governments, 1776–1790 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 7.1 Common Sense: From Monarchy to an American Republic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 7.2 How Much Revolutionary Change? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 7.3 Debating Democracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 7.4 The Constitutional Convention and Federal Constitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 Chapter 8: Growing Pains: The New Republic, 1790–1820 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 8.1 Competing Visions: Federalists and Democratic-Republicans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 8.2 The New American Republic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 8.3 Partisan Politics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 8.4 The United States Goes Back to War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 Chapter 9: Industrial Transformation in the North, 1800–1850 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 9.1 Early Industrialization in the Northeast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 9.2 A Vibrant Capitalist Republic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 9.3 On the Move: The Transportation Revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 9.4 A New Social Order: Class Divisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 Chapter 10: Jacksonian Democracy, 1820–1840 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 10.1 A New Political Style: From John Quincy Adams to Andrew Jackson . . . . . . . . . 278 10.2 The Rise of American Democracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284

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10.3 The Nullification Crisis and the Bank War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 10.4 Indian Removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291 10.5 The Tyranny and Triumph of the Majority . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297 Chapter 11: A Nation on the Move: Westward Expansion, 1800–1860 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 11.1 Lewis and Clark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306 11.2 The Missouri Crisis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312 11.3 Independence for Texas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314 11.4 The Mexican-American War, 1846–1848 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319 11.5 Free Soil or Slave? The Dilemma of the West . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327 Chapter 12: Cotton is King: The Antebellum South, 1800–1860 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335 12.1 The Economics of Cotton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336 12.2 African Americans in the Antebellum United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341 12.3 Wealth and Culture in the South . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348 12.4 The Filibuster and the Quest for New Slave States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358 Chapter 13: Antebellum Idealism and Reform Impulses, 1820–1860 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365 13.1 An Awakening of Religion and Individualism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366 13.2 Antebellum Communal Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372 13.3 Reforms to Human Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377 13.4 Addressing Slavery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381 13.5 Women’s Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386 Chapter 14: Troubled Times: the Tumultuous 1850s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393 14.1 The Compromise of 1850 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394 14.2 The Kansas-Nebraska Act and the Republican Party . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403 14.3 The Dred Scott Decision and Sectional Strife . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410 14.4 John Brown and the Election of 1860 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415 Chapter 15: The Civil War, 1860–1865 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423 15.1 The Origins and Outbreak of the Civil War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424 15.2 Early Mobilization and War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430 15.3 1863: The Changing Nature of the War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435 15.4 The Union Triumphant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444 Chapter 16: The Era of Reconstruction, 1865–1877 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455 16.1 Restoring the Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456 16.2 Congress and the Remaking of the South, 1865–1866 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460 16.3 Radical Reconstruction, 1867–1872 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464 16.4 The Collapse of Reconstruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472 Chapter 17: Go West Young Man! Westward Expansion, 1840-1900 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483 17.1 The Westward Spirit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484 17.2 Homesteading: Dreams and Realities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490 17.3 Making a Living in Gold and Cattle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494 17.4 The Loss of American Indian Life and Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500 17.5 The Impact of Expansion on Chinese Immigrants and Hispanic Citizens . . . . . . . . 505 Chapter 18: Industrialization and the Rise of Big Business, 1870-1900 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513 18.1 Inventors of the Age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514 18.2 From Invention to Industrial Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519 18.3 Building Industrial America on the Backs of Labor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526 18.4 A New American Consumer Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535 Chapter 19: The Growing Pains of Urbanization, 1870-1900 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543 19.1 Urbanization and Its Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544 19.2 The African American “Great Migration” and New European Immigration . . . . . . . 552 19.3 Relief from the Chaos of Urban Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557 19.4 Change Reflected in Thought and Writing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565 Chapter 20: Politics in the Gilded Age, 1870-1900 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575

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20.1 Political Corruption in Postbellum America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576 20.2 The Key Political Issues: Patronage, Tariffs, and Gold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583 20.3 Farmers Revolt in the Populist Era . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 590 20.4 Social and Labor Unrest in the 1890s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595 Chapter 21: Leading the Way: The Progressive Movement, 1890-1920 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 605 21.1 The Origins of the Progressive Spirit in America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606 21.2 Progressivism at the Grassroots Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 608 21.3 New Voices for Women and African Americans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 617 21.4 Progressivism in the White House . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623 Chapter 22: Age of Empire: American Foreign Policy, 1890-1914 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 637 22.1 Turner, Mahan, and the Roots of Empire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 638 22.2 The Spanish-American War and Overseas Empire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 644 22.3 Economic Imperialism in East Asia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 651 22.4 Roosevelt’s “Big Stick” Foreign Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 654 22.5 Taft’s “Dollar Diplomacy” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 659 Chapter 23: Americans and the Great War, 1914-1919 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665 23.1 American Isolationism and the European Origins of War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 666 23.2 The United States Prepares for War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 672 23.3 A New Home Front . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 677 23.4 From War to Peace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 682 23.5 Demobilization and Its Difficult Aftermath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 688 Chapter 24: The Jazz Age: Redefining the Nation, 1919-1929 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 697 24.1 Prosperity and the Production of Popular Entertainment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 698 24.2 Transformation and Backlash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 704 24.3 A New Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 711 24.4 Republican Ascendancy: Politics in the 1920s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 719 Chapter 25: Brother, Can You Spare a Dime? The Great Depression, 1929-1932 . . . . . . . . 727 25.1 The Stock Market Crash of 1929 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 728 25.2 President Hoover’s Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 739 25.3 The Depths of the Great Depression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 744 25.4 Assessing the Hoover Years on the Eve of the New Deal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 752 Chapter 26: Franklin Roosevelt and the New Deal, 1932-1941 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 761 26.1 The Rise of Franklin Roosevelt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 762 26.2 The First New Deal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 766 26.3 The Second New Deal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 775 Chapter 27: Fighting the Good Fight in World War II, 1941-1945 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 791 27.1 The Origins of War: Europe, Asia, and the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 792 27.2 The Home Front . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 799 27.3 Victory in the European Theater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 811 27.4 The Pacific Theater and the Atomic Bomb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 816 Chapter 28: Post-War Prosperity and Cold War Fears, 1945-1960 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 825 28.1 The Challenges of Peacetime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 826 28.2 The Cold War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 829 28.3 The American Dream . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 838 28.4 Popular Culture and Mass Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 844 28.5 The African American Struggle for Civil Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 847 Chapter 29: Contesting Futures: America in the 1960s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 859 29.1 The Kennedy Promise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 860 29.2 Lyndon Johnson and the Great Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 867 29.3 The Civil Rights Movement Marches On . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 873 29.4 Challenging the Status Quo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 882 Chapter 30: Political Storms at Home and Abroad, 1968-1980 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 889

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30.1 Identity Politics in a Fractured Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 890 30.2 Coming Apart, Coming Together . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 897 30.3 Vietnam: The Downward Spiral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 905 30.4 Watergate: Nixon’s Domestic Nightmare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 910 30.5 Jimmy Carter in the Aftermath of the Storm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 915 Chapter 31: From Cold War to Culture Wars, 1980-2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 923 31.1 The Reagan Revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 924 31.2 Political and Cultural Fusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 929 31.3 A New World Order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 935 31.4 Bill Clinton and the New Economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 941 Chapter 32: The Challenges of the Twenty-First Century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 955 32.1 The War on Terror . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 956 32.2 The Domestic Mission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 962 32.3 New Century, Old Disputes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 969 32.4 Hope and Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 974 A The Declaration of Independence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 985 B The Constitution of the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 989 C Presidents of the United States of America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1005 D U.S. Political Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1009 E U.S. Topographical Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1011 F United States Population Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1013 G Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1015 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1038

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Preface

WelcometoU.S.History,anOpenStaxCollegeresource.Thistextbookhasbeencreatedwithseveralgoals in mind: accessibility, customization, and student engagement—all while encouraging students toward high levels of academic scholarship. Instructors and students alike will find that this textbook offers a strong foundation in U.S. history in an accessible format. About OpenStax College OpenStax College is a non-profit organization committed to improving student access to quality learning materials. Our free textbooks go through a rigorous editorial publishing process. Our texts are developed and peer-reviewed by educators to ensure they are readable, accurate, and meet the scope and sequence requirements of today’s college courses. Unlike traditional textbooks, OpenStax College resources live online and are owned by the community of educators using them. Through our partnerships with companies and foundations committed to reducing costs for students, OpenStax College is working to improveaccesstohighereducationforall.OpenStaxCollegeisaninitiativeofRiceUniversityandismade possible through the generous support of several philanthropic foundations. Since our launch in 2012 our texts have been used by millions of learners online and over 1,200 institutions worldwide. About OpenStax College’s Resources OpenStax College resources provide quality academic instruction. Three key features set our materials apart from others: they can be customized by instructors for each class, they are a “living” resource that grows online through contributions from educators, and they are available free or for minimal cost. Customization OpenStax College learning resources are designed to be customized for each course. Our textbooks are developed to meet the scope and sequence of a typical course and; therefore, provide a solid foundation on which instructors can build, and our resources are conceived and written with flexibility in mind. Instructorscanselectthesectionsmostrelevanttotheircurriculaandcreateatextbookthatspeaksdirectly totheneedsoftheirclassesandstudentbody.Teachersareencouragedtoexpandonexistingexamplesby adding unique context via geographically localized applications and topical connections. U.S.Historycanbeeasilycustomizedusingouronlineplatform(http://legacy.cnx.org/content/col11740/ latest/). Simply select the content most relevant to your current semester and create a textbook that speaks directly to the needs of your class. U.S. History is organized as a collection of sections that can be rearranged,modified,andenhancedthroughlocalizedexamplesortoincorporateaspecificthemeofyour course. This customization feature will ensure that your textbook truly reflects the goals of your course.

Cost Our textbooks are available for free online, and also in low-cost print and iBook textbook editions.

About U.S. History U.S.HistoryhasbeendevelopedtomeetthescopeandsequenceofmostintroductoryU.S.Historycourses. Atthesametime,thebookincludesanumberofinnovativefeaturesdesignedtoenhancestudentlearning. Instructors can also customize the book, adapting it to the approach that works best in their classroom. Coverage and Scope To develop U.S. History, we solicited ideas from historians at all levels of higher education, from community colleges to Ph.D.-granting universities. They told us about their courses, students, challenges, resources, and how a textbook can best meet their and their students’ needs.

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The result is a book that covers the breadth of the chronological history of the United States and also provides the necessary depth to ensure the course is manageable for instructors and students alike. U.S. HistoryexploresthekeyforcesandmajordevelopmentsthattogetherformtheAmericanexperience,with particular attention paid to considering issues of race, class, and gender. The pedagogical choices, chapter arrangements, and learning objective fulfillment were developed and vetted with feedback from educators dedicated to the project. They thoroughly read the material and offered critical and detailed commentary. Reviewer feedback centered around achieving equilibrium between the various political, social, and cultural dynamics that permeate history. The outcome is a balanced approach to U.S. history, considering the people, events, and ideas that have shaped the United Statesfromboththetopdown(politics,economics,diplomacy)andbottomup(eyewitnessaccounts,lived experience). While the book is organized primarily chronologically, as needed, material treating different topics or regions over the same time period is spread over multiple chapters. For example, chapters 9, 11, and 12 lookateconomic,political,social,andculturaldevelopmentsduringthefirsthalfoftheeighteenthcentury in the North, West, and South respectively, while chapters 18 to 20 closely examine industrialization, urbanization, and politics in the period after Reconstruction. Chapter 1: The Americas, Europe, and Africa before 1492 Chapter 2: Early Globalization: The Atlantic World, 1492–1650 Chapter 3: Creating New Social Orders: Colonial Societies, 1500–1700 Chapter 4: Rule Britannia! The English Empire, 1660–1763 Chapter 5: Imperial Reforms and Colonial Protests, 1763–1774 Chapter 6: America’s War for Independence, 1775–1783 Chapter 7: Creating Republican Governments, 1776–1790 Chapter 8: Growing Pains: The New Republic, 1790–1815 Chapter 9: Industrial Transformation in the North, 1800–1850 Chapter 10: Jacksonian Democracy, 1820–1840 Chapter 11: A Nation on the Move: Westward Expansion, 1800–1850 Chapter 12: Cotton is King: The Antebellum South, 1800–1860 Chapter 13: Antebellum Idealism and Reform Impulses, 1820–1860 Chapter 14: Troubled Times: The Tumultuous 1850s Chapter 15: The Civil War, 1860–1865 Chapter 16: The Era of Reconstruction, 1865–1877 Chapter 17: Go West Young Man! Westward Expansion, 1840–1900 Chapter 18: Industrialization and the Rise of Big Business, 1870–1900 Chapter 19: The Growing Pains of Urbanization, 1870–1900 Chapter 20: Politics in the Gilded Age, 1870–1900 Chapter 21: Leading the Way: The Progressive Movement, 1890–1920 Chapter 22: Age of Empire: Modern American Foreign Policy, 1890–1914 Chapter 23: Americans and the Great War, 1914–1919 Chapter 24: The Jazz Age: Redefining the Nation, 1919–1929 Chapter 25: Brother, Can You Spare a Dime? The Great Depression, 1929–1932 Chapter 26: Franklin Roosevelt and the New Deal, 1932–1941 Chapter 27: Fighting the Good Fight in World War II, 1941–1945 Chapter 28: Postwar Prosperity and Cold War Fears, 1945–1960 Chapter 29: Contesting Futures: America in the 1960s Chapter 30: Political Storms at Home and Abroad, 1968–1980 Chapter 31: From Cold War to Culture Wars, 1980–2000 Chapter 32: The Challenges of the Twenty-First Century Appendix A: The Declaration of Independence Appendix B: The Constitution of the United States

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Appendix C: Presidents of the United States Appendix D: United States Political Map Appendix E: United States Topographical Map Appendix F: United States Population Chart Appendix G: Suggested Reading

Pedagogical Foundation ThroughouttheOpenStaxversionofU.S.History,youwillfindfeaturedmaterialthatengagethestudents in historical inquiry by taking selected topics a step further. Our features include: Americana: This feature explores the significance of artifacts from American pop culture and considers what values, views, and philosophies are reflected in these objects. Defining “American”: This feature analyzes primary sources, including documents, speeches, and otherwritings,toconsiderimportantissuesofthedayandpresentvaryingpointsofviewonthem, while keeping a focus on the theme of what it means to be American. My Story: This feature presents first-person accounts (diaries, interviews, letters) of significant or exceptional events from the American experience. Link It Up: This feature is a very brief introduction to a website with an interactive experience, video, or primary sources that help improve student understanding of the material.

Questions for Each Level of Learning The OpenStax version ofU.S. Historyoffers two types of end-of-module questions for students. Review Questions are simple recall questions from each module in the chapter and are in either multiple-choice or open-response format. The answers can be looked up in the text. CriticalThinkingQuestionsarehigher-level,conceptualquestionsthataskstudentstodemonstrate their understanding by applying what they have learned in each module to the whole of the chapter. They ask for outside-the-box thinking, for reasoning about the concepts. They push the student to places they wouldn’t have thought of going themselves.

About Our Team Our team is a diverse mix of historians representing various institutions across the nation. We’d like to extend a special thanks to our senior contributors who worked tirelessly to ensure the coverage and level is appropriate for students. Senior Contributors P. Scott Corbett, PhD—Ventura College Dr. Corbett’s major fields of study are recent American history and American diplomatic history. He teaches a variety of courses at Ventura College, and he serves as an instructor at California State University’s Channel Islands campus. A passionate educator, Scott has also taught history to university students in Singapore and China. Volker Janssen, PhD—California State University–Fullerton BornandraisedinGermany,Dr.JanssenreceivedhisBAfromtheUniversityofHamburgandhisMAand PhD from the University of California, San Diego. He is a former Fulbright scholar and an active member of Germany’s advanced studies foundation “Studienstiftung des Deutschen Volkes.” Volker currently servesasAssociateProfessoratCaliforniaStateUniversity’sFullertoncampus,wherehespecializesinthe social, economic, and institutional history of California, and more recently, the history of technology. John M. Lund, PhD—Keene State College

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Dr. Lund’s primary research focuses on early American history, with a special interest in oaths, Colonial New England, and Atlantic legal cultures. John has over 20 years of teaching experience. In addition to working with students at Keene State College, he lectures at Franklin Pierce University, and serves the online learning community at Southern New Hampshire University. Todd Pfannestiel, PhD—Clarion University Dr. Pfannestiel is a Professor in the history department of Clarion University in Pennsylvania, where he also holds the position of Dean of the College of Arts and Sciences. Todd has a strong history of service to his institution, its students, and the community that surrounds it. Paul Vickery, PhD—Oral Roberts University Educating others is one of Dr. Vickery’s delights, whether in the classroom, through authoring books and articles, or via informal teaching during his travels. He is currently Professor of History at Oral Roberts University, where his emphasis is on the history of ideas, ethics, and the role of the church and theology in national development. Paul reads Portuguese, Italian, French, and Hebrew, and has taught on five continents. Sylvie Waskiewicz, PhD—Lead Editor Dr. Waskiewicz received her BSBA from Georgetown University and her MA and PhD from the Institute ofFrenchStudiesatNewYorkUniversity.Withover10yearsofteachingexperienceinEnglishandFrench history and language, Sylvie left academia to join the ranks of higher education publishing. She has spent the last eight years editing college textbooks and academic journals.

Reviewers Amy Bix Iowa State University Edward Bond Alabama A&M University Tammy Byron Dalton State College Benjamin Carp Brooklyn College, CUNY Sharon Deubreau Rhodes State College Gene Fein Fordham University Joel Franks San Jose State University Raymond Frey Centenary College Richard Gianni Indiana University Northwest Larry Gragg Missouri University of Science and Technology Laura Graves South Plains College Elisa Guernsey Monroe Community College Thomas Chase Hagood University of Georgia Charlotte Haller Worcester State University David Head Spring Hill College Tamora Hoskisson Salt Lake Community College Jean Keller Palomar College

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Kathleen Kennedy Missouri State University Mark Klobas Scottsdale Community College Ann Kordas Johnson & Wales University Stephanie Laffer Miami International University of Art and Design Jennifer Lang Delgado Community College Jennifer Lawrence Tarrant County College Wendy Maier-Sarti Oakton Community College Jim McIntyre Moraine Valley Community College Marianne McKnight Salt Lake Community College Brandon Morgan Central New Mexico Community College Caryn Neumann Miami University of Ohio Michelle Novak Houston Community College Lisa Ossian Des Moines Area Community College Paul Ringel High Point University Jason Ripper Everett Community College Silvana Siddali Saint Louis University Brooks Simpson Arizona State University Steven Smith California State University, Fullerton David Trowbridge Marshall University Eugene Van Sickle University of North Georgia Hubert van Tuyll Augusta State University

Ancillaries OpenStax projects offer an array of ancillaries for students and instructors. Please visit http://openstaxcollege.org and view the learning resources for this title.

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CHAPTER 1 The Americas, Europe, and Africa Before 1492

Figure 1.1 In Europe supported by Africa and America (1796), artist William Blake, who was an abolitionist, depicts the interdependence of the three continents in the Atlantic World; however, he places gold armbands on the Indian and African women, symbolizing their subjugation. The strand binding the three women may represent tobacco. Chapter Outline 1.1 The Americas 1.2 Europe on the Brink of Change 1.3 West Africa and the Role of Slavery Introduction Globalization, the ever-increasing interconnectedness of the world, is not a new phenomenon, but it accelerated when western Europeans discovered the riches of the East. During the Crusades (1095–1291), Europeans developed an appetite for spices, silk, porcelain, sugar, and other luxury items from the East, for which they traded fur, timber, and Slavic people they captured and sold (hence the word slave). But whentheSilkRoad,thelongoverlandtradingroutefromChinatotheMediterranean,becamecostlierand moredangeroustotravel,Europeanssearchedforamoreefficientandinexpensivetraderouteoverwater, initiating the development of what we now call the Atlantic World. In pursuit of commerce in Asia, fifteenth-century traders unexpectedly encountered a “New World” populated by millions and home to sophisticated and numerous peoples. Mistakenly believing they had reached the East Indies, these early explorers called its inhabitants Indians. West Africa, a diverse and culturallyricharea,soonenteredthestageasothernationsexploiteditsslavetradeandbroughtitspeoples to the New World in chains. Although Europeans would come to dominate the New World, they could not have done so without Africans and native peoples (Figure 1.1).

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1.1 The Americas

By the end of this section, you will be able to: • Locate on a map the major American civilizations before the arrival of the Spanish • Discuss the cultural achievements of these civilizations • Discuss the differences and similarities between lifestyles, religious practices, and customs among the native peoples

Between nine and fifteen thousand years ago, some scholars believe that a land bridge existed between Asia and North America that we now call Beringia. The first inhabitants of what would be named the Americasmigratedacrossthisbridgeinsearchoffood.Whentheglaciersmelted,waterengulfedBeringia, and the Bering Strait was formed. Later settlers came by boat across the narrow strait. (The fact that AsiansandAmericanIndianssharegeneticmarkersonaYchromosomelendscredibilitytothismigration theory.)Continuallymovingsouthward,thesettlerseventuallypopulatedbothNorthandSouthAmerica, creatinguniqueculturesthatrangedfromthehighlycomplexandurbanAzteccivilizationinwhatisnow Mexico City to the woodland tribes of eastern North America. Recent research along the west coast of South America suggests that migrant populations may have traveled down this coast by water as well as by land. Researchers believe that about ten thousand years ago, humans also began the domestication of plants and animals, adding agriculture as a means of sustenance to hunting and gathering techniques. With this agricultural revolution, and the more abundant and reliable food supplies it brought, populations grew and people were able to develop a more settled way of life, building permanent settlements. Nowhere in the Americas was this more obvious than in Mesoamerica (Figure 1.3).

Figure 1.2 (credit: modification of work by Architect of the Capitol)

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Figure 1.3 This map shows the extent of the major civilizations of the Western Hemisphere. In South America, early civilizations developed along the coast because the high Andes and the inhospitable Amazon Basin made the interior of the continent less favorable for settlement. THE FIRST AMERICANS: THE OLMEC Mesoamerica is the geographic area stretching from north of Panama up to the desert of central Mexico. Although marked by great topographic, linguistic, and cultural diversity, this region cradled a number of civilizations with similar characteristics. Mesoamericans were polytheistic; their gods possessed both male and female traits and demanded blood sacrifices of enemies taken in battle or ritual bloodletting. Corn, or maize, domesticated by 5000 BCE, formed the basis of their diet. They developed a mathematical system,builthugeedifices,anddevisedacalendarthataccuratelypredictedeclipsesandsolsticesandthat priest-astronomersusedtodirecttheplantingandharvestingofcrops.Mostimportantforourknowledge of these peoples, they created the only known written language in the Western Hemisphere; researchers havemademuchprogressininterpretingtheinscriptionsontheirtemplesandpyramids.Thoughthearea had no overarching political structure, trade over long distances helped diffuse culture. Weapons made of obsidian, jewelry crafted from jade, feathers woven into clothing and ornaments, and cacao beans that werewhippedintoachocolatedrinkformedthebasisofcommerce.ThemotherofMesoamericancultures was the Olmec civilization. Flourishing along the hot Gulf Coast of Mexico from about 1200 to about 400 BCE, the Olmec produced a number of major works of art, architecture, pottery, and sculpture. Most recognizable are their giant head sculptures (Figure 1.4) and the pyramid in La Venta. The Olmec built aqueducts to transport water into their cities and irrigate their fields. They grew maize, squash, beans, and tomatoes. They also bred small domesticateddogswhich,alongwithfish,providedtheirprotein.Althoughnooneknowswhathappened to the Olmec after about 400 BCE, in part because the jungle reclaimed many of their cities, their culture was the base upon which the Maya and the Aztec built. It was the Olmec who worshipped a rain god, a maize god, and the feathered serpent so important in the future pantheons of the Aztecs (who called him Quetzalcoatl) and the Maya (to whom he was Kukulkan). The Olmec also developed a system of trade throughout Mesoamerica, giving rise to an elite class.

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Figure 1.4 The Olmec carved heads from giant boulders that ranged from four to eleven feet in height and could weigh up to fifty tons. All these figures have flat noses, slightly crossed eyes, and large lips. These physical features can be seen today in some of the peoples indigenous to the area.

THE MAYA AfterthedeclineoftheOlmec,acityroseinthefertilecentralhighlandsofMesoamerica.Oneofthelargest populationcentersinpre-ColumbianAmericaandhometomorethan100,000peopleatitsheightinabout 500CE,TeotihuacanwaslocatedaboutthirtymilesnortheastofmodernMexicoCity.Theethnicityofthis settlement’sinhabitantsisdebated;somescholarsbelieveitwasamultiethniccity.Large-scaleagriculture and the resultant abundance of food allowed time for people to develop special trades and skills other thanfarming.Buildersconstructedovertwenty-twohundredapartmentcompoundsformultiplefamilies, as well as more than a hundred temples. Among these were the Pyramid of the Sun (which is two hundred feet high) and the Pyramid of the Moon (one hundred and fifty feet high). Near the Temple of the Feathered Serpent, graves have been uncovered that suggest humans were sacrificed for religious purposes. The city was also the center for trade, which extended to settlements on Mesoamerica’s Gulf Coast. The Maya were one Mesoamerican culture that had strong ties to Teotihuacan. The Maya’s architectural and mathematical contributions were significant. Flourishing from roughly 2000 BCE to 900 CE in what is now Mexico, Belize, Honduras, and Guatemala, the Maya perfected the calendar and written language the Olmec had begun. They devised a written mathematical system to record crop yields and the size of thepopulation,andtoassistintrade.Surroundedbyfarmsrelyingonprimitiveagriculture,theybuiltthe city-states of Copan, Tikal, and Chichen Itza along their major trade routes, as well as temples, statues of gods,pyramids,andastronomicalobservatories(Figure1.5).However,becauseofpoorsoilandadrought thatlastednearlytwocenturies,theircivilizationdeclinedbyabout900CEandtheyabandonedtheirlarge population centers.

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Figure 1.5 El Castillo, located at Chichen Itza in the eastern Yucatán peninsula, served as a temple for the god Kukulkan. Each side contains ninety-one steps to the top. When counting the top platform, the total number of stairs is three hundred and sixty-five, the number of days in a year. (credit: Ken Thomas)

The Spanish found little organized resistance among the weakened Maya upon their arrival in the 1520s. However, they did find Mayan history, in the form of glyphs, or pictures representing words, recorded in folding books called codices (the singular is codex). In 1562, Bishop Diego de Landa, who feared the convertednativeshadrevertedtotheirtraditionalreligiouspractices,collectedandburnedeverycodexhe could find. Today only a few survive.

Visit the University of Arizona Library Special Collections (http://openstaxcollege.org/l/mayancodex) to view facsimiles and descriptions of two of the four surviving Mayan codices.

THE AZTEC When the Spaniard Hernán Cortés arrived on the coast of Mexico in the sixteenth century, at the site of present-day Veracruz, he soon heard of a great city ruled by an emperor named Moctezuma. This city wastremendouslywealthy—filledwithgold—andtookintributefromsurroundingtribes.Therichesand complexity Cortés found when he arrived at that city, known as Tenochtitlán, were far beyond anything he or his men had ever seen. According to legend, a warlike people called the Aztec (also known as the Mexica) had left a city called Aztlán and traveled south to the site of present-day Mexico City. In 1325, they began construction of Tenochtitlán on an island in Lake Texcoco. By 1519, when Cortés arrived, this settlement contained upwards of 200,000 inhabitants and was certainly the largest city in the Western Hemisphere at that time andprobablylargerthananyEuropeancity(Figure1.6).OneofCortés’ssoldiers,BernalDíazdelCastillo, recordedhisimpressionsuponfirstseeingit:“Whenwesawsomanycitiesandvillagesbuiltinthewater andothergreattownsondrylandwewereamazedandsaiditwasliketheenchantments…onaccountof the great towers and cues and buildings rising from the water, and all built of masonry. And some of our

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soldiers even asked whether the things that we saw were not a dream? . . . I do not know how to describe it, seeing things as we did that had never been heard of or seen before, not even dreamed about.”

Figure 1.6 This rendering of the Aztec island city of Tenochtitlán depicts the causeways that connected the central city to the surrounding land. Envoys from surrounding tribes brought tribute to the Emperor.

Unlike the dirty, fetid cities of Europe at the time, Tenochtitlán was well planned, clean, and orderly. The city had neighborhoods for specific occupations, a trash collection system, markets, two aqueducts bringing in fresh water, and public buildings and temples. Unlike the Spanish, Aztecs bathed daily, and wealthy homes might even contain a steam bath. A labor force of slaves from subjugated neighboring tribes had built the fabulous city and the three causeways that connected it to the mainland. To farm, the Aztec constructed barges made of reeds and filled them with fertile soil. Lake water constantly irrigated these chinampas, or “floating gardens,” which are still in use and can be seen today in Xochimilco, a district of Mexico City. EachgodintheAztecpantheonrepresentedandruledanaspectofthenaturalworld,suchastheheavens, farming, rain, fertility, sacrifice, and combat. A ruling class of warrior nobles and priests performed ritual humansacrificedailytosustainthesunonitslongjourneyacrossthesky,toappeaseorfeedthegods,and tostimulateagriculturalproduction.Thesacrificialceremonyincludedcuttingopenthechestofacriminal or captured warrior with an obsidian knife and removing the still-beating heart (Figure 1.7).

Figure 1.7 In this illustration, an Aztec priest cuts out the beating heart of a sacrificial victim before throwing the body down from the temple. Aztec belief centered on supplying the gods with human blood—the ultimate sacrifice—to keep them strong and well.

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Explore Aztec-History.com (http://openstaxcollege.org/l/azteccreation) to learn more about the Aztec creation story.

MY STORY The Aztec Predict the Coming of the Spanish

Thefollowing isanexcerptfromthesixteenth-century Florentine Codexofthewritings ofFrayBernardino de Sahagun, a priest and early chronicler of Aztec history. When an old man from Xochimilco first saw the Spanish in Veracruz, he recounted an earlier dream to Moctezuma, the ruler of the Aztecs. Said Quzatli to the sovereign, “Oh mighty lord, if because I tell you the truth I am to die, nevertheless I am here in your presence and you may do what you wish to me!” He narrated that mounted men would come to this land in a great wooden house [ships] this structure was to lodge many men, serving them as a home; within they would eat and sleep. On the surface of this house they would cook their food, walk and play as if they were on firm land. They were to be white, bearded men, dressed in different colors and on their heads they would wear round coverings. Ten years before the arrival of the Spanish, Moctezuma received several omens which at the time he could not interpret. A fiery object appeared in the night sky, a spontaneous fire broke out in a religious temple and could not be extinguished with water, a water spout appeared in Lake Texcoco, and a woman could be heard wailing, “O my children we are about to go forever.” Moctezuma also had dreams and premonitions of impending disaster. These foretellings were recorded after the Aztecs’ destruction. They do, however, give us insight into the importance placed upon signs and omens in the pre-Columbian world.

THE INCA InSouthAmerica,themosthighlydevelopedandcomplexsocietywasthatoftheInca,whosenamemeans “lord” or “ruler” in the Andean language called Quechua. At its height in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the Inca Empire, located on the Pacific coast and straddling the Andes Mountains, extended sometwenty-fivehundredmiles.Itstretchedfrommodern-dayColombiainthenorthtoChileinthesouth andincludedcitiesbuiltatanaltitudeof14,000feetabovesealevel.Itsroadsystem,keptfreeofdebrisand repairedbyworkersstationedatvaryingintervals,rivaledthatoftheRomansandefficientlyconnectedthe sprawling empire. The Inca, like all other pre-Columbian societies, did not use axle-mounted wheels for transportation.TheybuiltsteppedroadstoascendanddescendthesteepslopesoftheAndes;thesewould havebeenimpracticalforwheeledvehiclesbutworkedwellforpedestrians.Theseroadsenabledtherapid movement of the highly trained Incan army. Also like the Romans, the Inca were effective administrators. Runners called chasquis traversed the roads in a continuous relay system, ensuring quick communication over long distances. The Inca had no system of writing, however. They communicated and kept records using a system of colored strings and knots called the quipu(Figure 1.8).

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Figure 1.8 The Inca had no written language. Instead, they communicated and kept records by means of a system of knots and colored strings called the quipu. Each of these knots and strings possessed a distinct meaning intelligible to those educated in their significance.

The Inca people worshipped their lord who, as a member of an elite ruling class, had absolute authority over every aspect of life. Much like feudal lords in Europe at the time, the ruling class lived off the labor ofthepeasants,collectingvastwealththataccompaniedthemastheywent,mummified,intothenextlife. The Inca farmed corn, beans, squash, quinoa (a grain cultivated for its seeds), and the indigenous potato onterracedlandtheyhackedfromthesteepmountains.Peasantsreceivedonlyone-thirdoftheircropsfor themselves. The Inca rulerrequired athird, and athird was set aside in a kind of welfare system for those unable to work. Huge storehouses were filled with food for times of need. Each peasant also worked for theIncaruleranumberofdayspermonthonpublicworksprojects,arequirementknownasthemita.For example, peasants constructed rope bridges made of grass to span the mountains above fast-flowing icy rivers. In return, the lord provided laws, protection, and relief in times of famine. The Inca worshipped the sun god Inti and called gold the “sweat” of the sun. Unlike the Maya and the Aztecs,theyrarelypracticedhumansacrificeandusuallyofferedthegodsfood,clothing,andcocaleaves. In times of dire emergency, however, such as in the aftermath of earthquakes, volcanoes, or crop failure, theyresortedtosacrificingprisoners.Theultimatesacrificewaschildren,whowerespeciallyselectedand well fed. The Inca believed these children would immediately go to a much better afterlife. In 1911, the American historian Hiram Bingham uncovered the lost Incan city of Machu Picchu (Figure 1.9). Located about fifty miles northwest of Cusco, Peru, at an altitude of about 8,000 feet, the city had been built in 1450 and inexplicably abandoned roughly a hundred years later. Scholars believe the city was used for religious ceremonial purposes and housed the priesthood. The architectural beauty of this cityisunrivaled.Usingonlythestrengthofhumanlaborandnomachines,theIncaconstructedwallsand buildingsofpolishedstones,someweighingoverfiftytons,thatwerefittedtogetherperfectlywithoutthe use of mortar. In 1983, UNESCO designated the ruined city a World Heritage Site.

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Figure 1.9 Located in today’s Peru at an altitude of nearly 8,000 feet, Machu Picchu was a ceremonial Incan city built about 1450 CE.

Browse the British Museum’s World Cultures collection (http://openstaxcollege.org/l/inca) to see more examples and descriptions of Incan (as well as Aztec, Mayan, and North American Indian) art.

NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS With few exceptions, the North American native cultures were much more widely dispersed than the Mayan, Aztec, and Incan societies, and did not have their population size or organized social structures. Although the cultivation of corn had made its way north, many Indians still practiced hunting and gathering. Horses, first introduced by the Spanish, allowed the Plains Indians to more easily follow and hunt the huge herds of bison. A few societies had evolved into relatively complex forms, but they were already in decline at the time of Christopher Columbus’s arrival. In the southwestern part of today’s United States dwelled several groups we collectively call the Pueblo. The Spanish first gave them this name, which means “town” or “village,” because they lived in towns or villages of permanent stone-and-mud buildings with thatched roofs. Like present-day apartment houses, these buildings had multiple stories, each with multiple rooms. The three main groups of the Pueblo people were the Mogollon, Hohokam, and Anasazi. The Mogollon thrived in the Mimbres Valley (New Mexico) from about 150 BCE to 1450 CE. They developed a distinctive artistic style for painting bowls with finely drawn geometric figures and wildlife, especiallybirds,inblackonawhitebackground.Beginningabout600CE,theHohokambuiltanextensive irrigation system of canals to irrigate the desert and grow fields of corn, beans, and squash. By 1300, their crop yields were supporting the most highly populated settlements in the southwest. The Hohokam decorated pottery with a red-on-buff design and made jewelry of turquoise. In the high desert of New Mexico, the Anasazi, whose name means “ancient enemy” or “ancient ones,” carved homes from steep cliffsaccessedbyladdersorropesthatcouldbepulledinatnightorincaseofenemyattack(Figure 1.10).

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Figure 1.10 To access their homes, the cliff-dwelling Anasazi used ropes or ladders that could be pulled in at night for safety. These pueblos may be viewed today in Canyon de Chelly National Monument (above) in Arizona and Mesa Verde National Park in Colorado.

Roads extending some 180 miles connected the Pueblos’ smaller urban centers to each other and to Chaco Canyon, which by 1050 CE had become the administrative, religious, and cultural center of their civilization. A century later, however, probably because of drought, the Pueblo peoples abandoned their cities. Their present-day descendants include the Hopi and Zuni tribes. The Indian groups who lived in the present-day Ohio River Valley and achieved their cultural apex from the first century CE to 400 CE are collectively known as the Hopewell culture. Their settlements, unlike those of the southwest, were small hamlets. They lived in wattle-and-daub houses (made from woven lattice branches “daubed” with wet mud, clay, or sand and straw) and practiced agriculture, which they supplemented by hunting and fishing. Utilizing waterways, they developed trade routes stretching from Canada to Louisiana, where they exchanged goods with other tribes and negotiated in many different languages. From the coast they received shells; from Canada, copper; and from the Rocky Mountains, obsidian. With these materials they created necklaces, woven mats, and exquisite carvings. What remains of their culture today are huge burial mounds and earthworks. Many of the mounds that were opened by archaeologists contained artworks and other goods that indicate their society was socially stratified. Perhaps the largest indigenous cultural and population center in North America was located along the Mississippi River near present-day St. Louis. At its height in about 1100 CE, this five-square-mile city, now called Cahokia, was home to more than ten thousand residents; tens of thousands more lived on farms surrounding the urban center. The city also contained one hundred and twenty earthen mounds or pyramids, each dominating a particular neighborhood and on each of which lived a leader who exercised authority over the surrounding area. The largest mound covered fifteen acres. Cahokia was the hub of political and trading activities along the Mississippi River. After 1300 CE, however, this civilization declined—possibly because the area became unable to support the large population.

INDIANS OF THE EASTERN WOODLAND Encouraged by the wealth found by the Spanish in the settled civilizations to the south, fifteenth- and sixteenth-century English, Dutch, and French explorers expected to discover the same in North America. Whattheyfoundinsteadweresmall,disparatecommunities,manyalreadyravagedbyEuropeandiseases brought by the Spanish and transmitted among the natives. Rather than gold and silver, there was an abundance of land, and the timber and fur that land could produce. The Indians living east of the Mississippi did not construct the large and complex societies of those to the west. Because they lived in small autonomous clans or tribal units, each group adapted to the specific environment in which itlived (Figure 1.11). These groups were byno means unified, and warfare among tribes was common as they sought to increase their hunting and fishing areas. Still, these tribes shared

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some common traits. A chief or group of tribal elders made decisions, and although the chief was male, usually the women selected and counseled him. Gender roles were not as fixed as they were in the patriarchal societies of Europe, Mesoamerica, and South America.

Figure 1.11 This map indicates the locations of the three Pueblo cultures the major Eastern Woodland Indian tribes, and the tribes of the Southeast, as well as the location of the ancient city of Cahokia.

Women typically cultivated corn, beans, and squash and harvested nuts and berries, while men hunted, fished, and provided protection. But both took responsibility for raising children, and most major Indian societies in the east were matriarchal. In tribes such as the Iroquois, Lenape, Muscogee, and Cherokee, women had both power and influence. They counseled the chief and passed on the traditions of the tribe. This matriarchy changed dramatically with the coming of the Europeans, who introduced, sometimes forcibly, their own customs and traditions to the natives. Clashing beliefs about land ownership and use of the environment would be the greatest area of conflict with Europeans. Although tribes often claimed the right to certain hunting grounds—usually identified bysome geographical landmark—Indians did not practice, or ingeneral even have theconcept of, private ownershipofland.Thereweretribalhuntinggrounds,usuallyidentifiedbysomegeographicallandmark, but there was no private ownership of land. A person’s possessions included only what he or she had made, such as tools or weapons. The European Christian worldview, on the other hand, viewed land as the source of wealth. According to the Christian Bible, God created humanity in his own image with the command to use and subdue the rest of creation, which included not only land, but also all animal life.

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Upon their arrival in North America, Europeans found no fences, no signs designating ownership. Land, and the game that populated it, they believed, were there for the taking.

1.2 Europe on the Brink of Change

By the end of this section, you will be able to: • Describe the European societies that engaged in conversion, conquest, and commerce • Discuss the motives for and mechanisms of early European exploration

The fall of the Roman Empire (476 CE) and the beginning of the European Renaissance in the late fourteenth century roughly bookend the period we call the Middle Ages. Without a dominant centralized poweroroverarchingculturalhub,Europeexperiencedpoliticalandmilitarydiscordduringthistime.Its inhabitants retreated into walled cities, fearing marauding pillagers including Vikings, Mongols, Arabs, and Magyars. In return for protection, they submitted to powerful lords and their armies of knights. In their brief, hard lives, few people traveled more than ten miles from the place they were born. The Christian Church remained intact, however, and emerged from the period as a unified and powerful institution. Priests, tucked away in monasteries, kept knowledge alive by collecting and copying religious and secular manuscripts, often adding beautiful drawings or artwork. Social and economic devastation arrived in 1340s, however, when Genoese merchants returning from the Black Sea unwittingly brought with them a rat-borne and highly contagious disease, known as the bubonic plague. In a few short years, it had killed many millions, about one-third of Europe’s population. A different strain, spread by airbornegerms,alsokilledmany.TogetherthesetwoarecollectivelycalledtheBlackDeath(Figure1.12). Entire villages disappeared. A high birth rate, however, coupled with bountiful harvests, meant that the populationgrewduringthenextcentury.By1450,anewlyrejuvenatedEuropeansocietywasonthebrink of tremendous change.

Figure 1.12 This image depicts the bodily swellings, or buboes, characteristic of the Black Death.

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Visit EyeWitness to History (http://openstaxcollege.org/l/plague) to learn more about the Black Death.

LIFE IN FEUDAL EUROPE During the Middle Ages, most Europeans lived in small villages that consisted of a manorial house or castleforthelord,achurch,andsimplehomesforthepeasantsorserfs,whomadeupabout60percentof western Europe’s population. Hundreds of these castles and walled cities remain all over Europe (Figure 1.13).

Figure 1.13 One of the most beautifully preserved medieval walled cities is Carcassonne, France. Notice the use of a double wall.

Europe’s feudal society was a mutually supportive system. The lords owned the land; knights gave military service to a lord and carried out his justice; serfs worked the land in return for the protection offered by the lord’s castle or the walls of his city, into which they fled in times of danger from invaders. Much land was communally farmed at first, but as lords became more powerful they extended their ownership and rented land to their subjects. Thus, although they were technically free, serfs were effectively bound to the land they worked, which supported them and their families as well as the lord and all who depended on him. The Catholic Church, the only church in Europe at the time, also owned vast tracts of land and became very wealthy by collecting not only tithes (taxes consisting of 10 percent of annual earnings) but also rents on its lands. A serf’s life was difficult. Women often died in childbirth, and perhaps one-third of children died before the age of five. Without sanitation or medicine, many people perished from diseases we consider inconsequential today; few lived to be older than forty-five. Entire families, usually including grandparents, lived in one- or two-room hovels that were cold, dark, and dirty. A fire was kept lit and was always a danger to the thatched roofs, while its constant smoke affected the inhabitants’ health and eyesight.Mostindividualsownednomorethantwosetsofclothing,consistingofawoolenjacketortunic and linen undergarments, and bathed only when the waters melted in spring.

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In an agrarian society, the seasons dictate the rhythm of life. Everyone in Europe’s feudal society had a job to do and worked hard. The father was the unquestioned head of the family. Idleness meant hunger. Whenthelandbegantothawinearlyspring,peasantsstartedtillingthesoilwithprimitivewoodenplows and crude rakes and hoes. Then they planted crops of wheat, rye, barley, and oats, reaping small yields thatbarelysustainedthepopulation.Badweather,cropdisease,orinsectinfestationcouldcauseanentire village to starve or force the survivors to move to another location. Early summer saw the first harvesting of hay, which was stored until needed to feed the animals in winter. Men and boys sheared the sheep, now heavy with wool from the cold weather, while women and children washed the wool and spun it into yarn. The coming of fall meant crops needed to be harvested and prepared for winter. Livestock was butchered and the meat smoked or salted to preserve it. With the harvestinandtheprovisionsstored,fallwasalsothetimeforcelebratingandgivingthankstoGod.Winter broughtthepeopleindoors toweaveyarnintofabric,sewclothing,threshgrain,andkeepthefiresgoing. Everyone celebrated the birth of Christ in conjunction with the winter solstice.

THE CHURCH AND SOCIETY After the fall of Rome, the Christian Church—united in dogma but unofficially divided into western and eastern branches—was the only organized institution in medieval Europe. In 1054, the eastern branch of Christianity, led by the Patriarch of Constantinople (a title that because roughly equivalent to the western Church’s pope), established its center in Constantinople and adopted the Greek language for its services. The western branch, under the pope, remained in Rome, becoming known as the Roman Catholic Church and continuing to use Latin. Following this split, known as the Great Schism, each branch of Christianity maintainedastrictorganizationalhierarchy.ThepopeinRome,forexample,oversawahugebureaucracy led by cardinals, known as “princes of thechurch,” who werefollowed by archbishops, bishops, and then priests. During this period, the Roman Church became the most powerful international organization in western Europe. Just as agrarian life depended on the seasons, village and family life revolved around the Church. The sacraments, or special ceremonies of the Church, marked every stage of life, from birth to maturation, marriage, and burial, and brought people into the church on a regular basis. As Christianity spread throughout Europe, it replaced pagan and animistic views, explaining supernatural events and forces of nature in its own terms. A benevolent God in heaven, creator of the universe and beyond the realm of nature and the known, controlled all events, warring against the force of darkness, known as the Devil or Satan, here on earth. Although ultimately defeated, Satan still had the power to trick humans and cause them to commit evil or sin. All events had a spiritual connotation. Sickness, for example, might be a sign that a person had sinned, while crop failure could result from the villagers’ not saying their prayers. Penitents confessed their sins to the priest, who absolved them and assigned them penance to atone for their acts and save themselves from eternal damnation. Thus the parish priest held enormous power over the lives of his parishioners. Ultimately,thepopedecidedallmattersoftheology,interpretingthewillofGodtothepeople,buthealso hadauthorityovertemporalmatters.BecausetheChurchhadtheabilitytoexcommunicatepeople,orsend a soul to hell forever, even monarchs feared to challenge its power. It was also the seat of all knowledge. Latin,thelanguageoftheChurch,servedasaunifyingfactorforacontinentofisolatedregions,eachwith its own dialect; in the early Middle Ages, nations as we know them today did not yet exist. The mostly illiterate serfs were thus dependent on those literate priests to read and interpret the Bible, the word of God, for them.

CHRISTIANITY ENCOUNTERS ISLAM The year 622 brought a new challenge to Christendom. Near Mecca, Saudi Arabia, a prophet named Muhammad received a revelation that became a cornerstone of the Islamic faith. The Koran, which Muhammad wrote in Arabic, contained his message, affirming monotheism but identifying Christ not as

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God but as a prophet like Moses, Abraham, David, and Muhammad. Following Muhammad’s death in 632,IslamspreadbybothconversionandmilitaryconquestacrosstheMiddleEastandAsiaMinortoIndia and northern Africa, crossing the Straits of Gibraltar into Spain in the year 711 (Figure 1.14).

Figure 1.14 In the seventh and eighth centuries, Islam spread quickly across North Africa and into the Middle East. The religion arrived in Europe via Spain in 711 and remained there until 1492, when Catholic monarchs reconquered the last of Muslim-held territory after a long war.

The Islamic conquest of Europe continued until 732. Then, at the Battle of Tours (in modern France), Charles Martel, nicknamed the Hammer, led a Christian force in defeating the army of Abdul Rahman al-Ghafiqi. Muslims, however, retained control of much of Spain, where Córdoba, known for leather and wool production, became a major center of learning and trade. By the eleventh century, a major Christian holy war called the Reconquista, or reconquest, had begun to slowly push the Muslims from Spain. This drive was actually an extension of the earlier military conflict between Christians and Muslims for domination of the Holy Land (the Biblical region of Palestine), known as the Crusades.

Visit EyeWitness to History (http://openstaxcollege.org/l/crusades) to read a personal account of the Crusades.

JERUSALEM AND THE CRUSADES The city of Jerusalem is a holy site for Jews, Christians, and Muslims. It was here King Solomon built the Temple in the tenth century BCE. It was here the Romans crucified Jesus in 33 CE, and from here, Christians maintain, he ascended into heaven, promising to return. From here, Muslims believe,

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Muhammad traveled to heaven in 621 to receive instructions about prayer. Thus claims on the area go deep, and emotions about it run high, among followers of all three faiths. Evidence exists that the three religionslivedinharmonyforcenturies.In1095,however,EuropeanChristiansdecidednotonlytoretake the holy city from the Muslim rulers but also to conquer what they called the Holy Lands, an area that extended from modern-day Turkey in the north along the Mediterranean coast to the Sinai Peninsula and that was also held by Muslims. The Crusades had begun. Religious zeal motivated the knights who participated in the four Crusades. Adventure, the chance to win land and a title, and the Church’s promise of wholesale forgiveness of sins also motivated many. The Crusaders, mostly French knights, retook Jerusalem in June 1099 amid horrific slaughter. A French writer who accompanied them recorded this eyewitness account: “On the top of Solomon’s Temple, to which they had climbed in fleeing, many were shot to death with arrows and cast down headlong from the roof. Within this Temple, about ten thousand were beheaded. If you had been there, your feet would havebeenstaineduptotheankleswiththebloodoftheslain.WhatmoreshallItell?Notoneofthemwas allowed to live. They did not spare the women and children.” A Muslim eyewitness also described how the conquerors stripped the temple of its wealth and looted private homes. In 1187, under the legendary leader Saladin, Muslim forces took back the city. Reaction from Europe was swift as King Richard I of England, the Lionheart, joined others to mount yet another action. The battle for the Holy Lands did not conclude until the Crusaders lost their Mediterranean stronghold at Acre (in present-day Israel) in 1291 and the last of the Christians left the area a few years later. The Crusades had lasting effects, both positive and negative. On the negative side, the wide-scale persecution of Jews began. Christians classed them with the infidel Muslims and labeled them “thekillers of Christ.” In the coming centuries, kings either expelled Jews from their kingdoms or forced them to pay heavytributesfortheprivilegeofremaining.Muslim-Christianhatredalsofestered,andintolerancegrew. On the positive side, maritime trade between East and West expanded. As Crusaders experienced the feel of silk, the taste of spices, and the utility of porcelain, desire for these products created new markets for merchants. In particular, the Adriatic port city of Venice prospered enormously from trade with Islamic merchants. Merchants’ ships brought Europeans valuable goods, traveling between the port cities of western Europe and the East from the tenth century on, along routes collectively labeled the Silk Road. From the days of the early adventurer Marco Polo, Venetian sailors had traveled to ports on the Black Sea andestablishedtheirowncoloniesalongtheMediterraneanCoast.However,transportinggoodsalongthe oldSilkRoadwascostly,slow,andunprofitable.Muslimmiddlemencollectedtaxesasthegoodschanged hands.Robberswaitedtoambushthetreasure-ladencaravans.AdirectwaterroutetotheEast,cuttingout the land portion of the trip, had to be found. As well as seeking a water passage to the wealthy cities in the East, sailors wanted to find a route to the exotic and wealthy Spice Islands in modern-day Indonesia, whose location was kept secret by Muslim rulers. Longtime rivals of Venice, the merchants of Genoa and Florence also looked west.

THE IBERIAN PENINSULA Although Norse explorers such as Leif Ericson, the son of Eric the Red who first settled Greenland, had reached and established a colony in northern Canada roughly five hundred years prior to Christopher Columbus’svoyage,itwasexplorerssailingforPortugalandSpainwhotraversedtheAtlanticthroughout the fifteenth century and ushered in an unprecedented age of exploration and permanent contact with North America. Located on the extreme western edge of Europe, Portugal, with its port city of Lisbon, soon became the center for merchants desiring to undercut the Venetians’ hold on trade. With a population of about one million and supported by its ruler Prince Henry, whom historians call “the Navigator,” this independent kingdom fostered exploration of and trade with western Africa. Skilled shipbuilders and navigators who took advantage of maps from all over Europe, Portuguese sailors used triangular sails and built lighter vessels called caravels that could sail down the African coast.

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Just to the east of Portugal, King Ferdinand of Aragon married Queen Isabella of Castile in 1469, uniting two of the most powerful independent kingdoms on the Iberian peninsula and laying the foundation for the modern nation of Spain. Isabella, motivated by strong religious zeal, was instrumental in beginning theInquisitionin1480,abrutalcampaigntorootoutJewsandMuslims whohadseeminglyconverted to Christianity but secretly continued to practice their faith, as well as other heretics. This powerful couple ruled for the next twenty-five years, centralizing authority and funding exploration and trade with the East. One of their daughters, Catherine of Aragon, became the first wife of King Henry VIII of England.

AMERICANA Motives for European Exploration

Historians generally recognize three motives for European exploration—God, glory, and gold. Particularly in the strongly Catholic nations of Spain and Portugal, religious zeal motivated the rulers to make converts and retake land from the Muslims. Prince Henry the Navigator of Portugal described his “great desire to make increase in the faith of our Lord Jesus Christ and to bring him all the souls that should be saved.” Sailors’ tales about fabulous monsters and fantasy literature about exotic worlds filled with gold, silver, and jewels captured the minds of men who desired to explore these lands and return with untold wealth and the glory of adventure and discovery. They sparked the imagination of merchants like Marco Polo, who made the long and dangerous trip to the realm of the great Mongol ruler Kublai Khan in 1271. The story of his trip, printed in a book entitled Travels, inspired Columbus, who had a copy in his possession during his voyage more than two hundred years later. Passages such as the following, which describes China’s imperial palace, are typical of the Travels: You must know that it is the greatest Palace that ever was. . . . The roof is very lofty, and the walls of the Palace are all covered with gold and silver. They are also adorned with representations of dragons [sculptured and gilt], beasts and birds, knights and idols, and sundry other subjects. And on the ceiling too you see nothing but gold and silver and painting. [On each of the four sides there is a great marble staircase leading to the top of the marble wall, and forming the approach to the Palace.] The hall of the Palace is so large that it could easily dine 6,000 people; and it is quite a marvel to see how many rooms there are besides. The building is altogether so vast, so rich, and so beautiful, that no man on earth could design anything superior to it. The outside of the roof also is all colored with vermilion and yellow and green and blue and other hues, which are fixed with a varnish so fine and exquisite that they shine like crystal, and lend a resplendent lustre to the Palace as seen for a great way round. This roof is made too with such strength and solidity that it is fit to last forever. Why might a travel account like this one have influenced an explorer like Columbus? What does this tell us about European explorers’ motivations and goals?

Theyear1492witnessedsomeofthemostsignificanteventsofFerdinandandIsabella’sreign.Thecouple oversaw the final expulsion of North African Muslims (Moors) from the Kingdom of Granada, bringing thenearlyeight-hundred-yearReconquistatoanend.Inthissameyear,theyalsoorderedallunconverted Jews to leave Spain. Also in 1492, after six years of lobbying, a Genoese sailor named Christopher Columbus persuaded the monarchs to fund his expedition to the Far East. Columbus had already pitched his plan to the rulers of Genoa and Venice without success, so the Spanish monarchy was his last hope. Christian zeal was the prime motivating factor for Isabella, as she imagined her faith spreading to the East. Ferdinand, the more practical of the two, hoped to acquire wealth from trade. Most educated individuals at the time knew the earth was round, so Columbus’s plan to reach the East by sailing west was plausible. Though the calculations of Earth’s circumference made by the Greek

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geographerEratosthenesinthesecondcenturyBCEwereknown(and,aswenowknow,nearlyaccurate), most scholars did not believe they were dependable. Thus Columbus would have no way of knowing when he had traveled far enough around the Earth to reach his goal—and in fact, Columbus greatly underestimated the Earth’s circumference. In August 1492, Columbus set sail with his three small caravels (Figure 1.15). After a voyage of about three thousand miles lasting six weeks, he landed on an island in the Bahamas named Guanahani by the native Lucayans. He promptly christened it San Salvador, the name it bears today.

Figure 1.15 Columbus sailed in three caravels such as these. The Santa Maria, his largest, was only 58 feet long.

1.3 West Africa and the Role of Slavery

At the end of this section, you will be able to: • Locate the major West African empires on a map • Discuss the roles of Islam and Europe in the slave trade

It is difficult to generalize about West Africa, which was linked to the rise and diffusion of Islam. This geographical unit, central to the rise of the Atlantic World, stretches from modern-day Mauritania to the DemocraticRepublicoftheCongoandencompasseslushrainforestsalongtheequator,savannasoneither side of the forest, and much drier land to the north. Until about 600 CE, most Africans were huntergatherers. Where water was too scarce for farming, herders maintained sheep, goats, cattle, or camels. In the more heavily wooded area near the equator, farmers raised yams, palm products, or plantains. The savanna areas yielded rice, millet, and sorghum. Sub-Saharan Africans had little experience in maritime matters. Most of the population lived away from thecoast, which is connected to the interior by five main rivers—the Senegal, Gambia, Niger, Volta, and Congo. Although there were large trading centers along these rivers, most West Africans lived in small villages andidentifiedwiththeirextendedfamilyortheirclan.Wives,children,anddependents(includingslaves) wereasignofwealthamongmen,andpolygyny,thepracticeofhavingmorethanonewifeatatime,was widespread. In time of need, relatives, however far away, were counted upon to assist in supplying food or security. Because of the clannish nature of African society, “we” was associated with the village and familymembers,while“they”includedeveryoneelse.Hundredsofseparatedialectsemerged;inmodern Nigeria, nearly five hundred are still spoken.

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Read The Role of Islam in African Slavery (http://openstaxcollege.org/l/ islamslavery) to learn more about the African slave trade.

THE MAJOR AFRICAN EMPIRES FollowingthedeathoftheprophetMuhammadin632CE,IslamcontinuedtospreadquicklyacrossNorth Africa, bringing not only a unifying faith but a political and legal structure as well. As lands fell under thecontrolofMuslimarmies,theyinstitutedIslamicruleandlegalstructuresaslocalchieftainsconverted, usually under penalty of death. Only those who had converted to Islam could rule or be engaged in trade. The first major empire to emerge in West Africa was the Ghana Empire (Figure 1.16). By 750, the Soninkefarmersofthesub-Saharahadbecomewealthybytaxingthetradethatpassedthroughtheirarea. For instance, the Niger River basin supplied gold to the Berber and Arab traders from west of the Nile Valley, who brought cloth, weapons, and manufactured goods into the interior. Huge Saharan salt mines supplied the life-sustaining mineral to the Mediterranean coast of Africa and inland areas. By 900, the monotheistic Muslims controlled most of this trade and had converted many of the African ruling elite. The majority of the population, however, maintained their tribal animistic practices, which gave living attributes to nonliving objects such as mountains, rivers, and wind. Because Ghana’s king controlled the gold supply, he was able to maintain price controls and afford a strong military. Soon, however, a new kingdom emerged.

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Figure 1.16 This map shows the locations of the major West African empires before 1492. Along the Mediterranean coast, Muslim states prevailed.

By 1200 CE, under the leadership of Sundiata Keita, Mali had replaced Ghana as the leading state in West Africa. After Sundiata’s rule, the court converted to Islam, and Muslim scribes played a large part in administration and government. Miners then discovered huge new deposits of gold east of the Niger River. By the fourteenth century, the empire was so wealthy that while on ahajj, or pilgrimage to the holy cityofMecca,Mali’srulerMansuMusagaveawayenoughgoldtocreateseriouspriceinflationinthecities along his route. Timbuktu, the capital city, became a leading Islamic center for education, commerce and theslavetrade.Meanwhile,intheeast,thecityofGaobecameincreasinglystrongundertheleadershipof SonniAliandsooneclipsedMali’spower.TimbuktusoughtAli’sassistanceinrepellingtheTuaregsfrom thenorth.By1500,however,theTuaregempireofSonghayhadeclipsedMali,whereweakandineffective leadership prevailed.

THE ROLE OF SLAVERY The institution of slavery is not a recent phenomenon. Most civilizations have practiced some form of human bondage and servitude, and African empires were no different (Figure 1.17). Famine or fear of strongerenemiesmightforceonetribetoaskanotherforhelpandgivethemselvesinatypeofbondagein exchange. Similar to the European serf system, those seeking protection, or relief from starvation, would become the servants of those who provided relief. Debt might also be worked off through a form of

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servitude. Typically, these servants became a part of the extended tribal family. There is some evidence of chattelslavery,inwhichpeoplearetreatedaspersonalpropertytobeboughtandsold,intheNileValley. It appears there was a slave-trade route through the Sahara that brought sub-Saharan Africans to Rome, which had slaves from all over the world.

Figure 1.17 Traders with a group of slaves. Note how the slaves are connected at the neck. Muslim traders brought slaves to the North African coast, where they might be sent to Europe or other parts of Africa.

Arabslavetrading,whichexchangedslavesforgoodsfromtheMediterranean,existedlongbeforeIslam’s spread across North Africa. Muslims later expanded this trade and enslaved not only Africans but also Europeans,especiallyfromSpain,Sicily,andItaly.Malecaptiveswereforcedtobuildcoastalfortifications and serve as galley slaves. Women were added to the harem. ThemajorEuropeanslavetradebeganwithPortugal’sexplorationofthewestcoastofAfricainsearchofa traderoutetotheEast.By1444,slaveswerebeingbroughtfromAfricatoworkonthesugarplantationsof theMadeiraIslands,offthecoastofmodernMorocco.TheslavetradethenexpandedgreatlyasEuropean colonies intheNewWorlddemandedanever-increasingnumberofworkersfortheextensiveplantations growing tobacco, sugar, and eventually rice and cotton (Figure 1.18).

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Figure 1.18 This map shows the routes that were used in the course of the slave trade and the number of enslaved people who traveled each route. As the figures indicate, most African slaves were bound for Brazil and the Caribbean. While West Africans made up the vast majority of the enslaved, the east coast of Africa, too, supplied slaves for the trade.

In the New World, the institution of slavery assumed a new aspect when the mercantilist system demandedapermanent,identifiable,andplentifullaborsupply.Africanslaveswerebotheasilyidentified (by their skin color) and plentiful, because of the thriving slave trade. This led to a race-based slavery system in the New World unlike any bondage system that had come before. Initially, the Spanish tried to force Indians to farm their crops. Most Spanish and Portuguese settlers coming to the New World were gentlemen and did not perform physical labor. They came to “serve God, but also to get rich,” as noted by Bernal Díaz del Castillo. However, enslaved natives tended to sicken or die from disease or from the overwork and cruel treatment they were subjected to, and so the indigenous peoples proved not to be a dependable source of labor. Although he later repented of his ideas, the great defender of the Indians, Bartolomé de Las Casas, seeing the near extinction of the native population, suggested the Spanish send black (and white) laborers to the Indies. These workers proved hardier, and within fifty years, a change took place: The profitability of the African slave trade, coupled with the seemingly limitless number of potential slaves and the Catholic Church’s denunciation of the enslavement of Christians, led race to become a dominant factor in the institution of slavery. IntheEnglishcoloniesalongtheAtlanticcoast,indenturedservantsinitiallyfilledtheneedforlaborinthe North, where family farms were the norm. In the South, however, labor-intensive crops such as tobacco, rice, and indigo prevailed, and eventually the supply of indentured servants was insufficient to meet

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the demand. These workers served only for periods of three to seven years before being freed; a more permanentlaborsupplywasneeded.Thus,whereasinAfricapermanent,inheritedslaverywasunknown, and children of those bound in slavery to the tribe usually were free and intermarried with their captors, this changed in the Americas; slavery became permanent, and children born to slaves became slaves. This development, along with slavery’s identification with race, forever changed the institution and shaped its unique character in the New World.

AMERICANA The Beginnings of Racial Slavery

Slavery has a long history. The ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle posited that some peoples were homunculi, or humanlike but not really people—for instance, if they did not speak Greek. Both the Bible and the Koran sanction slavery. Vikings who raided from Ireland to Russia brought back slaves of all nationalities. During the Middle Ages, traders from the interior of Africa brought slaves along wellestablished routes to sell them along the Mediterranean coast. Initially, slavers also brought European slaves to the Caribbean. Many of these were orphaned or homeless children captured in the cities of Ireland. The question is, when did slavery become based on race? This appears to have developed in the New World, with the introduction of gruelingly labor-intensive crops such as sugar and coffee. Unable to fill their growing need from the ranks of prisoners or indentured servants, the European colonists turned to African laborers. The Portuguese, although seeking a trade route to India, also set up forts along the West African coast for the purpose of exporting slaves to Europe. Historians believe that by the year 1500, 10 percent of the population of Lisbon and Seville consisted of black slaves. Because of the influence of the Catholic Church, which frowned on the enslavement of Christians, European slave traders expanded their reach down the coast of Africa. When Europeans settled Brazil, the Caribbean, and North America, they thus established a system of racially based slavery. Here, the need for a massive labor force was greater than in western Europe. The land was ripe for growing sugar, coffee, rice, and ultimately cotton. To fulfill the ever-growing demand for these crops, large plantations were created. The success of these plantations depended upon the availability of a permanent, plentiful, identifiable, and skilled labor supply. As Africans were already familiar with animal husbandry as well as farming, had an identifying skin color, and could be readily supplied by the existing African slave trade, they proved the answer to this need. This process set the stage for the expansion of New World slavery into North America.

Chapter 1 The Americas, Europe, and Africa Before 1492 35

Beringia

Black Death

Crusades

chasquis

chattel slavery

chinampas

feudal society

Inquisition

Koran

matriarchy

mita

polygyny

quipu

Reconquista

serf

Key Terms an ancient land bridge linking Asia and North America

two strains of the bubonic plague that simultaneously swept western Europe in the fourteenth century, causing the death of nearly half the population

a series of military expeditions made by Christian Europeans to recover the Holy Land from the Muslims in the eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth centuries

Incan relay runners used to send messages over great distances

a system of servitude in which people are treated as personal property to be bought and

sold

floating Aztec gardens consisting of a large barge woven from reeds, filled with dirt and floating on the water, allowing for irrigation

a social arrangement in which serfs and knights provided labor and military service to noble lords, receiving protection and land use in return

a campaign by the Catholic Church to root out heresy, especially among converted Jews and

Muslims

the sacred book of Islam, written by the prophet Muhammad in the seventh century

a society in which women have political power

the Incan labor tax, with each family donating time and work to communal projects

the practice of taking more than one wife

an ancient Incan device for recording information, consisting of variously colored threads knotted in different ways

Spain’s nearly eight-hundred-year holy war against Islam, which ended in 1492

a peasant tied to the land and its lord

Summary 1.1The Americas Great civilizations had risen and fallen in the Americas before the arrival of the Europeans. In North America, the complex Pueblo societies including the Mogollon, Hohokam, and Anasazi as well as the city atCahokiahadpeakedandwerelargelymemories.TheEasternWoodlandpeopleswerethriving,butthey were soon overwhelmed as the number of English, French, and Dutch settlers increased. Mesoamerica and South America had also witnessed the rise and fall of cultures. The once-mighty Mayan population centers were largely empty. In 1492, however, the Aztecs in Mexico City were at their peak. Subjugating surrounding tribes and requiring tribute of both humans for sacrifice and goods for consumption, the island city of Tenochtitlán was the hub of an ever-widening commercial center and the equal of any large European city until Cortés destroyed it. Further south in Peru, the Inca linked one of the largest empires in history through the use of roads and disciplined armies. Without the use of the wheel, they cut and fashioned stone to build Machu Picchu high in the Andes before abandoning the city

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for unknown reasons. Thus, depending on what part of the New World they explored, the Europeans encountered peoples that diverged widely in their cultures, traditions, and numbers.

1.2Europe on the Brink of Change One effect of the Crusades was that a larger portion of western Europe became familiar with the goods of the East. A lively trade subsequently developed along a variety of routes known collectively as the Silk Road to supply the demand for these products. Brigands and greedy middlemen made the trip along this route expensive and dangerous. By 1492, Europe—recovered from the Black Death and in search of new products andnewwealth—wasanxioustoimprovetradeandcommunications withtherestoftheworld. Venice and Genoa led the way in trading with the East. The lure of profit pushed explorers to seek new trade routes to the Spice Islands and eliminate Muslim middlemen. Portugal, under the leadership of Prince Henry the Navigator, attempted to send ships around the continentofAfrica.FerdinandofAragonandIsabellaofCastilehiredColumbustofindaroutetotheEast by going west. As strong supporters of the Catholic Church, they sought to bring Christianity to the East and any newly found lands, as well as hoping to find sources of wealth.

1.3West Africa and the Role of Slavery Before1492,Africa,liketheAmericas,hadexperiencedtheriseandfallofmanycultures,butthecontinent didnotdevelopacentralizedauthoritystructure.Africanpeoplespracticedvariousformsofslavery,allof whichdifferedsignificantlyfromtheracialslaverythatultimatelydevelopedintheNewWorld.Afterthe arrivalofIslamandbeforethePortuguesecametothecoastofWestAfricain1444,Muslimscontrolledthe slave trade out of Africa, which expanded as European powers began to colonize the New World. Driven byademandforlabor,slaveryintheAmericasdevelopedanewform:Itwasbasedonrace,andthestatus of slave was both permanent and inherited.

Review Questions 1. Which of the following Indian peoples built homes in cliff dwellings that still exist? A. Anasazi B. Cherokee C. Aztec D. Inca

2. Which culture developed the only writing system in the Western Hemisphere? A. Inca B. Iroquois C. Maya D. Pueblo

3. Which culture developed a road system rivaling that of the Romans? A. Cherokee B. Inca C. Olmec D. Anasazi

4. What were the major differences between the societies of the Aztec, Inca, and Maya and the Indians of North America?

5. The series of attempts by Christian armies to retake the Holy Lands from Muslims was known as ________. A. the Crusades B. the Reconquista C. the Black Death D. the Silk Road

6. ________ became wealthy trading with the East.

A. Carcassonne B. Jerusalem C. Rome D. Venice

7. In 1492, the Spanish forced these two religious groups to either convert or leave.

Chapter 1 The Americas, Europe, and Africa Before 1492 37

A. Jews and Muslims B. Christians and Jews C. Protestants and Muslims D. Catholics and Jews

8. How did European feudal society operate? How was this a mutually supportive system?

9. Why did Columbus believe he could get to the Far East by sailing west? What were the problems with this plan?

10. The city of ________ became a leading center for Muslim scholarship and trade. A. Cairo B. Timbuktu

C. Morocco D. Mali

11. Which of the following doesnotdescribe a form of slavery traditionally practiced in Africa? A. a system in which those in need of supplies or protection give themselves in servitude B. a system in which debtors repay those whom they owe by giving themselves in servitude C. a system in which people are treated as chattel—that is, as personal property to be bought and sold D. a system in which people are enslaved permanently on account of their race

Critical Thinking Questions 12. The Inca were able to control an empire that stretched from modern Colombia to southern Chile. Which of their various means for achieving such control do you think were most effective, and why?

13. How did the Olmec, Aztec, Inca, Maya, and North American Indians differ in their ways of life and cultural achievements? How did their particular circumstances—geography, history, or the accomplishments of the societies that had preceded them, for example—serve to shape their particular traditions and cultures?

14. What were the lasting effects of the Crusades? In what ways did they provide opportunities—both negative and positive—for cross-cultural encounters and exchanges?

15. Was race identified with slavery before the era of European exploration? Why or why not? How did slavery’s association with race change the institution’s character?

16. WhatarethedifferencesbetweenthetypesofslaverytraditionallypracticedinAfricaandtheslavery thatdevelopedintheNewWorld?Howdidothertypesofservitude,suchasEuropeanserfdom,compare to slavery?

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CHAPTER 2 Early Globalization: The Atlantic World, 1492–1650

Figure 2.1 After Christopher Columbus “discovered” the New World, he sent letters home to Spain describing the wonders he beheld. These letters were quickly circulated throughout Europe and translated into Italian, German, and Latin. This woodcut is from the first Italian verse translation of the letter Columbus sent to the Spanish court after his first voyage, Lettera delle isole novamente trovata by Giuliano Dati. Chapter Outline 2.1 Portuguese Exploration and Spanish Conquest 2.2 Religious Upheavals in the Developing Atlantic World 2.3 Challenges to Spain’s Supremacy 2.4 New Worlds in the Americas: Labor, Commerce, and the Columbian Exchange Introduction The story of the Atlantic World is the story of global migration, a migration driven in large part by the actions and aspirations of the ruling heads of Europe. Columbus is hardly visible in this illustration of his shipsmakinglandfallontheCaribbeanislandofHispaniola(Figure2.1).Instead,FerdinandIIofSpain(in theforeground)sitsonhisthroneandpointstowardColumbus’slanding.Astheshipsarrive,theArawak people tower over the Spanish, suggesting the native population density of the islands. This historic moment in 1492 sparked new rivalries among European powers as they scrambled to create New World colonies, fueled by the quest for wealth and power as well as by religious passions. Almost continuous war resulted. Spain achieved early preeminence, creating a far-flung empire and growing rich with treasures from the Americas. Native Americans who confronted the newcomers from Europe suffered unprecedented losses of life, however, as previously unknown diseases sliced through their populations. They also were victims of the arrogance of the Europeans, who viewed themselves as uncontested masters of the New World, sent by God to bring Christianity to the “Indians.” The Spanish enslaved Native Americans, forcing them to bring whatever gold could be found to fill Spanish coffers.

Chapter 2 Early Globalization: The Atlantic World, 1492–1650 39

2.1 Portuguese Exploration and Spanish Conquest

By the end of this section, you will be able to: • Describe Portuguese exploration of the Atlantic and Spanish exploration of the Americas, and the importance of these voyages to the developing Atlantic World • Explain the importance of Spanish exploration of the Americas in the expansion of Spain’s empire and the development of Spanish Renaissance culture

Portuguese colonization of Atlantic islands in the 1400s inaugurated an era of aggressive European expansion across the Atlantic. In the 1500s, Spain surpassed Portugal as the dominant European power. This age of exploration and the subsequent creation of an Atlantic World marked the earliest phase of globalization, in which previously isolated groups—Africans, Native Americans, and Europeans—first came into contact with each other, sometimes with disastrous results.

PORTUGUESE EXPLORATION Portugal’s Prince Henry the Navigator spearheaded his country’s exploration of Africa and the Atlantic in the 1400s. With his support, Portuguese mariners successfully navigated an eastward route to Africa, establishing a foothold there that became a foundation of their nation’s trade empire in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. Portuguese mariners built an Atlantic empire by colonizing the Canary, Cape Verde, and Azores Islands, as well as the island of Madeira. Merchants then used these Atlantic outposts as debarkation points for subsequent journeys. From these strategic points, Portugal spread its empire down the western coast of Africa to the Congo, along the western coast of India, and eventually to Brazil on the eastern coast of SouthAmerica.ItalsoestablishedtradingpostsinChinaandJapan.WhilethePortuguesedidn’truleover

Figure 2.2

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an immense landmass, their strategic holdings of islands and coastal ports gave them almost unrivaled control of nautical trade routes and a global empire of trading posts during the 1400s. The travels of Portuguese traders to western Africa introduced them to the African slave trade, already brisk among African states. Seeing the value of this source of labor in growing the profitable crop of sugar on their Atlantic islands, the Portuguese soon began exporting African slaves along with African ivory and gold. Sugar fueled the Atlantic slave trade, and the Portuguese islands quickly became home to sugar plantations. The Portuguese also traded these slaves, introducing much-needed human capital to otherEuropeannations.Inthefollowingyears,asEuropeanexplorationspread,slaveryspreadaswell.In time,muchoftheAtlanticWorldwouldbecomeagargantuansugar-plantationcomplexinwhichAfricans labored to produce the highly profitable commodity for European consumers.

AMERICANA

Elmina Castle

In 1482, Portuguese traders built Elmina Castle (also called São Jorge da Mina, or Saint George’s of the Mine) in present-day Ghana, on the west coast of Africa (Figure 2.3). A fortified trading post, it had mounted cannons facing out to sea, not inland toward continental Africa; the Portuguese had greater fear of a naval attack from other Europeans than of a land attack from Africans. Portuguese traders soon began to settle around the fort and established the town of Elmina.

Figure 2.3 Elmina Castle on the west coast of Ghana was used as a holding pen for slaves before they were brought across the Atlantic and sold. Originally built by the Portuguese in the fifteenth century, it appears in this image as it was in the 1660s, after being seized by Dutch slave traders in 1637. Although the Portuguese originally used the fort primarily for trading gold, by the sixteenth century they had shifted their focus. The dungeon of the fort now served as a holding pen for African slaves from the interior of the continent, while on the upper floors Portuguese traders ate, slept, and prayed in a chapel. Slaves lived in the dungeon for weeks or months until ships arrived to transport them to Europe or the Americas. For them, the dungeon of Elmina was their last sight of their home country.

SPANISH EXPLORATION AND CONQUEST The Spanish established the first European settlements in the Americas, beginning in the Caribbean and, by 1600, extending throughout Central and South America. Thousands of Spaniards flocked to the

Chapter 2 Early Globalization: The Atlantic World, 1492–1650 41

Americas seeking wealth and status. The most famous of these Spanish adventurers are Christopher Columbus(who,thoughItalianhimself,exploredonbehalfoftheSpanishmonarchs),HernánCortés,and Francisco Pizarro. The history of Spanish exploration begins with the history of Spain itself. During the fifteenth century, Spain hoped to gain advantage over its rival, Portugal. The marriage of Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile in 1469 unified Catholic Spain and began the process of building a nation that could compete for worldwide power. Since the 700s, much of Spain had been under Islamic rule, and King Ferdinand II and Queen Isabella I, arch-defenders of the Catholic Church against Islam, were determined to defeat the Muslims in Granada, the last Islamic stronghold in Spain. In 1492, they completed the Reconquista: the centuries-longChristianconquestoftheIberianPeninsula.TheReconquistamarkedanotherstepforward in the process of making Spain an imperial power, and Ferdinand and Isabella were now ready to look further afield. Their goals were to expand Catholicism and to gain a commercial advantage over Portugal. To those ends, Ferdinand and Isabella sponsored extensive Atlantic exploration. Spain’s most famous explorer, Christopher Columbus, was actually from Genoa, Italy. He believed that, using calculations based on other mariners’ journeys, he could chart a westward route to India, which could be used to expand European trade and spread Christianity. Starting in 1485, he approached Genoese, Venetian, Portuguese, English,andSpanishmonarchs, askingforshipsandfundingtoexplorethiswestward route.Allthosehe petitioned—including Ferdinand and Isabella at first—rebuffed him; their nautical experts all concurred thatColumbus’s estimates ofthewidth oftheAtlantic Oceanwerefartoo low.However, afterthreeyears of entreaties, and, more important, the completion of the Reconquista, Ferdinand and Isabella agreed to finance Columbus’s expedition in 1492, supplying him with three ships: the Nina, the Pinta, and the SantaMaria.TheSpanishmonarchsknewthatPortuguesemarinershadreachedthesoutherntipofAfrica and sailed the Indian Ocean. They understood that the Portuguese would soon reach Asia and, in this competitive race to reach the Far East, the Spanish rulers decided to act. Columbus held erroneous views that shaped his thinking about what he would encounter as he sailed west. He believed the earth to be much smaller than its actual size and, since he did not know of the existence of the Americas, he fully expected to land in Asia. On October 12, 1492, however, he made landfall on an island in the Bahamas. He then sailed to an island he named Hispaniola (present-day Dominican Republic and Haiti) (Figure 2.4). Believing he had landed in the East Indies, Columbus called the native Taínos he found there “Indios,” giving rise to the term “Indian” for any native people of the NewWorld.UponColumbus’sreturntoSpain,theSpanishcrownbestowedonhimthetitleofAdmiralof theOceanSeaandnamedhimgovernorandviceroyofthelandshehaddiscovered.AsadevotedCatholic, Columbus had agreed with Ferdinand and Isabella prior to sailing west that part of the expected wealth from his voyage would be used to continue the fight against Islam.

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Figure 2.4 This sixteenth-century map shows the island of Hispaniola (present-day Haiti and Dominican Republic). Note the various fanciful elements, such as the large-scale ships and sea creatures, and consider what the creator of this map hoped to convey. In addition to navigation, what purpose would such a map have served?

Columbus’s 1493 letter—or probanza de mérito (proof of merit)—describing his “discovery” of a New World did much to inspire excitement in Europe. Probanzas de méritos were reports and letters written by Spaniards in the New World to the Spanish crown, designed to win royal patronage. Today they highlight the difficult task of historical work; while the letters are primary sources, historians need to understandthecontextandthecultureinwhichtheconquistadors,astheSpanishadventurerscametobe called, wrote them and distinguish their bias and subjective nature. While they are filled with distortions and fabrications, probanzas de méritos are still useful in illustrating the expectation of wealth among the explorers as well as their view that native peoples would not pose a serious obstacle to colonization. In1493,ColumbussenttwocopiesofaprobanzademéritototheSpanishkingandqueenandtheirminister offinance,LuisdeSantángel.SantángelhadsupportedColumbus’svoyage,helpinghimtoobtainfunding from Ferdinand and Isabella. Copies of the letter were soon circulating all over Europe, spreading news of the wondrous new land that Columbus had “discovered.” Columbus would make three more voyages over the next decade, establishing Spain’s first settlement in the New World on the island of Hispaniola. Many other Europeans followed in Columbus’s footsteps, drawn by dreams of winning wealth by sailing west. Another Italian, Amerigo Vespucci, sailing for the Portuguese crown, explored the South American coastlinebetween1499and1502.UnlikeColumbus,herealizedthattheAmericaswerenotpartofAsiabut landsunknowntoEuropeans.Vespucci’swidelypublishedaccountsofhisvoyagesfueledspeculationand intense interest in the New World among Europeans. Among those who read Vespucci’s reports was the GermanmapmakerMartinWaldseemuller.Usingtheexplorer’sfirstnameasalabelforthenewlandmass, Waldseemuller attached “America” to his map of the New World in 1507, and the name stuck.

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DEFINING “AMERICAN” Columbus’sProbanza de méritoof 1493

The exploits of the most famous Spanish explorers have provided Western civilization with a narrative of European supremacy and Indian savagery. However, these stories are based on the self-aggrandizing efforts of conquistadors to secure royal favor through the writing of probanzas de méritos (proofs of merit). Below are excerpts from Columbus’s 1493 letter to Luis de Santángel, which illustrates how fantastic reports from European explorers gave rise to many myths surrounding the Spanish conquest and the New World. This island, like all the others, is most extensive. It has many ports along the sea-coast excellinganyinChristendom—andmanyfine,large,flowingrivers.Thelandthereiselevated, with many mountains and peaks incomparably higher than in the centre isle. They are most beautiful, of a thousand varied forms, accessible, and full of trees of endless varieties, so high that they seem to touch the sky, and I have been told that they never lose their foliage. . . . There is honey, and there are many kinds of birds, and a great variety of fruits. Inland there are numerous mines of metals and innumerable people. Hispaniola is a marvel. Its hills and mountains, fine plains and open country, are rich and fertile for planting and for pasturage, and for building towns and villages. The seaports there are incredibly fine, as also themagnificentrivers,mostofwhichbeargold.Thetrees,fruitsandgrassesdifferwidelyfrom those in Juana. There are many spices and vast mines of gold and other metals in this island. They have no iron, nor steel, nor weapons, nor are they fit for them, because although they are well-made men of commanding stature, they appear extraordinarily timid. The only arms they have are sticks of cane, cut when in seed, with a sharpened stick at the end, and they are afraid to use these. Often I have sent two or three men ashore to some town to converse with them, and the natives came out in great numbers, and as soon as they saw our men arrive, fled without a moment’s delay although I protected them from all injury. What does this letter show us about Spanish objectives in the New World? How do you think it might have influenced Europeans reading about the New World for the first time?

The1492ColumbuslandfallacceleratedtherivalrybetweenSpainandPortugal,andthetwopowersvied for domination through the acquisition of new lands. In the 1480s, Pope Sixtus IV had granted Portugal the right to all land south of the Cape Verde islands, leading the Portuguese king to claim that the lands discoveredbyColumbusbelongedtoPortugal,notSpain.SeekingtoensurethatColumbus’s findswould remain Spanish, Spain’s monarchs turned to the Spanish-born Pope Alexander VI, who issued two papal decrees in 1493 that gave legitimacy to Spain’s Atlantic claims at the expense of Portugal. Hoping to salvage Portugal’s Atlantic holdings, King João II began negotiations with Spain. The resulting Treaty of Tordesillas in1494drew anorth-to-south linethrough South America (Figure 2.5);Spain gained territory west of the line, while Portugal retained the lands east of the line, including the east coast of Brazil.

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Figure 2.5 This 1502 map, known as the Cantino World Map, depicts the cartographer’s interpretation of the world in light of recent discoveries. The map shows areas of Portuguese and Spanish exploration, the two nations’ claims under the Treaty of Tordesillas, and a variety of flora, fauna, figures, and structures. What does it reveal about the state of geographical knowledge, as well as European perceptions of the New World, at the beginning of the sixteenth century?

Columbus’s discovery opened a floodgate of Spanish exploration. Inspired by tales of rivers of gold and timid, malleable natives, later Spanish explorers were relentless in their quest for land and gold. Hernán Cortés hoped to gain hereditary privilege for his family, tribute payments and labor from natives, and an annual pension for his service to the crown. Cortés arrived on Hispaniola in 1504 and took part in the conquest of that island. In anticipation of winning his own honor and riches, Cortés later explored the Yucatán Peninsula. In 1519, he entered Tenochtitlán, the capital of the Aztec (Mexica) Empire. He and his menwereastonishedbytheincrediblysophisticatedcauseways,gardens,andtemplesinthecity,butthey were horrified by the practice of human sacrifice that was part of the Aztec religion. Above all else, the Aztec wealth in gold fascinated the Spanish adventurers. Hoping to gain power over the city, Cortés took Moctezuma, the Aztec ruler, hostage. The Spanish then murdered hundreds of high-ranking Mexica during a festival to celebrate Huitzilopochtli, the god of war. This angered the people of Tenochtitlán, who rose up against the interlopers in their city. Cortés and his people fled for their lives, running down one of Tenochtitlán’s causeways to safety on the shore. Smarting from their defeat at the hands of the Aztec, Cortés slowly created alliances with native peoples who resented Aztec rule. It took nearly a year for the Spanish and the tens of thousands of native allies who joined them to defeat the Mexica in Tenochtitlán, which they did by laying siege to the city. Only by playinguponthedisunityamongthediversegroupsintheAztecEmpireweretheSpanishabletocapture the grand city of Tenochtitlán. In August 1521, having successfully fomented civil war as well as fended off rival Spanish explorers, Cortés claimed Tenochtitlán for Spain and renamed it Mexico City. The traditional European narrative of exploration presents the victory of the Spanish over the Aztec as an example of the superiority of the Europeans over the savage Indians. However, the reality is far more complex. When Cortés explored central Mexico, he encountered a region simmering with native conflict. Far from being unified and content under Aztec rule, many peoples in Mexico resented it and were ready to rebel. One group in particular, the Tlaxcalan, threw their lot in with the Spanish, providing as many as 200,000 fighters in the siege of Tenochtitlán. The Spanish also brought smallpox into the valley of Mexico. ThediseasetookaheavytollonthepeopleinTenochtitlán,playingamuchgreaterroleinthecity’sdemise than did Spanish force of arms.

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Cortés was also aided by a Nahua woman called Malintzin (also known as La Malinche or Doña Marina, herSpanishname),whomthenativesofTabascogavehimastribute.MalintzintranslatedforCortésinhis dealings with Moctezuma and, whether willingly or under pressure, entered into a physical relationship with him. Their son, Martín, may have been the first mestizo (person of mixed indigenous American and European descent). Malintzin remains a controversial figure in the history of the Atlantic World; some peopleviewherasatraitorbecauseshehelpedCortésconquertheAztecs,whileothersseeherasavictim of European expansion. In either case, she demonstrates one way in which native peoples responded to thearrivaloftheSpanish.Withouther,Cortéswouldnothavebeenabletocommunicate,andwithoutthe language bridge, he surely would have been less successful in destabilizing the Aztec Empire. By this and other means, native people helped shape the conquest of the Americas. Spain’sacquisitivenessseeminglyknewnoboundsasgroupsofitsexplorerssearchedforthenexttroveof instantriches.Onesuchexplorer,FranciscoPizarro,madehiswaytotheSpanishCaribbeanin1509,drawn by the promise of wealth and titles. He participated in successful expeditions in Panama before following rumors of Inca wealth to the south. Although his first efforts against the Inca Empire in the 1520s failed, Pizarro captured the Inca emperor Atahualpa in 1532 and executed him one year later. In 1533, Pizarro founded Lima, Peru. Like Cortés, Pizarro had to combat not only the natives of the new worlds he was conquering, but also competitors from his own country; a Spanish rival assassinated him in 1541. Spain’s drive to enlarge its empire led other hopeful conquistadors to push further into the Americas, hoping to replicate the success of Cortés and Pizarro. Hernando de Soto had participated in Pizarro’s conquest of the Inca, and from 1539 to 1542 he led expeditions to what is today the southeastern United States, looking for gold. He and his followers explored what is now Florida, Georgia, the Carolinas, Tennessee, Alabama, Mississippi, Arkansas, Oklahoma, Louisiana, and Texas. Everywhere they traveled, they brought European diseases, which claimed thousands of native lives as well as the lives of the explorers.In1542,deSotohimselfdiedduringtheexpedition.ThesurvivingSpaniards,numberingalittle overthreehundred,returnedtoMexicoCitywithoutfindingthemuch-anticipatedmountainsofgoldand silver. FranciscoVásquezdeCoronadowasbornintoanoblefamilyandwenttoMexico,thencalledNewSpain, in 1535. He presided as governor over the province of Nueva Galicia, where he heard rumors of wealth to the north: a golden city called Quivira. Between 1540 and 1542, Coronado led a large expedition of SpaniardsandnativealliestothelandsnorthofMexicoCity,andforthenextseveralyears,theyexplored the area that is now the southwestern United States (Figure 2.6). During the winter of 1540–41, the explorers waged war against the Tiwa in present-day New Mexico. Rather than leading to the discovery of gold and silver, however, the expedition simply left Coronado bankrupt.

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Figure 2.6 This map traces Coronado’s path through the American Southwest and the Great Plains. The regions through which he traveled were not empty areas waiting to be “discovered”: rather, they were populated and controlled by the groups of native peoples indicated. (credit: modification of work by National Park Service)

THE SPANISH GOLDEN AGE The exploits of European explorers had a profound impact both in the Americas and back in Europe. An exchange of ideas, fueled and financed in part by New World commodities, began to connect European nations and, in turn, to touch the parts of the world that Europeans conquered. In Spain, gold and silver from the Americas helped to fuel a golden age, the Siglo de Oro, when Spanish art and literature flourished. Riches poured in from the colonies, and new ideas poured in from other countries and new lands. The Hapsburg dynasty, which ruled a collection of territories including Austria, the Netherlands, Naples, Sicily, and Spain, encouraged and financed the work of painters, sculptors, musicians, architects, and writers, resulting in a blooming of Spanish Renaissance culture. One of this period’s most famous works is the novel The Ingenious Gentleman Don Quixote of La Mancha, by Miguel de Cervantes. This twovolume book (1605 and 1618) told a colorful tale of an hidalgo (gentleman) who reads so many tales of chivalry and knighthood that he becomes unable to tell reality from fiction. With his faithful sidekick SanchoPanza,DonQuixoteleavesrealitybehindandsetsouttorevivechivalrybydoingbattlewithwhat he perceives as the enemies of Spain.

Explore the collection at The Cervantes Project (http://openstaxcollege.org/l/ cervantes) for images, complete texts, and other resources relating to Cervantes’s works.

Click and Explore

Chapter 2 Early Globalization: The Atlantic World, 1492–1650 47

Spain attracted innovative foreign painters such as El Greco, a Greek who had studied with Italian Renaissance masters like Titian and Michelangelo before moving to Toledo. Native Spaniards created equally enduring works. Las Meninas (The Maids of Honor), painted by Diego Velázquez in 1656, is one of the best-known paintings in history. Velázquez painted himself into this imposingly large royal portrait (he’s shown holding his brush and easel on the left) and boldly placed the viewer where the king and queen would stand in the scene (Figure 2.7).

Figure 2.7 Las Meninas (The Maids of Honor), painted by Diego Velázquez in 1656, is unique for its time because it places the viewer in the place of King Philip IV and his wife, Queen Mariana.

2.2 Religious Upheavals in the Developing Atlantic World

By the end of this section, you will be able to: • Explain the changes brought by the Protestant Reformation and how it influenced the development of the Atlantic World • Describe Spain’s response to the Protestant Reformation

Until the 1500s, the Catholic Church provided a unifying religious structure for Christian Europe. The Vatican in Rome exercised great power over the lives of Europeans; it controlled not only learning and scholarship but also finances, because it levied taxes on the faithful. Spain, with its New World wealth, was the bastion of the Catholic faith. Beginning with the reform efforts of Martin Luther in 1517 and John Calvininthe1530s,however,CatholicdominancecameunderattackastheProtestantReformation,asplit or schism among European Christians, began. During the sixteenth century, Protestantism spread through northern Europe, and Catholic countries respondedbyattemptingtoextinguishwhatwasseenastheProtestantmenace.Religiousturmoilbetween CatholicsandProtestantsinfluencedthehistoryoftheAtlanticWorldaswell,sincedifferentnation-states competed not only for control of new territories but also for the preeminence of their religious beliefs

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there. Just as the history of Spain’s rise to power is linked to the Reconquista, so too is the history of early globalization connected to the history of competing Christian groups in the Atlantic World.

MARTIN LUTHER Martin Luther (Figure 2.8) was a German Catholic monk who took issue with the Catholic Church’s practiceofsellingindulgences,documentsthatabsolvedsinnersoftheirerrantbehavior.Healsoobjected to the Catholic Church’s taxation of ordinary Germans and the delivery of Mass in Latin, arguing that it failed to instruct German Catholics, who did not understand the language.

Figure 2.8 Martin Luther, a German Catholic monk and leader of the Protestant Reformation, was a close friend of the German painter Lucas Cranach the Elder. Cranach painted this and several other portraits of Luther.

Many Europeans had called for reforms of the Catholic Church before Martin Luther did, but his protest had the unintended consequence of splitting European Christianity. Luther compiled a list of what he viewed as needed Church reforms, a document that came to be known as The Ninety-Five Theses, and nailed it to the door of a church in Wittenberg, Germany, in 1517. He called for the publication of the Bible in everyday language, took issue with the Church’s policy of imposing tithes (a required payment to the Church that appeared to enrich the clergy), and denounced the buying and selling of indulgences. AlthoughhehadhopedtoreformtheCatholicChurchwhileremainingapartofit,Luther’sactioninstead triggered a movement called the Protestant Reformation that divided the Church in two. The Catholic Church condemned him as a heretic, but a doctrine based on his reforms, called Lutheranism, spread through northern Germany and Scandinavia.

Visit Fordham University’s Internet Medieval Sourcebook (http://openstaxcollege.org/l/fordham) for access to many primary sources relating to the Protestant Reformation.

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JOHN CALVIN LikeLuther,theFrenchlawyerJohnCalvinadvocatedmakingtheBibleaccessibletoordinarypeople;only by reading scripture and reflecting daily about their spiritual condition, he argued, could believers begin to understand the power of God. In 1535, Calvin fled Catholic France and led the Reformation movement from Geneva, Switzerland. Calvinism emphasized human powerlessness before an omniscient God and stressed the idea of predestination, the belief that God selected a few chosen people for salvation while everyone else was predestinedtodamnation.Calvinistsbelievedthatreadingscripturepreparedsinners,iftheywereamong the elect, to receive God’s grace. In Geneva, Calvin established a Bible commonwealth, a community of believers whose sole source of authority was their interpretation of the Bible, not the authority of any prince or monarch. Soon Calvin’s ideas spread to the Netherlands and Scotland.

PROTESTANTISM IN ENGLAND ProtestantismspreadbeyondtheGermanstatesandGenevatoEngland,whichhadbeenaCatholicnation for centuries. Luther’s idea that scripture should be available in the everyday language of worshippers inspiredEnglishscholarWilliamTyndaletotranslatetheBibleintoEnglishin1526.Theseismicbreakwith theCatholicChurchinEnglandoccurredinthe1530s,whenHenryVIIIestablishedanew,Protestantstate religion. A devout Catholic, Henry had initially stood in opposition to the Reformation. Pope Leo X even awarded him the title “Defender of the Faith.” The tides turned, however, when Henry desired a male heir to the Tudormonarchy.WhenhisSpanishCatholicwife,Catherine(thedaughterofFerdinandandIsabella),did notgivebirthtoaboy,thekingsoughtanannulmenttotheirmarriage.WhenthePoperefusedhisrequest, Henry created a new national Protestant church, the Church of England, with himself at its head. This left him free to annul his own marriage and marry Anne Boleyn. Anne Boleyn also failed to produce a male heir, and when she was accused of adultery, Henry had her executed. His third wife, Jane Seymour, at long last delivered a son, Edward, who ruled for only a short timebeforedyingin1553attheageoffifteen.Mary,thedaughterofHenryVIIIandhisdiscardedfirstwife Catherine,thencametothethrone,committedtorestoringCatholicism.Sheearnedthenickname“Bloody Mary” for the many executions of Protestants, often by burning alive, that she ordered during her reign. ReligiousturbulenceinEnglandwasfinallyquietedwhenElizabeth,theProtestantdaughterofHenryVIII and Anne Boleyn, ascended the throne in 1558. Under Elizabeth, the Church of England again became the statechurch,retainingthehierarchicalstructureandmanyoftheritualsoftheCatholicChurch.However, by the late 1500s, some English members of the Church began to agitate for more reform. Known as Puritans, they worked to erase all vestiges of Catholicism from the Church of England. At the time, the term “puritan” was a pejorative one; many people saw Puritans as holier-than-thou frauds who used religion to swindle their neighbors. Worse still, many in power saw Puritans as a security threat because of their opposition to the national church. UnderElizabeth,whoselongreignlastedfrom1558to1603,Puritansgrewsteadilyinnumber.AfterJames I died in 1625 and his son Charles I ascended the throne, Puritans became the target of increasing state pressure to conform. Many crossed the Atlantic in the 1620s and 1630s instead to create a New England, a haven for reformed Protestantism where Puritan was no longer a term of abuse. Thus, the religious upheavals that affected England so much had equally momentous consequences for the Americas.

RELIGIOUS WAR By the early 1500s, the Protestant Reformation threatened the massive Spanish Catholic empire. As the preeminent Catholic power, Spain would not tolerate any challenge to the Holy Catholic Church. Over the course of the 1500s, it devoted vast amounts of treasure and labor to leading an unsuccessful effort to eradicate Protestantism in Europe.

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Spain’s main enemies at this time were the runaway Spanish provinces of the North Netherlands. By 1581, these seven northern provinces had declared their independence from Spain and created the Dutch Republic, also called Holland, where Protestantism was tolerated. Determined to deal a death blow to Protestantism in England and Holland, King Philip of Spain assembled a massive force of over thirty thousand men and 130 ships, and in 1588 he sent this navy, the Spanish Armada, north. But English sea power combined with a maritime storm destroyed the fleet. The defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588 was but one part of a larger but undeclared war between ProtestantEnglandandCatholicSpain.Between1585and1604,thetworivalssparredrepeatedly.England launched its own armada in 1589 in an effort to cripple the Spanish fleet and capture Spanish treasure. However,theforayendedindisasterfortheEnglish,withstorms,disease,andthestrengthoftheSpanish Armada combining to bring about defeat. The conflict between Spain and England dragged on into the early seventeenth century, and the newly Protestantnations,especiallyEnglandandtheDutchRepublic,posedasignificantchallengetoSpain(and also to Catholic France) as imperial rivalries played out in the Atlantic World. Spain retained its mighty American empire, but by the early 1600s, the nation could no longer keep England and other European rivals—the French and Dutch—from colonizing smaller islands in the Caribbean (Figure 2.9).

Figure 2.9 This portrait of Elizabeth I of England, painted by George Gower in about 1588, shows Elizabeth with her hand on a globe, signifying her power over the world. The pictures in the background show the English defeat of the Spanish Armada.

Religious intolerance characterized the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, an age of powerful state religions with the authority to impose and enforce belief systems on the population. In this climate, religiousviolencewascommon.OneofthemoststrikingexamplesistheSt.Bartholomew’sDayMassacre of 1572, in which French Catholic troops began to kill unarmed French Protestants (Figure 2.10). The murders touched off mob violence that ultimately claimed nine thousand lives, a bloody episode that highlights the degree of religious turmoil that gripped Europe in the aftermath of the Protestant Reformation.

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Figure 2.10 Saint Bartholomew’s Day Massacre (1772-84), by François Dubois, shows the horrific violence of the St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre. In this scene, French Catholic troops slaughter French Protestant Calvinists.

2.3 Challenges to Spain’s Supremacy

By the end of this section, you will be able to: • Identify regions where the English, French, and Dutch explored and established settlements • Describe the differences among the early colonies • Explain the role of the American colonies in European nations’ struggles for domination

For Europeans, the discovery of an Atlantic World meant newfound wealth in the form of gold and silver as well as valuable furs. The Americas also provided a new arena for intense imperial rivalry as different European nations jockeyed for preeminence in the New World. The religious motives for colonization spurred European expansion as well, and as the Protestant Reformation gained ground beginning in the 1520s, rivalries between Catholic and Protestant Christians spilled over into the Americas.

ENGLISH EXPLORATION Disruptions during the Tudor monarchy—especially the creation of the Protestant Church of England by Henry VIII in the 1530s, the return of the nation to Catholicism under Queen Mary in the 1550s, and the restoration of Protestantism under Queen Elizabeth—left England with little energy for overseas projects.Moreimportant,Englandlackedthefinancialresourcesforsuchendeavors.Nonetheless,English monarchscarefullymonitoreddevelopmentsinthenewAtlanticWorldandtookstepstoassertEngland’s claim to the Americas. As early as 1497, Henry VII of England had commissioned John Cabot, an Italian mariner, to explore new lands. Cabot sailed from England that year and made landfall somewhere along the North American coastline. For the next century, English fishermen routinely crossed the Atlantic to fish the rich waters off the North American coast. However, English colonization efforts in the 1500s were closer to home, as England devoted its energy to the colonization of Ireland. Queen Elizabeth favored England’s advance into the Atlantic World, though her main concern was blocking Spain’s effort to eliminate Protestantism. Indeed, England could not commit to large-scale colonization in the Americas as long as Spain appeared ready to invade Ireland or Scotland. Nonetheless,

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Elizabeth approved of English privateers, sea captains to whom the home government had given permission to raid the enemy at will. These skilled mariners cruised the Caribbean, plundering Spanish shipswhenevertheycould.EachyeartheEnglishtookmorethan£100,000fromSpaininthisway;English privateer Francis Drake first made a name for himself when, in 1573, he looted silver, gold, and pearls worth £40,000. Elizabeth did sanction an early attempt at colonization in 1584, when Sir Walter Raleigh, a favorite of the queen’s, attempted to establish a colony at Roanoke, an island off the coast of present-day North Carolina. The colony was small, consisting of only 117 people, who suffered a poor relationship with the local Indians, the Croatans, and struggled to survive in their new land (Figure 2.11). Their governor, John White, returned to England in late 1587 to secure more people and supplies, but events conspired to keep him away from Roanoke for three years. By the time he returned in 1590, the entire colony had vanished. The only trace the colonists left behind was the word Croatoan carved into a fence surrounding the village. Governor White never knew whether the colonists had decamped for nearby Croatoan Island (now Hatteras) or whether some disaster had befallen them all. Roanoke is still called “the lost colony.”

Figure 2.11 In 1588, a promoter of English colonization named Thomas Hariot published A Briefe and True Report of the New Found Land of Virginia, which contained many engravings of the native peoples who lived on the Carolina coast in the 1580s. This print, “The brovvyllinge of their fishe ouer the flame” (1590) by Theodor de Bry, shows the ingenuity and wisdom of the “savages” of the New World. (credit: UNC Chapel Hill)

English promoters of colonization pushed its commercial advantages and the religious justification that EnglishcolonieswouldallowtheestablishmentofProtestantismintheAmericas.Bothargumentsstrucka chord. In the early 1600s, wealthy English merchants and the landed elite began to pool their resources to form joint stock companies. In this novel business arrangement, which was in many ways the precursor to the modern corporation, investors provided the capital for and assumed the risk of a venture in order to reap significant returns. The companies gained the approval of the English crown to establish colonies, and their investors dreamed of reaping great profits from the money they put into overseas colonization. The first permanent English settlement was established by a joint stock company, the Virginia Company. Named for Elizabeth, the “virgin queen,” the company gained royal approval to establish a colony on the east coast of North America, and in 1606, it sent 144 men and boys to the New World. In early 1607, this group sailed up Chesapeake Bay. Finding a river they called the James in honor of their new king, James I,theyestablishedaramshacklesettlementandnameditJamestown.Despiteseriousstruggles,thecolony survived. Many of Jamestown’s settlers were desperate men; although they came from elite families, they were younger sons who would not inherit their father’s estates. The Jamestown adventurers believed they would find instant wealth in the New World and did not actually expect to have to perform work. Henry Percy, the eighth son of the Earl of Northumberland, was among them. His account, excerpted below, illustrates the hardships the English confronted in Virginia in 1607.

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MY STORY George Percy and the First Months at Jamestown

The 144 men and boys who started the Jamestown colony faced many hardships; by the end of the first winter, only 38 had survived. Disease, hunger, and poor relationships with local natives all contributed to the colony’s high death toll. George Percy, who served twice as governor of Jamestown, kept records of the colonists’ first months in the colony. These records were later published in London in 1608. This excerpt is from his account of August and September of 1607. The fourth day of September died Thomas Jacob Sergeant. The fifth day, there died Benjamin Beast. Our men were destroyed with cruel diseases, as Swellings, Fluxes, Burning Fevers, and by wars, and some departed suddenly, but for the most part they died of mere famine. There were never Englishmen left in a foreign Country in such misery as we were in this new discovered Virginia. . . . Our food was but a small Can of Barley sod* in water, to five men a day, our drink cold water taken out of the River, which was at a flood very salty, at a low tide full of slime and filth, which was the destruction of many of our men. Thus we lived for the space of five months in this miserable distress, not having five able men to man our Bulwarks upon any occasion. If it had not pleased God to have put a terror in the Savages’ hearts, we had all perished by those wild and cruel Pagans, being in that weak estate as we were; our men night and day groaning in every corner of the Fort most pitiful to hear. If there were any conscience in men, it would make their hearts to bleed to hear the pitiful murmurings and outcries of our sick men without relief, every night and day, for the space of six weeks, some departing out of the World, many times three or four in a night; in the morning, their bodies trailed out of their Cabins like Dogs to be buried. In this sort did I see the mortality of diverse of our people. *soaked According to George Percy’s account, what were the major problems the Jamestown settlers encountered? What kept the colony from complete destruction?

By any measure, England came late to the race to colonize. As Jamestown limped along in the 1610s, the Spanish Empire extended around the globe and grew rich from its global colonial project. Yet the English persisted,andforthisreasontheJamestownsettlementhasaspecialplaceinhistoryasthefirstpermanent colony in what later became the United States. After Jamestown’s founding, English colonization of the New World accelerated. In 1609, a ship bound for Jamestown foundered in a storm and landed on Bermuda. (Some believe this incident helped inspire Shakespeare’s 1611 play The Tempest.) The admiral of the ship, George Somers, claimed the island for the English crown. The English also began to colonize small islands in the Caribbean, an incursion into the Spanish American empire. They established themselves on small islands such as St. Christopher (1624), Barbados (1627), Nevis (1628), Montserrat (1632), and Antigua (1632). From the start, the English West Indies had a commercial orientation, for these islands produced cash crops: first tobacco andthen sugar. Veryquickly, by the mid-1600s, Barbados had become one of themost important English colonies because of the sugar produced there. Barbados was the first English colony dependent on slaves, and it became a model for other English slave societies on the American mainland. These differed radically from England itself, where slavery was not practiced. English Puritans also began to colonize the Americas in the 1620s and 1630s. These intensely religious migrants dreamed of creating communities of reformed Protestantism where the corruption of England would be eliminated. One of the first groups of Puritans to remove to North America, known as Pilgrims andledbyWilliamBradford,hadoriginallyleftEnglandtoliveintheNetherlands.Fearingtheirchildren were losing their English identity among the Dutch, however, they sailed for North America in 1620 to settleatPlymouth,thefirstEnglishsettlementinNewEngland.ThePilgrimsdifferedfromotherPuritans

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in their insistence on separating from what they saw as the corrupt Church of England. For this reason, Pilgrims are known asSeparatists. Like Jamestown, Plymouth occupies an iconic place in American national memory. The tale of the 102 migrants who crossed the Atlantic aboard the Mayflower and their struggle for survival is a well-known narrative of the founding of the country. Their story includes the signing of the Mayflower Compact, a written agreement whereby the English voluntarily agreed to help each other. Some interpret this 1620 document as an expression of democratic spirit because of the cooperative and inclusive nature of the agreement to live and work together. In 1630, a much larger contingent of Puritans left England to escape conformity to the Church of England and founded the Massachusetts Bay Colony. In the following years, thousands more arrived to create a new life in the rocky soils and cold climates of New England. In comparison to Catholic Spain, however, Protestant England remained a very weak imperial player in the early seventeenth century, with only a few infant colonies in the Americas in the early 1600s. The English never found treasure equal to that of the Aztec city of Tenochtitlán, and England did not quickly grow rich from its small American outposts. The English colonies also differed from each other; Barbados and Virginia had a decidedly commercial orientation from the start, while the Puritan colonies of New England were intensely religious at their inception. All English settlements in America, however, marked the increasingly important role of England in the Atlantic World.

FRENCH EXPLORATION Spanish exploits in the New World whetted the appetite of other would-be imperial powers, including France. Like Spain, France was a Catholic nation and committed to expanding Catholicism around the globe.Intheearlysixteenthcentury,itjoinedtheracetoexploretheNewWorldandexploittheresources of the Western Hemisphere. Navigator Jacques Cartier claimed northern North America for France, naming the area New France. From 1534 to 1541, he made three voyages of discovery on the Gulf of St. Lawrence and the St. Lawrence River. Like other explorers, Cartier made exaggerated claims of mineral wealth in America, but he was unable to send great riches back to France. Due to resistance from the nativepeoplesaswellashisownlackofplanning,hecouldnotestablishapermanentsettlementinNorth America. Explorer Samuel de Champlain occupies a special place in the history of the Atlantic World for his role in establishing the French presence in the New World. Champlain explored the Caribbean in 1601 and then the coast of New England in 1603 before traveling farther north. In 1608 he founded Quebec, and he made numerous Atlantic crossings as he worked tirelessly to promote New France. Unlike other imperial powers, France—through Champlain’s efforts—fostered especially good relationships with native peoples,pavingthewayforFrenchexplorationfurtherintothecontinent:aroundtheGreatLakes,around Hudson Bay, and eventually to the Mississippi. Champlain made an alliance with the Huron confederacy and the Algonquins and agreed to fight with them against their enemy, the Iroquois (Figure 2.12).

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Figure 2.12 In this engraving, titled Defeat of the Iroquois and based on a drawing by explorer Samuel de Champlain, Champlain is shown fighting on the side of the Huron and Algonquins against the Iroquois. He portrays himself in the middle of the battle, firing a gun, while the native people around him shoot arrows at each other. What does this engraving suggest about the impact of European exploration and settlement on the Americas?

The French were primarily interested in establishing commercially viable colonial outposts, and to that end, they created extensive trading networks in New France. These networks relied on native hunters to harvest furs, especially beaver pelts, and to exchange these items for French glass beads and other trade goods. (French fashion at the time favored broad-brimmed hats trimmed in beaver fur, so French traders hadareadymarketfortheirNorthAmericangoods.)TheFrenchalsodreamedofreplicatingthewealthof Spainbycolonizingthetropicalzones.AfterSpanishcontroloftheCaribbeanbegantoweaken,theFrench turnedtheirattentiontosmallislandsintheWestIndies,andby1635theyhadcolonizedtwo,Guadeloupe and Martinique. Though it lagged far behind Spain, France now boasted its own West Indian colonies. Both islands became lucrative sugar plantation sites that turned a profit for French planters by relying on African slave labor.

To see how cartographers throughout history documented the exploration of the Atlantic World, browse the hundreds of digitized historical maps that make up the collection American Shores: Maps of the Middle Atlantic Region to 1850 (http://openstaxcollege.org/l/nypl) at the New York Public Library.

DUTCH COLONIZATION Dutch entrance into the Atlantic World is part of the larger story of religious and imperial conflict in the early modern era. In the 1500s, Calvinism, one of the major Protestant reform movements, had found adherents in the northern provinces of the Spanish Netherlands. During the sixteenth century, these provinces began a long struggle to achieve independence from Catholic Spain. Established in 1581 but not recognized as independent by Spain until 1648, the Dutch Republic, or Holland, quickly made itself a powerful force in the race for Atlantic colonies and wealth. The Dutch distinguished themselves as

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commercial leaders in the seventeenth century (Figure 2.13), and their mode of colonization relied on powerful corporations: the Dutch East India Company, chartered in 1602 to trade in Asia, and the Dutch West India Company, established in 1621 to colonize and trade in the Americas.

Figure 2.13 Amsterdam was the richest city in the world in the 1600s. In Courtyard of the Exchange in Amsterdam, a 1653 painting by Emanuel de Witt, merchants involved in the global trade eagerly attend to news of shipping and the prices of commodities.

While employed by the Dutch East India Company in 1609, the English sea captain Henry Hudson explored New York Harbor and the river that now bears his name. Like many explorers of the time, Hudson was actually seeking a northwest passage to Asia and its wealth, but the ample furs harvested from the region he explored, especially the coveted beaver pelts, provided a reason to claim it for the Netherlands. The Dutch named their colony New Netherlands, and it served as a fur-trading outpost for the expanding and powerful Dutch West India Company. With headquarters in New Amsterdam on the island of Manhattan, the Dutch set up several regional trading posts, including one at Fort Orange—named for the royal Dutch House of Orange-Nassau—in present-day Albany. (The color orange remains significant to the Dutch, having become particularly associated with William of Orange, Protestantism, and the Glorious Revolution of 1688.) A brisk trade in furs with local Algonquian and Iroquois peoples brought the Dutch and native peoples together in a commercial network that extended throughout the Hudson River Valley and beyond. The Dutch West India Company in turn established colonies on Aruba, Bonaire, and Curaçao, St. Martin, St. Eustatius, and Saba. With their outposts in New Netherlands and the Caribbean, the Dutch had established themselves in the seventeenth century as a commercially powerful rival to Spain. Amsterdam became a trade hub for all the Atlantic World.

2.4 New Worlds in the Americas: Labor, Commerce, and the Columbian Exchange

By the end of this section, you will be able to: • Describe how Europeans solved their labor problems • Describe the theory of mercantilism and the process of commodification • Analyze the effects of the Columbian Exchange

European promoters of colonization claimed the Americas overflowed with a wealth of treasures. Burnishing national glory and honor became entwined with carving out colonies, and no nation wanted to be left behind. However, the realities of life in the Americas—violence, exploitation, and particularly theneedforworkers—weresoondrivingthepracticeofslaveryandforcedlabor.EverywhereinAmerica a stark contrast existed between freedom and slavery. The Columbian Exchange, in which Europeans transported plants, animals, and diseases across the Atlantic in both directions, also left a lasting impression on the Americas.

LABOR SYSTEMS Physicalpower—toworkthefields,buildvillages,processrawmaterials—isanecessityformaintaininga society. During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, humans could derive power only from the wind, water, animals, or other humans. Everywhere in the Americas, a crushing demand for labor bedeviled Europeans because there were not enough colonists to perform the work necessary to keep the colonies going. Spain granted encomiendas—legal rights to native labor—to conquistadors who could prove their servicetothecrown.ThissystemreflectedtheSpanishviewofcolonization: thekingrewardedsuccessful conquistadorswhoexpandedtheempire.Somenativepeopleswhohadsidedwiththeconquistadors,like theTlaxcalan,alsogainedencomiendas;Malintzin,theNahuawomanwhohelpedCortésdefeattheMexica, was granted one. The Spanish believed native peoples would work for them by right of conquest, and, in return, the Spanish would bring them Catholicism. In theory the relationship consisted of reciprocal obligations, but in practice the Spaniards ruthlessly exploited it, seeing native people as little more than beasts of burden. Convincedoftheirrighttothelandanditspeoples,theysoughtbothtocontrolnativelaborandtoimpose what they viewed as correct religious beliefs upon the land’s inhabitants. Native peoples everywhere resisted both the labor obligations and the effort to change their ancient belief systems. Indeed, many retained their religion or incorporated only the parts of Catholicism that made sense to them. The system of encomiendas was accompanied by a great deal of violence (Figure 2.14). One Spaniard, Bartolomé de Las Casas , denounced the brutality of Spanish rule. A Dominican friar, Las Casas had been one of the earliest Spanish settlers in the Spanish West Indies. In his early life in the Americas, he owned Indian slaves and was the recipient of an encomienda. However, after witnessing the savagery with whichencomenderos(recipientsofencomiendas)treatedthenativepeople,hereversedhisviews.In1515,Las Casas released his native slaves, gave up his encomienda, and began to advocate for humane treatment of nativepeoples.Helobbiedfornewlegislation,eventuallyknownastheNewLaws,whichwouldeliminate slavery and theencomiendasystem.

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Figure 2.14 In this startling image from the Kingsborough Codex (a book written and drawn by native Mesoamericans), a well-dressed Spaniard is shown pulling the hair of a bleeding, severely injured native. The drawing was part of a complaint about Spanish abuses of their encomiendas.

Las Casas’s writing about the Spaniards’ horrific treatment of Indians helped inspire the so-called Black Legend, the idea that the Spanish were bloodthirsty conquerors with no regard for human life. Perhaps notsurprisingly,thosewhoheldthisviewoftheSpanishwereSpain’simperialrivals.Englishwritersand othersseizedontheideaofSpain’sruthlessnesstosupporttheirowncolonizationprojects.Bydemonizing the Spanish, they justified their own efforts as more humane. All European colonizers, however, shared a disregard for Indians.

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MY STORY Bartolomé de Las Casas on the Mistreatment of Indians Bartolomé de Las Casas’sAShortAccountoftheDestructionoftheIndies, written in 1542 and published ten years later, detailed for Prince Philip II of Spain how Spanish colonists had been mistreating natives. Into and among these gentle sheep, endowed by their Maker and Creator with all the qualities aforesaid, did creep the Spaniards, who no sooner had knowledge of these people than they became like fierce wolves and tigers and lions who have gone many days without food or nourishment. And no other thing have they done for forty years until this day, and still today see fit to do, but dismember, slay, perturb, afflict, torment, and destroy the Indians by all manner of cruelty—new and divers and most singular manners such as never before seen or read or heard of—some few of which shall be recounted below, and they do this to such a degree that on the Island of Hispaniola, of the above three millions souls that we once saw, today there be no more than two hundred of those native people remaining. . . . Two principal and general customs have been employed by those, calling themselves Christians, who have passed this way, in extirpating and striking from the face of the earth those suffering nations. The first being unjust, cruel, bloody, and tyrannical warfare. The other—after havingslainallthose whomight yearntoward orsuspireafter orthink offreedom, or consider escaping from the torments that they are made to suffer, by which I mean all the native-born lords and adult males, for it is the Spaniards’ custom in their wars to allow only young boys and females to live—being to oppress them with the hardest, harshest, and most heinous bondage to which men or beasts might ever be bound into. How might these writings have been used to promote the “black legend” against Spain as well as subsequent English exploration and colonization?

Indians were not the only source of cheap labor in the Americas; by the middle of the sixteenth century, Africans formed an important element of the labor landscape, producing the cash crops of sugar and tobacco for European markets. Europeans viewed Africans as non-Christians, which they used as a justification for enslavement. Denied control over their lives, slaves endured horrendous conditions. At every opportunity, they resisted enslavement, and their resistance was met with violence. Indeed, physical,mental,andsexualviolenceformedakeystrategyamongEuropeanslaveholdersintheireffortto assertmasteryandimposetheirwill.ThePortugueseledthewayintheevolvingtransportofslavesacross the Atlantic; slave “factories” on the west coast of Africa, like Elmina Castle in Ghana, served as holding pens for slaves brought from Africa’s interior. In time, other European imperial powers would follow in the footsteps of the Portuguese by constructing similar outposts on the coast of West Africa. ThePortuguesetradedorsoldslavestoSpanish,Dutch,andEnglishcolonistsintheAmericas,particularly in South America and the Caribbean, where sugar was a primary export. Thousands of African slaves foundthemselvesgrowing,harvesting,andprocessingsugarcaneinanarduousroutineofphysicallabor. Slaves had to cut the long cane stalks by hand and then bring them to a mill, where the cane juice was extracted. They boiled the extracted cane juice down to a brown, crystalline sugar, which then had to be cured in special curing houses to have the molasses drained from it. The result was refined sugar, while the leftover molasses could be distilled into rum. Every step was labor-intensive and often dangerous. LasCasasestimatedthatby1550,therewerefiftythousandslavesonHispaniola.However,itisamistake toassumethatduringtheveryearlyyearsofEuropeanexplorationallAfricanscametoAmericaasslaves; somewerefreemenwhotookpartinexpeditions,forexample,servingasconquistadorsalongsideCortés in his assault on Tenochtitlán. Nonetheless, African slavery was one of the most tragic outcomes in the emerging Atlantic World.

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Browse the PBS collection Africans in America: Part 1 (http://openstaxcollege.org/ l/afinam) to see information and primary sources for the period 1450 through 1750.

COMMERCE IN THE NEW WORLD The economic philosophy of mercantilism shaped European perceptions of wealth from the 1500s to the late 1700s. Mercantilism held that only a limited amount of wealth, as measured in gold and silver bullion, existed in the world. In order to gain power, nations had to amass wealth by mining these precious raw materials from their colonial possessions. During the age of European exploration, nations employed conquest, colonization, and trade as ways to increase their share of the bounty of the New World. Mercantilists did not believe in free trade, arguing instead that the nation should control trade to create wealth. In this view, colonies existed to strengthen the colonizing nation. Mercantilists argued against allowing their nations to trade freely with other nations. Spain’s mercantilist ideas guided its economic policy. Every year, slaves or native workers loaded shipments of gold and silver aboard Spanish treasure fleets that sailed from Cuba for Spain. These ships groanedunderthesheerweightofbullion,fortheSpanishhadfoundhugecachesofsilverandgoldinthe New World. In South America, for example, Spaniards discovered rich veins of silver ore in the mountain called Potosí and founded a settlement of the same name there. Throughout the sixteenth century, Potosí was a boom town, attracting settlers from many nations as well as native people from many different cultures. Colonial mercantilism, which was basically a set of protectionist policies designed to benefit the nation, relied on several factors: colonies rich in raw materials, cheap labor, colonial loyalty to the home government, and control of the shipping trade. Under this system, the colonies sent their raw materials, harvestedbyslavesornativeworkers,backtotheirmothercountry.Themothercountrysentbackfinished materials of all sorts: textiles, tools, clothing. The colonists could purchase these goods only from their mother country; trade with other countries was forbidden. The 1500s and early 1600s also introduced the process of commodification to the New World. American silver, tobacco, and other items, which were used by native peoples for ritual purposes, became European commodities with a monetary value that could be bought and sold. Before the arrival of the Spanish, for example, the Inca people of the Andes consumed chicha, a corn beer, for ritual purposes only. When the Spanish discovered chicha, they bought and traded for it, turning it into a commodity instead of a ritual substance. Commodification thus recast native economies and spurred the process of early commercial capitalism. New World resources, from plants to animal pelts, held the promise of wealth for European imperial powers.

THE COLUMBIAN EXCHANGE As Europeans traversed the Atlantic, they brought with them plants, animals, and diseases that changed lives and landscapes on both sides of the ocean. These two-way exchanges between the Americas and Europe/Africa are known collectively as the Columbian Exchange(Figure 2.15).

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Figure 2.15 With European exploration and settlement of the New World, goods and diseases began crossing the Atlantic Ocean in both directions. This “Columbian Exchange” soon had global implications.

OfallthecommoditiesintheAtlanticWorld,sugarprovedtobethemostimportant.Indeed,sugarcarried the same economic importance as oil does today. European rivals raced to create sugar plantations in the Americas and fought wars for control of some of the best sugar production areas. Although refined sugar wasavailableintheOldWorld,Europe’sharsherclimatemadesugarcanedifficulttogrow,anditwasnot plentiful.Columbus brought sugartoHispaniolain1493,andthenewcrop was growing therebytheend of the 1490s. By the first decades of the 1500s, the Spanish were building sugar mills on the island. Over the next century of colonization, Caribbean islands and most other tropical areas became centers of sugar production. Though of secondary importance to sugar, tobacco achieved great value for Europeans as a cash crop as well. Native peoples had been growing it for medicinal and ritual purposes for centuries before European contact, smoking it in pipes or powdering it to use as snuff. They believed tobacco could improve concentration and enhance wisdom. To some, its use meant achieving an entranced, altered, or divine state; entering a spiritual place. Tobacco was unknown in Europe before 1492, and it carried a negative stigma at first. The early Spanish explorers considered natives’ use of tobacco to be proof of their savagery and, because of the fire and smoke produced in the consumption of tobacco, evidence of the Devil’s sway in the New World. Gradually, however, European colonists became accustomed to and even took up the habit of smoking, and they brought it across the Atlantic. As did the Indians, Europeans ascribed medicinal properties to tobacco, claiming that it could cure headaches and skin irritations. Even so, Europeans did not import

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tobaccoingreatquantitiesuntilthe1590s.Atthattime,itbecamethefirsttrulyglobalcommodity;English, French, Dutch, Spanish, and Portuguese colonists all grew it for the world market. Native peoples also introduced Europeans to chocolate, made from cacao seeds and used by the Aztec in Mesoamerica as currency. Mesoamerican Indians consumed unsweetened chocolate in a drink with chili peppers, vanilla, and a spice called achiote. This chocolate drink—xocolatl—was part of ritual ceremonies like marriage and an everyday item for those who could afford it. Chocolate contains theobromine, a stimulant, which may be why native people believed it brought them closer to the sacred world. Spaniards in the New World considered drinking chocolate a vile practice; one called chocolate “the Devil’s vomit.” In time, however, they introduced the beverage to Spain. At first, chocolate was available only in the Spanish court, where the elite mixed it with sugar and other spices. Later, as its availability spread, chocolate gained a reputation as a love potion.

Visit Nature Transformed (http://openstaxcollege.org/l/naturetrans) for a collection of scholarly essays on the environment in American history.

The crossing of the Atlantic by plants like cacao and tobacco illustrates the ways in which the discovery of the New World changed the habits and behaviors of Europeans. Europeans changed the New World in turn, not least by bringing Old World animals to the Americas. On his second voyage, Christopher Columbus brought pigs, horses, cows, and chickens to the islands of the Caribbean. Later explorers followed suit, introducing new animals or reintroducing ones that had died out (like horses). With less vulnerability to disease, these animals often fared better than humans in their new home, thriving both in the wild and in domestication. Europeans encountered New World animals as well. Because European Christians understood the world as a place of warfare between God and Satan, many believed the Americas, which lacked Christianity, were home to the Devil and his minions. The exotic, sometimes bizarre, appearances and habits of animals in the Americas that were previously unknown to Europeans, such as manatees, sloths, and poisonoussnakes,confirmedthisassociation.Overtime,however,theybegantorelymoreonobservation of the natural world than solely on scripture. This shift—from seeing the Bible as the source of all received wisdom to trusting observation or empiricism—is one of the major outcomes of the era of early globalization. TravelersbetweentheAmericas,Africa,andEuropealsoincludedmicrobes:silent,invisiblelifeformsthat had profound and devastating consequences. Native peoples had no immunity to diseases from across the Atlantic, to which they had never been exposed. European explorers unwittingly brought with them chickenpox, measles, mumps, and smallpox, which ravaged native peoples despite their attempts to treat the diseases, decimating some populations and wholly destroying others (Figure 2.16).

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Figure 2.16 This sixteenth-century Aztec drawing shows the suffering of a typical victim of smallpox. Smallpox and other contagious diseases brought by European explorers decimated Indian populations in the Americas.

In eastern North America, some native peoples interpreted death from disease as a hostile act. Some groups, including the Iroquois, engaged in raids or “mourning wars,” taking enemy prisoners in order to assuage their grief and replace the departed. In a special ritual, the prisoners were “requickened”—assigned the identity of a dead person—and adopted by the bereaved family to take the place of their dead. As the toll from disease rose, mourning wars intensified and expanded.

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Black Legend

Calvinism

Columbian Exchange

commodification

encomienda

Hispaniola

indulgences

joint stock company

mercantilism

mourning wars

Pilgrims

Protestant Reformation

Puritans

privateers

probanza de mérito

Roanoke

Separatists

smallpox

sugarcane

Key Terms

Spain’s reputation as bloodthirsty conquistadors

a branch of Protestantism started by John Calvin, emphasizing human powerlessness before an omniscient God and stressing the idea of predestination

the movement of plants, animals, and diseases across the Atlantic due to European exploration of the Americas

the transformation of something—for example, an item of ritual significance—into a commodity with monetary value

legal rights to native labor as granted by the Spanish crown

the island in the Caribbean, present-day Haiti and Dominican Republic, where Columbus first landed and established a Spanish colony

documents for purchase that absolved sinners of their errant behavior

a business entity in which investors provide the capital and assume the risk in order to reap significant returns

the protectionist economic principle that nations should control trade with their colonies to ensure a favorable balance of trade

raids or wars that tribes waged in eastern North America in order to replace members lost to smallpox and other diseases

Separatists, led by William Bradford, who established the first English settlement in New

England

the schism in Catholicism that began with Martin Luther and John Calvin in the

early sixteenth century

a group of religious reformers in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries who wanted to “purify” the Church of England by ridding it of practices associated with the Catholic Church and advocating greater purity of doctrine and worship

sea captains to whom the British government had given permission to raid Spanish ships at

will

proof of merit: a letter written by a Spanish explorer to the crown to gain royal

patronage

the first English colony in Virginia, which mysteriously disappeared sometime between 1587

and 1590

a faction of Puritans who advocated complete separation from the Church of England

a disease that Europeans accidentally brought to the New World, killing millions of Indians, who had no immunity to the disease

one of the primary crops of the Americas, which required a tremendous amount of labor to

cultivate

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Summary 2.1Portuguese Exploration and Spanish Conquest Although Portugal opened the door to exploration of the Atlantic World, Spanish explorers quickly made inroads into the Americas. Spurred by Christopher Columbus’s glowing reports of the riches to be found in the New World, throngs of Spanish conquistadors set off to find and conquer new lands. They accomplished this through a combination of military strength and strategic alliances with native peoples. Spanish rulers Ferdinand and Isabella promoted the acquisition of these new lands in order to strengthen and glorify their own empire. As Spain’s empire expanded and riches flowed in from the Americas, the Spanish experienced a golden age of art and literature.

2.2Religious Upheavals in the Developing Atlantic World ThesixteenthcenturywitnessedanewchallengetothepowerfulCatholicChurch.Thereformistdoctrines of Martin Luther and John Calvin attracted many people dissatisfied with Catholicism, and Protestantism spread across northern Europe, spawning many subgroups with conflicting beliefs. Spain led the charge against Protestantism, leading to decades of undeclared religious wars between Spain and England, and religious intolerance and violence characterized much of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Despite the efforts of the Catholic Church and Catholic nations, however, Protestantism had taken hold by 1600.

2.3Challenges to Spain’s Supremacy By the beginning of the seventeenth century, Spain’s rivals—England, France, and the Dutch Republic—hadeachestablishedanAtlanticpresence,withgreaterorlessersuccess,intheraceforimperial power. None of the new colonies, all in the eastern part of North America, could match the Spanish possessions for gold and silver resources. Nonetheless, their presence in the New World helped these nations establish claims that they hoped could halt the runaway growth of Spain’s Catholic empire. English colonists in Virginiasuffered greatly,expecting riches to fallinto theirhands and finding reality a harsh blow. However, the colony at Jamestown survived, and the output of England’s islands in the West Indies soon grew to be an important source of income for the country. New France and New Netherlands weremodestcolonialholdingsinthenortheastofthecontinent,butthesecolonies’thrivingfurtradewith nativepeoples,andtheirallianceswiththosepeoples,helpedtocreatethefoundationforlatershiftsinthe global balance of power.

2.4New Worlds in the Americas: Labor, Commerce, and the Columbian Exchange In the minds of European rulers, colonies existed to create wealth for imperial powers. Guided by mercantilist ideas, European rulers and investors hoped to enrich their own nations and themselves, in order to gain the greatest share of what was believed to be a limited amount of wealth. In their own individual quest for riches and preeminence, European colonizers who traveled to the Americas blazed new and disturbing paths, such as the encomienda system of forced labor and the use of tens of thousands of Africans as slaves. All native inhabitants of the Americas who came into contact with Europeans found their worlds turned upside down as the new arrivals introduced their religions and ideas about property and goods. Europeans gained new foods, plants, and animals in the Columbian Exchange, turning whatever they could into a commodity to be bought and sold, and Indians were introduced to diseases that nearly destroyed them. At every turn, however, Indians placed limits on European colonization and resisted the newcomers’ ways.

Review Questions

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1. Which country initiated the era of Atlantic exploration? A. France B. Spain C. England D. Portugal

2. Which country established the first colonies in the Americas? A. England B. Portugal C. Spain D. the Netherlands

3. Where did Christopher Columbus first land? A. Hispaniola B. the Bahamas C. Jamestown D. Mexico

4. Why did the authors ofprobanzas de méritos choose to write in the way that they did? What should we consider when we interpret these documents today?

5. Where did the Protestant Reformation begin? A. Northern Europe B. Spain C. England D. the American colonies

6. What was the chief goal of the Puritans? A. to achieve a lasting peace with the Catholic nations of Spain and France B. to eliminate any traces of Catholicism from the Church of England C. to assist Henry VIII in his quest for an annulment to his marriage D. to create a hierarchy within the Church of England modeled on that of the Catholic Church

7. What reforms to the Catholic Church did Martin Luther and John Calvin call for?

8. Why didn’t England make stronger attempts to colonize the New World before the late sixteenth to early seventeenth century?

A. English attention was turned to internal struggles and the encroaching Catholic menace to Scotland and Ireland. B. The English monarchy did not want to declare direct war on Spain by attempting to colonize the Americas. C. The English military was occupied in battling for control of New Netherlands. D. The English crown refused to fund colonial expeditions.

9. What was the main goal of the French in colonizing the Americas? A. establishing a colony with French subjects B. trading, especially for furs C. gaining control of shipping lanes D. spreading Catholicism among native peoples

10. What were some of the main differences among the non-Spanish colonies?

11. How could Spaniards obtainencomiendas? A. by serving the Spanish crown B. by buying them from other Spaniards C. by buying them from native chiefs D. by inheriting them

12. Which of the following best describes the Columbian Exchange? A. the letters Columbus and other conquistadors exchanged with the Spanish crown B. an exchange of plants, animals, and diseases between Europe and the Americas C. a form of trade between the Spanish and natives D. the way in which explorers exchanged information about new lands to conquer

13. Why did diseases like smallpox affect Indians so badly? A. Indians were less robust than Europeans. B. Europeans deliberately infected Indians. C. Indians had no immunity to European diseases. D. Conditions in the Americas were so harsh that Indians and Europeans alike were devastated by disease.

Critical Thinking Questions

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14. What were the consequences of the religious upheavals of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries?

15. WhattypesoflaborsystemswereusedintheAmericas?Didsystemsofunfreelaborservemorethan an economic function?

16. What is meant by the Columbian Exchange? Who was affected the most by the exchange?

17. What were the various goals of the colonial European powers in the expansion of their empires? To what extent were they able to achieve these goals? Where did they fail?

18. Onthewhole,whatwastheimpactofearlyEuropeanexplorationsontheNewWorld?Whatwasthe impact of the New World on Europeans?

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CHAPTER 3 Creating New Social Orders: Colonial Societies, 1500–1700

Figure 3.1 John Smith’s famous map of Virginia (1622) illustrates many geopolitical features of early colonization. In the upper left, Powhatan, who governed a powerful local confederation of Algonquian communities, sits above other local chiefs, denoting his authority. Another native figure, Susquehannock, who appears in the upper right, visually reinforces the message that the English did not control the land beyond a few outposts along the Chesapeake. Chapter Outline 3.1 Spanish Exploration and Colonial Society 3.2 Colonial Rivalries: Dutch and French Colonial Ambitions 3.3 English Settlements in America 3.4 The Impact of Colonization Introduction By the mid-seventeenth century, the geopolitical map of North America had become a patchwork of imperial designs and ambitions as the Spanish, Dutch, French, and English reinforced their claims to parts of the land. Uneasiness, punctuated by violent clashes, prevailed in the border zones between the Europeans’ territorial claims. Meanwhile, still-powerful native peoples waged war to drive the invaders from the continent. In the Chesapeake Bay and New England colonies, conflicts erupted as the English pushed against their native neighbors (Figure 3.1). TheriseofcolonialsocietiesintheAmericasbroughtNativeAmericans,Africans,andEuropeanstogether for the first time, highlighting the radical social, cultural, and religious differences that hampered their ability to understand each other. European settlement affected every aspect of the land and its people, bringing goods, ideas, and diseases that transformed the Americas. Reciprocally, Native American practices, such as the use of tobacco, profoundly altered European habits and tastes.

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3.1 Spanish Exploration and Colonial Society

By the end of this section, you will be able to: • Identify the main Spanish American colonial settlements of the 1500s and 1600s • Discuss economic, political, and demographic similarities and differences between the Spanish colonies

During the 1500s, Spain expanded its colonial empire to the Philippines in the Far East and to areas in the Americas that later became the United States. The Spanish dreamed of mountains of gold and silver and imagined converting thousands of eager Indians to Catholicism. In their vision of colonial society, everyone would know his or her place. Patriarchy (the rule of men over family, society, and government) shaped the Spanish colonial world. Women occupied a lower status. In all matters, the Spanish held themselves to be atop the social pyramid, with native peoples and Africans beneath them. Both Africans and native peoples, however, contested Spanish claims to dominance. Everywhere the Spanish settled, theybroughtdevastatingdiseases,suchassmallpox,thatledtoahorrificlossoflifeamongnativepeoples. European diseases killed far more native inhabitants than did Spanish swords. The world native peoples had known before the coming of the Spanish was further upset by Spanish colonial practices. The Spanish imposed the encomienda system in the areas they controlled. Under this system, authorities assigned Indian workers to mine and plantation owners with the understanding that the recipients would defend the colony and teach the workers the tenets of Christianity. In reality, the encomienda system exploited native workers. It was eventually replaced by another colonial labor system, therepartimiento, which required Indian towns to supply a pool of labor for Spanish overlords.

ST. AUGUSTINE, FLORIDA Spain gained a foothold in present-day Florida, viewing that area and the lands to the north as a logical extension of their Caribbean empire. In 1513, Juan Ponce de León had claimed the area around today’s St. Augustine for the Spanish crown, naming the land Pascua Florida (Feast of Flowers, or Easter) for the nearest feast day. Ponce de León was unable to establish a permanent settlement there, but by 1565, Spain wasinneedofanoutposttoconfronttheFrenchandEnglishprivateersusingFloridaasabasefromwhich

Figure 3.2

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to attack treasure-laden Spanish ships heading from Cuba to Spain. The threat to Spanish interests took a new turn in 1562 when a group of French Protestants (Huguenots) established a small settlement they called Fort Caroline, north of St. Augustine. With the authorization of King Philip II, Spanish nobleman Pedro Menéndez led an attack on Fort Caroline, killing most of the colonists and destroying the fort. EliminatingFortCarolineserveddualpurposesfortheSpanish—ithelpedreducethedangerfromFrench privateersanderadicatedtheFrenchthreattoSpain’sclaimtothearea.ThecontestoverFloridaillustrates howEuropeanrivalriesspilledover intotheAmericas, especiallyreligiousconflict betweenCatholics and Protestants. In 1565, the victorious Menéndez founded St. Augustine, now the oldest European settlement in the Americas. In the process, the Spanish displaced the local Timucua Indians from their ancient town of Seloy, which had stood for thousands of years (Figure 3.3). The Timucua suffered greatly from diseases introduced by the Spanish, shrinking from a population of around 200,000 pre-contact to fifty thousand in 1590. By 1700, only one thousand Timucua remained. As in other areas of Spanish conquest, Catholic priests worked to bring about a spiritual conquest by forcing the surviving Timucua, demoralized and reeling from catastrophic losses of family and community, to convert to Catholicism.

Figure 3.3 In this drawing by French artist Jacques le Moyne de Morgues, Timucua flee the Spanish settlers, who arrive by ship. Le Moyne lived at Fort Caroline, the French outpost, before the Spanish destroyed the colony in 1562.

Spanish Florida made an inviting target for Spain’s imperial rivals, especially the English, who wanted to gain access to the Caribbean. In 1586, Spanish settlers in St. Augustine discovered their vulnerability to attack when the English pirate Sir Francis Drake destroyed the town with a fleet of twenty ships and one hundredmen.Overthenextseveraldecades,theSpanishbuiltmorewoodenforts,allofwhichwereburnt by raiding European rivals. Between 1672 and 1695, the Spanish constructed a stone fort, Castillo de San Marcos (Figure 3.4), to better defend St. Augustine against challengers.

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Figure 3.4 The Spanish fort of Castillo de San Marcos helped Spanish colonists in St. Augustine fend off marauding privateers from rival European countries.

Browse the National Park Service’s multimedia resources on Castillo de San Marcos (http://openstaxcollege.org/l/castillo) to see how the fort and gates have looked throughout history.

SANTA FE, NEW MEXICO Further west, the Spanish in Mexico, intent on expanding their empire, looked north to the land of the Pueblo Indians. Under orders from King Philip II, Juan de Oñate explored the American southwest for Spaininthelate1590s.TheSpanishhopedthatwhatweknowasNewMexicowouldyieldgoldandsilver, but the land produced little of value to them. In 1610, Spanish settlers established themselves at Santa Fe—originally named La Villa Real de la Santa Fe de San Francisco de Asís, or “Royal City of the Holy Faith of St. Francis of Assisi”—where many Pueblo villages were located. Santa Fe became the capital of the Kingdom of New Mexico, an outpost of the larger Spanish Viceroyalty of New Spain, which had its headquarters in Mexico City. AstheyhadinotherSpanishcolonies, Franciscan missionaries labored tobringaboutaspiritualconquest by converting the Pueblo to Catholicism. At first, the Pueblo adopted the parts of Catholicism that dovetailedwiththeirownlong-standingviewoftheworld.However,Spanishpriestsinsistedthatnatives discard their old ways entirely and angered the Pueblo by focusing on the young, drawing them away from their parents. This deep insult, combined with an extended period of drought and increased attacks by local Apache and Navajo in the 1670s—troubles that the Pueblo came to believe were linked to the Spanish presence—moved the Pueblo to push the Spanish and their religion from the area. Pueblo leader Popé demanded a return to native ways so the hardships his people faced would end. To him and to thousands of others, it seemed obvious that “when Jesus came, the Corn Mothers went away.” The expulsion of the Spanish would bring a return to prosperity and a pure, native way of life. In 1680, the Pueblo launched a coordinated rebellion against the Spanish. The Pueblo Revolt killed over fourhundredSpaniardsanddrovetherestofthesettlers,perhapsasmanyastwothousand,southtoward Mexico.However,asdroughtsandattacksbyrivaltribescontinued,theSpanishsensedanopportunityto regain their foothold. In 1692, they returned and reasserted their control of the area. Some of the Spanish

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explained the Pueblo success in 1680 as the work of the Devil. Satan, they believed, had stirred up the Pueblo to take arms against God’s chosen people—the Spanish—but the Spanish, and their God, had prevailed in the end.

3.2 Colonial Rivalries: Dutch and French Colonial Ambitions

By the end of this section, you will be able to: • Compare and contrast the development and character of the French and Dutch colonies in North America • Discuss the economies of the French and Dutch colonies in North America

Seventeenth-century French and Dutch colonies in North America were modest in comparison to Spain’s colossal global empire. New France and New Netherland remained small commercial operations focused on the fur trade and did not attract an influx of migrants. The Dutch in New Netherland confined their operationstoManhattanIsland,LongIsland,theHudsonRiverValley,andwhatlaterbecameNewJersey. Dutch trade goods circulated widely among the native peoples in these areas and also traveled well into theinteriorofthecontinentalongpreexistingnativetraderoutes.Frenchhabitants,orfarmer-settlers,eked out an existence along the St. Lawrence River. French fur traders and missionaries, however, ranged far into the interior of North America, exploring the Great Lakes region and the Mississippi River. These pioneers gave France somewhat inflated imperial claims to lands that nonetheless remained firmly under the dominion of native peoples.

FUR TRADING IN NEW NETHERLAND The Dutch Republic emerged as a major commercial center in the 1600s. Its fleets plied the waters of the Atlantic, while other Dutch ships sailed to the Far East, returning with prized spices like pepper to be sold in the bustling ports at home, especially Amsterdam. In North America, Dutch traders established themselves first on Manhattan Island. One of the Dutch directors-general of the North American settlement, Peter Stuyvesant, served from 1647 to 1664 and expanded the fledgling outpost of New Netherland east to present-day Long Island and for many miles north along the Hudson River. The resulting elongated colony served primarily as a furtradingpost,withthepowerfulDutchWestIndiaCompanycontrollingallcommerce.FortAmsterdam,on the southern tip of Manhattan Island, defended the growing city of New Amsterdam. In 1655, Stuyvesant took over the small outpost of New Sweden along the banks of the Delaware River in present-day New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware. He also defended New Amsterdam from Indian attacks by ordering African slaves to build a protective wall on the city’s northeastern border, giving present-day Wall Street its name (Figure 3.5).

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Figure 3.5 The Castello Plan is the only extant map of 1660 New Amsterdam (present-day New York City). The line with spikes on the right side of the colony is the northeastern wall for which Wall Street was named.

New Netherland failed to attract many Dutch colonists; by 1664, only nine thousand people were living there. Conflict with native peoples, as well as dissatisfaction with the Dutch West India Company’s trading practices, made the Dutch outpost an undesirable place for many migrants. The small size of the population meant a severe labor shortage, and to complete the arduous tasks of early settlement, the Dutch West India Company imported some 450 African slaves between 1626 and 1664. (The company had involved itself heavily in the slave trade and in 1637 captured Elmina, the slave-trading post on the west coast of Africa, from the Portuguese.) The shortage of labor also meant that New Netherland welcomednon-Dutchimmigrants,includingProtestantsfromGermany,Sweden,Denmark,andEngland, and embraced a degree of religious tolerance, allowing Jewish immigrants to become residents beginning in the 1650s. Thus, a wide variety of people lived in New Netherland from the start. Indeed, one observer claimed eighteen different languages could be heard on the streets of New Amsterdam. As new settlers arrived, the colony of New Netherland stretched farther to the north and the west (Figure 3.6).

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Figure 3.6 This 1684 map of New Netherland shows the extent of Dutch settlement.

TheDutchWestIndiaCompanyfoundthebusinessofcolonizationinNewNetherlandtobeexpensive.To sharesomeofthecosts,itgrantedDutchmerchantswhoinvestedheavilyinitpatroonships,orlargetracts of land and the right to govern the tenants there. In return, the shareholder who gained the patroonship promised to pay for the passage of at least thirty Dutch farmers to populate the colony. One of the largest patroonships was granted to Kiliaen van Rensselaer, one of the directors of the Dutch West India Company; it covered most of present-day Albany and Rensselaer Counties. This pattern of settlement createdayawninggapinwealthandstatusbetweenthetenants,whopaidrent,andthewealthypatroons. During thesummer trading season, Indians gathered attrading posts such astheDutch siteatBeverwijck (present-day Albany), where they exchanged furs for guns, blankets, and alcohol. The furs, especially beaver pelts destined for the lucrative European millinery market, would be sent down the Hudson River to New Amsterdam. There, slaves or workers would load them aboard ships bound for Amsterdam.

Explore an interactive map of New Amsterdam in 1660 (http://openstaxcollege.org/l/WNET) that shows the city plan and the locations of various structures, including houses, businesses, and public buildings. Rolling over the map reveals relevant historical details, such as street names, the identities of certain buildings and businesses, and the names of residents of the houses (when known).

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COMMERCE AND CONVERSION IN NEW FRANCE After Jacques Cartier’s voyages of discovery in the 1530s, France showed little interest in creating permanent colonies in North America until the early 1600s, when Samuel de Champlain established Quebec as a French fur-trading outpost. Although the fur trade was lucrative, the French saw Canada as an inhospitable frozen wasteland, and by 1640, fewer than four hundred settlers had made their home there. The sparse French presence meant that colonists depended on the local native Algonquian people;withoutthem,theFrenchwouldhaveperished.Frenchfishermen,explorers,andfurtradersmade extensivecontactwiththeAlgonquian.TheAlgonquian,inturn,toleratedtheFrenchbecausethecolonists supplied them with firearms for their ongoing war with the Iroquois. Thus, the French found themselves escalating native wars and supporting the Algonquian against the Iroquois, who received weapons from theirDutchtradingpartners.Theseseventeenth-centuryconflictscenteredonthelucrativetradeinbeaver pelts, earning them the name of the Beaver Wars. In these wars, fighting between rival native peoples spread throughout the Great Lakes region. A handful of French Jesuit priests also made their way to Canada, intent on converting the native inhabitants to Catholicism. The Jesuits were members of the Society of Jesus, an elite religious order founded in the 1540s to spread Catholicism and combat the spread of Protestantism. The first Jesuits arrived in Quebec in the 1620s, and for the next century, their numbers did not exceed forty priests. Like the Spanish Franciscan missionaries, the Jesuits in the colony called New France labored to convert the native peoples to Catholicism. They wrote detailed annual reports about their progress in bringing the faith to the Algonquian and, beginning in the 1660s, to the Iroquois. These documents are known as the Jesuit Relations (Figure 3.7), and they provide a rich source for understanding both the Jesuit view of the Indians and the Indian response to the colonizers. One native convert to Catholicism, a Mohawk woman named Katherine Tekakwitha, so impressed the priests with her piety that a Jesuit named Claude Chauchetière attempted to make her a saint in the Church. However, the effort to canonize Tekakwitha faltered when leaders of the Church balked at elevating a “savage” to such a high status; she was eventually canonized in 2012. French colonizers pressured the native inhabitants of New France to convert, but they virtually never saw native peoples as their equals.

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DEFINING “AMERICAN” A Jesuit Priest on Indian Healing Traditions The Jesuit Relations (Figure 3.7) provide incredible detail about Indian life. For example, the 1636 edition, written by the Catholic priest Jean de Brébeuf, addresses the devastating effects of disease on native peoples and the efforts made to combat it.

Figure 3.7 French Jesuit missionaries to New France kept detailed records of their interactions with—and observations of—the Algonquian and Iroquois that they converted to Catholicism. (credit: Project Gutenberg). Let us return to the feasts. The Aoutaerohi is a remedy which is only for one particular kind of disease, which they call also Aoutaerohi, from the name of a little Demon as large as the fist, which they say is in the body of the sick man, especially in the part which pains him. They find out that they are sick of this disease, by means of a dream, or by the intervention of some Sorcerer. . . . Of three kinds of games especially in use among these Peoples,—namely, the games of crosse [lacrosse], dish, and straw,—the first two are, they say, most healing. Is not this worthy of compassion? There is a poor sick man, fevered of body and almost dying, and a miserable Sorcerer will order for him, as a cooling remedy, a game of crosse. Or the sick man himself, sometimes, will have dreamed that he must die unless the whole country shall play crosse for his health; and, no matter how little may be his credit, you will see then in a beautiful field, Village contending against Village, as to who will play crosse the better, and betting against one another Beaver robes and Porcelain collars, so as to excite greater interest. According to this account, how did Indians attempt to cure disease? Why did they prescribe a game of lacrosse? What benefits might these games have for the sick?

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3.3 English Settlements in America

By the end of this section, you will be able to: • Identify the first English settlements in America • Describe the differences between the Chesapeake Bay colonies and the New England colonies • Compare and contrast the wars between native inhabitants and English colonists in both the Chesapeake Bay and New England colonies • Explain the role of Bacon’s Rebellion in the rise of chattel slavery in Virginia

At the start of the seventeenth century, the English had not established a permanent settlement in the Americas.Overthenextcentury,however,theyoutpacedtheirrivals.TheEnglishencouragedemigration farmorethantheSpanish,French,orDutch.Theyestablishednearlyadozencolonies,sendingswarmsof immigrants to populate the land. England had experienced a dramatic rise in population in the sixteenth century, and the colonies appeared a welcoming place for those who faced overcrowding and grinding poverty at home. Thousands of English migrants arrived in the Chesapeake Bay colonies of Virginia and Maryland to work in the tobacco fields. Another stream, this one of pious Puritan families, sought to live as they believed scripture demanded and established the Plymouth, Massachusetts Bay, New Haven, Connecticut, and Rhode Island colonies of New England (Figure 3.8).

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Figure 3.8 In the early seventeenth century, thousands of English settlers came to what are now Virginia, Maryland, and the New England states in search of opportunity and a better life. THE DIVERGING CULTURES OF THE NEW ENGLAND AND CHESAPEAKE COLONIES Promoters of English colonization in North America, many of whom never ventured across the Atlantic, wrote about the bounty the English would find there. These boosters of colonization hoped to turn a profit—whether by importing raw resources or providing new markets for English goods—and spread Protestantism. The English migrants who actually made the journey, however, had different goals. In Chesapeake Bay, English migrants established Virginia and Maryland with a decidedly commercial orientation. Though the early Virginians at Jamestown hoped to find gold, they and the settlers in Marylandquicklydiscoveredthatgrowingtobaccowastheonlysuremeansofmakingmoney.Thousands of unmarried, unemployed, and impatient young Englishmen, along with a few Englishwomen, pinned their hopes for a better life on the tobacco fields of these two colonies. A very different group of English men and women flocked to the cold climate and rocky soil of New England, spurred by religious motives. Many of the Puritans crossing the Atlantic were people who brought families and children. Often they were following their ministers in a migration “beyond the seas,”envisioninganewEnglishIsraelwherereformedProtestantismwouldgrowandthrive,providinga modelfortherestoftheChristianworldandacountertowhattheysawastheCatholicmenace.Whilethe EnglishinVirginiaandMarylandworkedonexpandingtheirprofitabletobaccofields,theEnglishinNew Englandbuilttownsfocusedonthechurch,whereeachcongregationdecidedwhatwasbestforitself.The CongregationalChurchistheresultofthePuritanenterpriseinAmerica.Manyhistoriansbelievethefault lines separating what later became the North and South in the United States originated in the profound differences between the Chesapeake and New England colonies.

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The source of those differences lay in England’s domestic problems. Increasingly in the early 1600s, the English state church—the Church of England, established in the 1530s—demanded conformity, or compliancewithitspractices,butPuritanspushedforgreaterreforms.Bythe1620s,theChurchofEngland begantoseeleadingPuritanministersandtheirfollowersasoutlaws,anationalsecuritythreatbecauseof their opposition to its power. As the noose of conformity tightened around them, many Puritans decided toremovetoNewEngland.By1640,NewEnglandhadapopulationoftwenty-fivethousand.Meanwhile, many loyal members of the Church of England, who ridiculed and mocked Puritans both at home and in New England, flocked to Virginia for economic opportunity. The troubles in England escalated in the 1640s when civil war broke out, pitting Royalist supporters of King Charles I and the Church of England against Parliamentarians, the Puritan reformers and their supporters in Parliament. In 1649, the Parliamentarians gained the upper hand and, in an unprecedented move, executed Charles I. In the 1650s, therefore, England became a republic, a state without a king. English colonists in America closely followed these events. Indeed, many Puritans left New England and returned home to take part in the struggle against the king and the national church. Other English men and women in the Chesapeake colonies and elsewhere in the English Atlantic World looked on in horror at the mayhem the Parliamentarians, led by the Puritan insurgents, appeared to unleash in England. The turmoil in England made the administration and imperial oversight of the Chesapeake and New England colonies difficult, and the two regions developed divergent cultures.

THE CHESAPEAKE COLONIES: VIRGINIA AND MARYLAND The Chesapeake colonies of Virginia and Maryland served a vital purpose in the developing seventeenthcentury English empire by providing tobacco, a cash crop. However, the early history of Jamestown did not suggest the English outpost would survive. From the outset, its settlers struggled both with each other and with the native inhabitants, the powerful Powhatan, who controlled the area. Jealousies and infighting among the English destabilized the colony. One member, John Smith, whose famous map begins this chapter, took control and exercised near-dictatorial powers, which furthered aggravated the squabbling. The settlers’ inability to grow their own food compounded this unstable situation. They were essentially employees of the Virginia Company of London, an English joint-stock company, in which investors provided the capital and assumed the risk in order to reap the profit, and they had to make a profit for their shareholders as well as for themselves. Most initially devoted themselves to finding gold and silver instead of finding ways to grow their own food.

Early Struggles and the Development of the Tobacco Economy Poorhealth,lackoffood,andfightingwithnativepeoplestookthelivesofmanyoftheoriginalJamestown settlers. The winter of 1609–1610, which became known as “the starving time,” came close to annihilating the colony. By June 1610, the few remaining settlers had decided to abandon the area; only the lastminutearrivalofasupplyshipfromEnglandpreventedanotherfailedcolonizationeffort.Thesupplyship broughtnewsettlers,butonlytwelvehundredoftheseventy-fivehundredwhocametoVirginiabetween 1607 and 1624 survived.

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MY STORY George Percy on “The Starving Time”

George Percy, the youngest son of an English nobleman, was in the first group of settlers at the Jamestown Colony. He kept a journal describing their experiences; in the excerpt below, he reports on the privations of the colonists’ third winter. Now all of us at James Town, beginning to feel that sharp prick of hunger which no man truly describe but he which has tasted the bitterness thereof, a world of miseries ensued as the sequel will express unto you, in so much that some to satisfy their hunger have robbed the store for the which I caused them to be executed. Then having fed upon horses and other beasts as long as they lasted, we were glad to make shift with vermin as dogs, cats, rats, and mice. All was fish that came to net to satisfy cruel hunger as to eat boots, shoes, or any other leather some could come by, and, those being spent and devoured, some were enforced to search the woods and to feed upon serpents and snakes and to dig the earth for wild and unknown roots, where many of our men were cut off of and slain by the savages. And now famine beginning to look ghastly and pale in every face that nothing was spared to maintain life and to do those things which seem incredible as to dig up dead corpses out of graves and to eat them, and some have licked up the blood which has fallen from their weak fellows. —George Percy, “A True Relation of the Proceedings and Occurances of Moment which have happened in Virginia from the Time Sir Thomas Gates shipwrecked upon the Bermudes anno 1609 until my departure out of the Country which was in anno Domini 1612,” London 1624 What is your reaction to George Percy’s story? How do you think Jamestown managed to survive after such an experience? What do you think the Jamestown colonists learned?

Bythe1620s,Virginiahadweatheredtheworstandgainedadegreeofpermanence.Politicalstabilitycame slowly, but by 1619, the fledgling colony was operating under the leadership of a governor, a council, and a House of Burgesses. Economic stability came from the lucrative cultivation of tobacco. Smoking tobacco was a long-standing practice among native peoples, and English and other European consumers soon adopted it. In 1614, the Virginia colony began exporting tobacco back to England, which earned it a sizable profit and saved the colony from ruin. A second tobacco colony, Maryland, was formed in 1634, when King Charles I granted its charter to the Calvert family for their loyal service to England. Cecilius Calvert, the second Lord Baltimore, conceived of Maryland as a refuge for English Catholics. Growing tobacco proved very labor-intensive (Figure 3.9), and the Chesapeake colonists needed a steady workforcetodothehardworkofclearingthelandandcaringforthetenderyoungplants.Thematureleaf oftheplantthenhadtobecured(dried),whichnecessitatedtheconstructionofdryingbarns.Oncecured, the tobacco had to be packaged in hogsheads (large wooden barrels) and loaded aboard ship, which also required considerable labor.

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Figure 3.9 In this 1670 painting by an unknown artist, slaves work in tobacco-drying sheds.

To meet these labor demands, early Virginians relied on indentured servants. An indenture is a labor contractthatyoung,impoverished,andoftenilliterateEnglishmenandoccasionallyEnglishwomensigned in England, pledging to work for a number of years (usually between five and seven) growing tobacco in the Chesapeake colonies. In return, indentured servants received paid passage to America and food, clothing, and lodging. At the end of their indenture servants received “freedom dues,” usually food and other provisions, including, in some cases, land provided by the colony. The promise of a new life in AmericawasastrongattractionformembersofEngland’sunderclass,whohadfewifanyoptionsathome. In the 1600s, some 100,000 indentured servants traveled to the Chesapeake Bay. Most were poor young men in their early twenties. Lifeinthecoloniesprovedharsh,however.Indenturedservantscouldnotmarry,andtheyweresubjectto the will of the tobacco planters who bought their labor contracts. If they committed a crime or disobeyed their masters, they found their terms of service lengthened, often by several years. Female indentured servants faced special dangers in what was essentially a bachelor colony. Many were exploited by unscrupulous tobacco planters who seduced them with promises of marriage. These planters would then sell their pregnant servants to other tobacco planters to avoid the costs of raising a child. Nonetheless, those indentured servants who completed their term of service often began new lives as tobacco planters. To entice even more migrants to the New World, the Virginia Company also implemented the headright system, in which those who paid their own passage to Virginia received fifty acres plus an additional fifty for each servant or family member they brought with them. The headright system and the promise of a new life for servants acted as powerful incentives for English migrants to hazard the journey to the New World.

Visit Virtual Jamestown (http://openstaxcollege.org/l/jamestown1) to access a database of contracts of indentured servants. Search it by name to find an ancestor or browse by occupation, destination, or county of origin.

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The Anglo-Powhatan Wars By choosing to settle along the rivers on the banks of the Chesapeake, the English unknowingly placed themselves at the center of the Powhatan Empire, a powerful Algonquian confederacy of thirty native groups with perhaps as many as twenty-two thousand people. The territory of the equally impressive Susquehannockpeople also bordered English settlements at the north end of the Chesapeake Bay. Tensions ran high between the English and the Powhatan, and near-constant war prevailed. The First Anglo-Powhatan War (1609–1614) resulted not only from the English colonists’ intrusion onto Powhatan land, but also from their refusal to follow native protocol by giving gifts. English actions infuriated and insulted the Powhatan. In 1613, the settlers captured Pocahontas (also called Matoaka), the daughter of a Powhatan headman named Wahunsonacook, and gave her in marriage to Englishman John Rolfe. Their union, and her choice to remain with the English, helped quell the war in 1614. Pocahontas converted to Christianity, changing her name to Rebecca, and sailed with her husband and several other Powhatan to England where she was introduced to King James I (Figure 3.10). Promoters of colonization publicized Pocahontas as an example of the good work of converting the Powhatan to Christianity.

Figure 3.10 This 1616 engraving by Simon van de Passe, completed when Pocahontas and John Rolfe were presented at court in England, is the only known contemporary image of Pocahontas. Note her European garb and pose. What message did the painter likely intend to convey with this portrait of Pocahontas, the daughter of a powerful Indian chief?

Explore the interactive exhibit Changing Images of Pocahontas (http://openstaxcollege.org/l/pocahontas) on PBS’s website to see the many ways artists have portrayed Pocahontas over the centuries.

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Peace in Virginia did not last long. The Second Anglo-Powhatan War (1620s) broke out because of the expansion of the English settlement nearly one hundred miles into the interior, and because of the continued insults and friction caused by English activities. The Powhatan attacked in 1622 and succeeded in killing almost 350 English, about a third of the settlers. The English responded by annihilating every Powhatan village around Jamestown and from then on became even more intolerant. The Third AngloPowhatan War (1644–1646) began with a surprise attack in which the Powhatan killed around five hundred English colonists. However, their ultimate defeat in this conflict forced the Powhatan to acknowledge King Charles I as their sovereign. The Anglo-Powhatan Wars, spanning nearly forty years, illustrate the degree of native resistance that resulted from English intrusion into the Powhatan confederacy.

The Rise of Slavery in the Chesapeake Bay Colonies The transition from indentured servitude to slavery as the main labor source for some English colonies happenedfirstintheWestIndies.OnthesmallislandofBarbados,colonizedinthe1620s,Englishplanters first grew tobacco as their main export crop, but in the 1640s, they converted to sugarcane and began increasingly to rely on African slaves. In 1655, England wrestled control of Jamaica from the Spanish and quickly turned it into a lucrative sugar island, run on slave labor, for its expanding empire. While slavery was slower to take hold in the Chesapeake colonies, by the end of the seventeenth century, both Virginia and Maryland had also adopted chattel slavery—which legally defined Africans as property and not people—as the dominant form of labor to grow tobacco. Chesapeake colonists also enslaved native people. When the first Africans arrived in Virginia in 1619, slavery—which did not exist in England—had not yet become an institution in colonial America. Many Africans worked as servants and, like their white counterparts, could acquire land of their own. Some Africans who converted to Christianity became free landowners with white servants. The change in the status of Africans in the Chesapeake to that of slaves occurred in the last decades of the seventeenth century. Bacon’s Rebellion, an uprising of both whites and blacks who believed that the Virginia government was impeding their access to land and wealth and seemed to do little to clear the land of Indians, hastened the transition to African slavery in the Chesapeake colonies. The rebellion takes its name from Nathaniel Bacon, a wealthy young Englishman who arrived in Virginia in 1674. Despite an early friendship with Virginia’s royal governor, William Berkeley, Bacon found himself excluded from the governor’s circle of influential friends and councilors. He wanted land on the Virginia frontier, but the governor, fearing warwithneighboringIndiantribes,forbadefurtherexpansion.Baconmarshaledothers,especiallyformer indentured servants who believed the governor was limiting their economic opportunities and denying them the right to own tobacco farms. Bacon’s followers believed Berkeley’s frontier policy didn’t protect English settlers enough. Worse still in their eyes, Governor Berkeley tried to keep peace in Virginia by signing treaties with various local native peoples. Bacon and his followers, who saw all Indians as an obstacle to their access to land, pursued a policy of extermination. Tensions between the English and the native peoples in the Chesapeake colonies led to open conflict. In 1675, war broke out when Susquehannock warriors attacked settlements on Virginia’s frontier, killing English planters and destroying English plantations, including one owned by Bacon. In 1676, Bacon and other Virginians attacked the Susquehannock without the governor’s approval. When Berkeley ordered Bacon’s arrest,Bacon ledhisfollowers toJamestown, forced thegovernor tofleetothesafetyofVirginia’s eastern shore, and then burned the city. The civil war known as Bacon’s Rebellion, a vicious struggle between supporters of the governor and those who supported Bacon, ensued. Reports of the rebellion traveled back to England, leading Charles II to dispatch both royal troops and English commissioners to restore order in the tobacco colonies. By the end of 1676, Virginians loyal to the governor gained the upper hand, executing several leaders of the rebellion. Bacon escaped the hangman’s noose, instead dying of dysentery. The rebellion fizzled in 1676, but Virginians remained divided as supporters of Bacon continued to harbor grievances over access to Indian land.

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Bacon’s Rebellion helped to catalyze the creation of a system of racial slavery in the Chesapeake colonies. At the time of the rebellion, indentured servants made up the majority of laborers in the region. Wealthy whites worried over the presence of this large class of laborers and the relative freedom they enjoyed, as well as the alliance that black and white servants had forged in the course of the rebellion. Replacing indentured servitude with black slavery diminished these risks, alleviating the reliance on white indenturedservants,whowereoftendissatisfiedandtroublesome,andcreatingacasteofraciallydefined laborers whose movements were strictly controlled. It also lessened the possibility of further alliances between black and white workers. Racial slavery even served to heal some of the divisions between wealthy and poor whites, who could now unite as members of a “superior” racial group. While colonial laws in the tobacco colonies had made slavery a legal institution before Bacon’s Rebellion, new laws passed inthewake of therebellion severely curtailed black freedom and laid thefoundation for racialslavery.Virginiapassedalawin1680prohibitingfreeblacksandslavesfrombearingarms,banning blacks from congregating in large numbers, and establishing harsh punishments for slaves who assaulted Christians or attempted escape. Two years later, another Virginia law stipulated that all Africans brought to the colony would be slaves for life. Thus, the increasing reliance on slaves in the tobacco colonies—and the draconian laws instituted to control them—not only helped planters meet labor demands, but also served to assuage English fears of further uprisings and alleviate class tensions between rich and poor whites.

DEFINING “AMERICAN” Robert Beverley on Servants and Slaves Robert Beverley was a wealthy Jamestown planter and slaveholder. This excerpt from his History and Present State of Virginia, published in 1705, clearly illustrates the contrast between white servants and black slaves. Their Servants, they distinguish by the Names of Slaves for Life, and Servants for a time. Slaves are the Negroes, and their Posterity, following the condition of the Mother, according to the Maxim, partus sequitur ventrem [status follows the womb]. They are call’d Slaves, in respect of the time of their Servitude, because it is for Life. Servants, are those which serve only for a few years, according to the time of their Indenture, or the Custom of the Country. The Custom of the Country takes place upon such as have no Indentures. The Law in this case is, that if such Servants be under Nineteen years of Age, they must be brought into Court, to have their Age adjudged; and from the Age they are judg’d to be of, they must serve until they reach four and twenty: But if they be adjudged upwards of Nineteen, they are then only to be Servants for the term of five Years. The Male-Servants, and Slaves of both Sexes, are employed together in Tilling and Manuring the Ground, in Sowing and Planting Tobacco, Corn, &c. Some Distinction indeed is made between them in their Cloaths, and Food; but the Work of both, is no other than what the Overseers, the Freemen, and the Planters themselves do. Sufficient Distinction is also made between the Female-Servants, and Slaves; for a White Woman is rarely or never put to work in the Ground, if she be good for any thing else: And to Discourage all Planters from using any Women so, their Law imposes the heaviest Taxes upon Female Servants working in the Ground, while it suffers all other white Women to be absolutely exempted: Whereas on the other hand, it is a common thing to work a Woman Slave out of Doors; nor does the Law make any Distinction in her Taxes, whether her Work be Abroad, or at Home. According to Robert Beverley, what are the differences between servants and slaves? What protections did servants have that slaves did not?

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PURITAN NEW ENGLAND The second major area to be colonized by the English in the first half of the seventeenth century, New England,differedmarkedlyinitsfoundingprinciplesfromthecommerciallyorientedChesapeaketobacco colonies.SettledlargelybywavesofPuritanfamiliesinthe1630s,NewEnglandhadareligiousorientation from the start. In England, reform-minded men and women had been calling for greater changes to the English national church since the 1580s. These reformers, who followed the teachings of John Calvin and other Protestant reformers, were called Puritans because of their insistence on “purifying” the Church of England of what they believed to be un-scriptural, especially Catholic elements that lingered in its institutions and practices. Many who provided leadership in early New England were learned ministers who had studied at Cambridge or Oxford but who, because they had questioned the practices of the Church of England, had been deprived of careers by the king and his officials in an effort to silence all dissenting voices. Other Puritanleaders,suchasthefirstgovernoroftheMassachusettsBayColony,JohnWinthrop,camefromthe privileged class of English gentry. These well-to-do Puritans and many thousands more left their English homes not to establish a land of religious freedom, but to practice their own religion without persecution. Puritan New England offered them the opportunity to live as they believed the Bible demanded. In their “New” England, they set out to create a model of reformed Protestantism, a new English Israel. TheconflictgeneratedbyPuritanismhaddividedEnglishsociety,becausethePuritansdemandedreforms that undermined the traditional festive culture. For example, they denounced popular pastimes like bearbaiting—letting dogs attack a chained bear—which were often conducted on Sundays when people had a few leisure hours. In the culture where William Shakespeare had produced his masterpieces, Puritans called for an end to the theater, censuring playhouses as places of decadence. Indeed, the Bible itself became partof the struggle between Puritans and James I, who headed the Church of England. Soon after ascending the throne, James commissioned a new version of the Bible in an effort to stifle Puritan reliance on the Geneva Bible, which followed the teachings of John Calvin and placed God’s authority above the monarch’s. The King James Version, published in 1611, instead emphasized the majesty of kings. During the 1620s and 1630s, the conflict escalated to the point where the state church prohibited Puritan ministers from preaching. In the Church’s view, Puritans represented a national security threat, because their demands for cultural, social, and religious reforms undermined the king’s authority. Unwilling to conform to the Church of England, many Puritans found refuge in the New World. Yet those who emigratedtotheAmericaswerenotunited.SomecalledforacompletebreakwiththeChurchofEngland, while others remained committed to reforming the national church.

Plymouth: The First Puritan Colony The first group of Puritans to make their way across the Atlantic was a small contingent known as the Pilgrims. Unlike other Puritans, they insisted on a complete separation from the Church of England and had first migrated to the Dutch Republic seeking religious freedom. Although they found they could worshipwithouthindrancethere,theygrewconcernedthattheywerelosingtheirEnglishnessastheysaw their children begin to learn the Dutch language and adopt Dutch ways. In addition, the English Pilgrims (and others in Europe) feared another attack on the Dutch Republic by Catholic Spain. Therefore, in 1620, they moved on to found the Plymouth Colony in present-day Massachusetts. The governor of Plymouth, William Bradford, was a Separatist, a proponent of complete separation from the English state church. Bradford and the other Pilgrim Separatists represented a major challenge to the prevailing vision of a unified English national church and empire. On board the Mayflower, which was bound for Virginia but landedonthetipofCapeCod,BradfordandfortyotheradultmensignedtheMayflowerCompact(Figure 3.11), which presented a religious (rather than an economic) rationale for colonization. The compact expressed a community ideal of working together. When a larger exodus of Puritans established the Massachusetts Bay Colony in the 1630s, the Pilgrims at Plymouth welcomed them and the two colonies cooperated with each other.

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AMERICANA The Mayflower Compact and Its Religious Rationale The Mayflower Compact, which forty-one Pilgrim men signed on board the Mayflower in Plymouth Harbor, has been called the first American governing document, predating the U.S. Constitution by over 150 years. But was the Mayflower Compact a constitution? How much authority did it convey, and to whom?

Figure 3.11 The original Mayflower Compact is no longer extant; only copies, such as this ca.1645 transcription by William Bradford, remain. In the name of God, Amen. We, whose names are underwritten, the loyal subjects of our dread Sovereign Lord King James, by the Grace of God, of Great Britain, France, and Ireland, King, defender of the Faith, etc. Having undertaken, for the Glory of God, and advancements of the Christian faith and honor of our King and Country, a voyage to plant the first colony in the Northern parts of Virginia, do by these presents, solemnly and mutually, in the presence of God, and one another, covenant and combine ourselves together into a civil body politic; for our better ordering, and preservation and furtherance of the ends aforesaid; and by virtue hereof to enact, constitute, and frame, such just and equal laws, ordinances, acts, constitutions, and offices, from time to time, as shall be thought most meet and convenient for the general good of the colony; unto which we promise all due submission and obedience. In witness whereof we have hereunto subscribed our names at Cape Cod the 11th of November, in the year of the reign of our Sovereign Lord King James, of England, France, and Ireland, the eighteenth, and of Scotland the fifty-fourth, 1620

Different labor systems also distinguished early Puritan New England from the Chesapeake colonies. Puritansexpectedyoungpeopletoworkdiligentlyattheircalling,andallmembersoftheirlargefamilies, including children, did the bulk of the work necessary to run homes, farms, and businesses. Very few migrants came to New England as laborers; in fact, New England towns protected their disciplined

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homegrown workforce by refusing to allow outsiders in, assuring their sons and daughters of steady employment. New England’s labor system produced remarkable results, notably a powerful maritimebased economy with scores of oceangoing ships and the crews necessary to sail them. New England mariners sailing New England–made ships transported Virginian tobacco and West Indian sugar throughout the Atlantic World.

“A City upon a Hill” A much larger group of English Puritans left England in the 1630s, establishing the Massachusetts Bay Colony, the New Haven Colony, the Connecticut Colony, and Rhode Island. Unlike the exodus of young males to the Chesapeake colonies, these migrants were families with young children and their universitytrainedministers.Theiraim,accordingtoJohnWinthrop(Figure3.12),thefirstgovernorofMassachusetts Bay, was to create a model of reformed Protestantism—a “city upon a hill,” a new English Israel. The idea of a “city upon a hill” made clear the religious orientation of the New England settlement, and the charter of the Massachusetts Bay Colony stated as a goal that the colony’s people “may be soe religiously, peaceablie, and civilly governed, as their good Life and orderlie Conversacon, maie wynn and incite the Natives of Country, to the Knowledg and Obedience of the onlie true God and Saulor of Mankinde, and the Christian Fayth.” To illustrate this, the seal of the Massachusetts Bay Company (Figure 3.12) shows a half-naked Indian who entreats more of the English to “come over and help us.”

Figure 3.12 In the 1629 seal of the Massachusetts Bay Colony (a), an Indian is shown asking colonists to “Come over and help us.” This seal indicates the religious ambitions of John Winthrop (b), the colony’s first governor, for his “city upon a hill.”

Puritan New England differed in many ways from both England and the rest of Europe. Protestants emphasized literacy so that everyone could read the Bible. This attitude was in stark contrast to that of Catholics, who refused to tolerate private ownership of Bibles in the vernacular. The Puritans, for their part, placed a special emphasis on reading scripture, and their commitment to literacy led to the establishment of the first printing press in English America in 1636. Four years later, in 1640, they published the first book in North America, the Bay Psalm Book. As Calvinists, Puritans adhered to the doctrineofpredestination,wherebyafew“elect”wouldbesavedandallothersdamned.Noonecouldbe surewhethertheywerepredestinedforsalvation,butthroughintrospection,guidedbyscripture,Puritans hoped to find a glimmer of redemptive grace. Church membership was restricted to those Puritans who were willing to provide a conversion narrative telling how they came to understand their spiritual estate by hearing sermons and studying the Bible.

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Although many people assume Puritans escaped England to establish religious freedom, they proved to be just as intolerant as the English state church. When dissenters, including Puritan minister Roger Williams and Anne Hutchinson, challenged Governor Winthrop in Massachusetts Bay in the 1630s, they were banished. Roger Williams questioned the Puritans’ taking of Indian land. Williams also argued for a complete separation from the Church of England, a position other Puritans in Massachusetts rejected, as well as the idea that the state could not punish individuals for their beliefs. Although he did accept that nonbelievers were destined for eternal damnation, Williams did not think the state could compel true orthodoxy. Puritan authorities found him guilty of spreading dangerous ideas, but he went on to foundRhodeIslandasacolonythatsheltereddissentingPuritansfromtheirbrethreninMassachusetts.In Rhode Island, Williams wrote favorably about native peoples, contrasting their virtues with Puritan New England’s intolerance. Anne Hutchinson also ran afoul of Puritan authorities for her criticism of the evolving religious practices in the Massachusetts Bay Colony. In particular, she held that Puritan ministers in New England taught a shallow version of Protestantism emphasizing hierarchy and actions—a “covenant of works” rather than a “covenant of grace.” Literate Puritan women like Hutchinson presented a challenge to the male ministers’ authority. Indeed, her major offense was her claim of direct religious revelation, a type of spiritual experience that negated the role of ministers. Because of Hutchinson’s beliefs and her defiance of authority in the colony, especially that of Governor Winthrop, Puritan authorities tried and convicted her of holding false beliefs. In 1638, she was excommunicated and banished from the colony. She went to Rhode Island and later, in 1642, sought safety among the Dutch in New Netherland. The following year, Algonquian warriors killed Hutchinson and her family. In Massachusetts, Governor Winthrop noted her death as the righteous judgment of God against a heretic. Like many other Europeans, the Puritans believed in the supernatural. Every event appeared to be a sign of God’s mercy or judgment, and people believed that witches allied themselves with the Devil to carry out evil deeds and deliberate harm such as the sickness or death of children, the loss of cattle, and othercatastrophes.HundredswereaccusedofwitchcraftinPuritanNewEngland,includingtownspeople whose habits or appearance bothered their neighbors or who appeared threatening for any reason. Women, seen asmore susceptible tothe Devil because of their supposedly weaker constitutions, made up the vast majority of suspects and those who were executed. The most notorious cases occurred in Salem Village in 1692. Many of the accusers who prosecuted the suspected witches had been traumatized by the IndianwarsonthefrontierandbyunprecedentedpoliticalandculturalchangesinNewEngland.Relying on their belief in witchcraft to help make sense of their changing world, Puritan authorities executed nineteen people and caused the deaths of several others.

Explore the Salem Witchcraft Trials (http://openstaxcollege.org/l/salemwitch) to learn more about the prosecution of witchcraft in seventeenth-century New England.

Puritan Relationships with Native Peoples Like their Spanish and French Catholic rivals, English Puritans in America took steps to convert native peoples to their version of Christianity. John Eliot, theleading Puritan missionary in New England, urged natives in Massachusetts to live in “praying towns” established by English authorities for converted

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Indians, and to adopt the Puritan emphasis on the centrality of the Bible. In keeping with the Protestant emphasis on reading scripture, he translated the Bible into the local Algonquian language and published his work in 1663. Eliot hoped that as a result of his efforts, some of New England’s native inhabitants would become preachers. Tensions had existed from the beginning between the Puritans and the native people who controlled southernNewEngland(Figure3.13).RelationshipsdeterioratedasthePuritanscontinuedtoexpandtheir settlementsaggressivelyandasEuropeanwaysincreasinglydisruptednativelife.ThesestrainsledtoKing Philip’sWar(1675–1676),amassiveregionalconflictthatwasnearlysuccessfulinpushingtheEnglishout of New England.

Figure 3.13 This map indicates the domains of New England’s native inhabitants in 1670, a few years before King Philip’s War.

When the Puritans began to arrive in the 1620s and 1630s, local Algonquian peoples had viewed them as potential allies in the conflicts already simmering between rival native groups. In 1621, the Wampanoag, led by Massasoit, concluded a peace treaty with the Pilgrims at Plymouth. In the 1630s, the Puritans in Massachusetts and Plymouth allied themselves with the Narragansett and Mohegan people against the Pequot, who had recently expanded their claims into southern New England. In May 1637, the Puritans attacked a large group of several hundred Pequot along the Mystic River in Connecticut. To the horror of their native allies, the Puritans massacred all but a handful of the men, women, and children they found. By the mid-seventeenth century, the Puritans had pushed their way further into the interior of New England, establishing outposts along the Connecticut River Valley. There seemed no end to their expansion. Wampanoag leader Metacom or Metacomet, also known as King Philip among the English, was determined to stop the encroachment. The Wampanoag, along with the Nipmuck, Pocumtuck, and Narragansett, took up the hatchet to drive the English from the land. In the ensuing conflict, called King Philip’sWar,nativeforcessucceededindestroyinghalfofthefrontierPuritantowns;however,intheend, the English (aided by Mohegans and Christian Indians) prevailed and sold many captives into slavery in the West Indies. (The severed head of King Philip was publicly displayed in Plymouth.) The war also foreverchangedtheEnglishperceptionofnativepeoples;fromthenon,Puritanwriterstookgreatpainsto vilifythenativesasbloodthirstysavages.AnewtypeofracialhatredbecameadefiningfeatureofIndianEnglish relationships in the Northeast.

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MY STORY Mary Rowlandson’s Captivity Narrative

Mary Rowlandson was a Puritan woman whom Indian tribes captured and imprisoned for several weeks during King Philip’s War. After her release, she wrote The Narrative of the Captivity and the Restoration of Mrs. Mary Rowlandson, which was published in 1682 (Figure 3.14). The book was an immediate sensation that was reissued in multiple editions for over a century.

Figure 3.14 Puritan woman Mary Rowlandson wrote her captivity narrative, the front cover of which is shown here (a), after her imprisonment during King Philip’s War. In her narrative, she tells of her treatment by the Indians holding her as well as of her meetings with the Wampanoag leader Metacom (b), shown in a contemporary portrait. But now, the next morning, I must turn my back upon the town, and travel with them into the vast and desolate wilderness, I knew not whither. It is not my tongue, or pen, can express the sorrows of my heart, and bitterness of my spirit that I had at this departure: but God was with me in a wonderful manner, carrying me along, and bearing up my spirit, that it did not quite fail. One of the Indians carried my poor wounded babe upon a horse; it went moaning all along, “I shall die, I shall die.” I went on foot after it, with sorrow that cannot be expressed. At length I took it off the horse, and carried it in my arms till my strength failed, and I fell down with it. Then they set me upon a horse with my wounded child in my lap, and there being no furniture upon the horse’s back, as we were going down a steep hill we both fell over the horse’s head, at which they, like inhumane creatures, laughed, and rejoiced to see it, though I thought we should there have ended our days, as overcome with so many difficulties. But the Lord renewed my strength still, and carried me along, that I might see more of His power; yea, so much that I could never have thought of, had I not experienced it. What sustains Rowlandson her during her ordeal? How does she characterize her captors? What do you think made her narrative so compelling to readers?

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Access the entire text of Mary Rowlandson’s captivity narrative (http://openstaxcollege.org/l/captivenarr) at the Gutenberg Project.

3.4 The Impact of Colonization

By the end of this section, you will be able to: • Explain the reasons for the rise of slavery in the American colonies • Describe changes to Indian life, including warfare and hunting • Contrast European and Indian views on property • Assess the impact of European settlement on the environment

As Europeans moved beyond exploration and into colonization of the Americas, they brought changes to virtuallyeveryaspectofthelandanditspeople,fromtradeandhuntingtowarfareandpersonalproperty. European goods, ideas, and diseases shaped the changing continent. AsEuropeansestablishedtheircolonies,theirsocietiesalsobecamesegmentedanddividedalongreligious and racial lines. Most people in these societies were not free; they labored as servants or slaves, doing the work required to produce wealth for others. By 1700, the American continent had become a place of stark contrasts between slavery and freedom, between the haves and the have-nots.

THE INSTITUTION OF SLAVERY Everywhere in the American colonies, a crushing demand for labor existed to grow New World cash crops, especially sugar and tobacco. This need led Europeans to rely increasingly on Africans, and after 1600, the movement of Africans across the Atlantic accelerated. The English crown chartered the Royal African Company in 1672, giving the company a monopoly over the transport of African slaves to the Englishcolonies.Overthenextfourdecades,thecompanytransportedaround350,000Africansfromtheir homelands. By 1700, the tiny English sugar island of Barbados had a population of fifty thousand slaves, and the English had encoded the institution of chattel slavery into colonial law. This new system of African slavery came slowly to the English colonists, who did not have slavery at home and preferred to use servant labor. Nevertheless, by the end of the seventeenth century, the English everywhere in America—and particularly in the Chesapeake Bay colonies—had come to rely on African slaves. While Africans had long practiced slavery among their own people, it had not been based on race. Africans enslaved other Africans as war captives, for crimes, and to settle debts; they generally used their slaves for domestic and small-scale agricultural work, not for growing cash crops on large plantations. Additionally, African slavery was often a temporary condition rather than a lifelong sentence, and, unlike New World slavery, it was typically not heritable (passed from a slave mother to her children). The growing slave trade with Europeans had a profound impact on the people of West Africa, giving prominence to local chieftains and merchants who traded slaves for European textiles, alcohol, guns, tobacco, and food. Africans also charged Europeans for the right to trade in slaves and imposed taxes on

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slave purchases. Different African groups and kingdoms even staged large-scale raids on each other to meet the demand for slaves. Once sold to traders, all slaves sent to America endured the hellish Middle Passage, the transatlantic crossing, which took one to two months. By 1625, more than 325,800 Africans had been shipped to the New World, though many thousands perished during the voyage. An astonishing number, some four million, were transported to the Caribbean between 1501 and 1830. When they reached their destination in America, Africans found themselves trapped in shockingly brutal slave societies. In the Chesapeake colonies, they faced a lifetime of harvesting and processing tobacco. Everywhere, Africans resisted slavery, and running away was common. In Jamaica and elsewhere, runaway slaves created maroon communities, groups that resisted recapture and eked a living from the land, rebuilding their communities as best they could. When possible, they adhered to traditional ways, following spiritual leaders such as Vodun priests.

CHANGES TO INDIAN LIFE While the Americas remained firmly under the control of native peoples in the first decades of European settlement, conflict increased as colonization spread and Europeans placed greater demands upon the native populations, including expecting them to convert to Christianity (either Catholicism or Protestantism). Throughout the seventeenth century, the still-powerful native peoples and confederacies thatretainedcontrolofthelandwagedwaragainsttheinvadingEuropeans,achievingadegreeofsuccess in their effort to drive the newcomers from the continent. At the same time, European goods had begun to change Indian life radically. In the 1500s, some of the earliest objects Europeans introduced to Indians were glass beads, copper kettles, and metal utensils. Native people often adapted these items for their own use. For example, some cut up copper kettles and refashioned the metal for other uses, including jewelry that conferred status on the wearer, who was seen as connected to the new European source of raw materials. As European settlements grew throughout the 1600s, European goods flooded native communities. Soon native people were using these items for the same purposes as the Europeans. For example, many native inhabitants abandoned their animal-skin clothing in favor of European textiles. Similarly, clay cookware gave way to metal cooking implements, and Indians found that European flint and steel made starting fires much easier (Figure 3.15).

Figure 3.15 In this 1681 portrait, the Niantic-Narragansett chief Ninigret wears a combination of European and Indian goods. Which elements of each culture are evident in this portrait?

The abundance of European goods gave rise to new artistic objects. For example, iron awls made the creation of shell beads among the native people of the Eastern Woodlands much easier, and the result

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wasanastonishing increaseintheproduction ofwampum,shellbeadsusedinceremonies andasjewelry and currency. Native peoples had always placed goods in the graves of their departed, and this practice escalated with the arrival of European goods. Archaeologists have found enormous caches of European trade goods in the graves of Indians on the East Coast. Native weapons changed dramatically as well, creating an arms race among the peoples living in European colonization zones. Indians refashioned European brassware into arrow points and turned axes used for chopping wood into weapons. The most prized piece of European weaponry to obtain was a musket, or light, long-barreled European gun. In order to trade with Europeans for these, native peoples intensified their harvesting of beaver, commercializing their traditional practice. The influx of European materials made warfare more lethal and changed traditional patterns of authority among tribes. Formerly weaker groups, if they had access to European metal and weapons, suddenly gained the upper hand against once-dominant groups. The Algonquian, for instance, traded with the French for muskets and gained power against their enemies, the Iroquois. Eventually, native peoples also used their new weapons against the European colonizers who had provided them.

Explore the complexity of Indian-European relationships (http://openstaxcollege.org/l/NHC) in the series of primary source documents on the National Humanities Center site.

ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGES The European presence in America spurred countless changes in the environment, setting into motion chains of events that affected native animals as well as people. The popularity of beaver-trimmed hats in Europe, coupled with Indians’ desire for European weapons, led to the overhunting of beaver in the Northeast. Soon, beavers were extinct in New England, New York, and other areas. With their loss came thelossofbeaverponds,whichhadservedashabitatsforfishaswellaswatersourcesfordeer,moose,and otheranimals.Furthermore,Europeansintroducedpigs,whichtheyallowedtoforageinforestsandother wildlands. Pigs consumed the foods on which deer and other indigenous species depended, resulting in scarcity of the game native peoples had traditionally hunted. European ideas about owning land as private property clashed with natives’ understanding of land use. Native peoples did not believe in private ownership of land; instead, they viewed land as a resource to be heldincommonforthebenefitofthegroup.TheEuropeanideaofusufruct—therighttocommonlanduse andenjoyment—comesclosetothenativeunderstanding,butcolonistsdidnotpracticeusufructwidelyin America. Colonizers established fields, fences, and other means of demarcating private property. Native peopleswhomovedseasonallytotakeadvantageofnaturalresourcesnowfoundareasofflimits,claimed by colonizers because of their insistence on private-property rights.

The Introduction of Disease Perhaps European colonization’s single greatest impact on the North American environment was the introduction of disease. Microbes to which native inhabitants had no immunity led to death everywhere Europeans settled. Along the New England coast between 1616 and 1618, epidemics claimed the lives of 75 percent of the native people. In the 1630s, half the Huron and Iroquois around the Great Lakes died

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of smallpox. As is often the case with disease, the very young and the very old were the most vulnerable and had the highest mortality rates. The loss of the older generation meant the loss of knowledge and tradition, while the death of children only compounded the trauma, creating devastating implications for future generations. Some native peoples perceived disease as a weapon used by hostile spiritual forces, and they went to war to exorcise thedisease from theirmidst. These “mourning wars” ineastern North America were designed to gain captives who would either be adopted (“requickened” as a replacement for a deceased loved one) or ritually tortured and executed to assuage the anger and grief caused by loss.

The Cultivation of Plants European expansion in the Americas led to an unprecedented movement of plants across the Atlantic. A primeexampleistobacco,whichbecameavaluableexportasthehabitofsmoking,previouslyunknownin Europe,tookhold(Figure3.16).Anotherexampleissugar.ColumbusbroughtsugarcanetotheCaribbean on his second voyage in 1494, and thereafter a wide variety of other herbs, flowers, seeds, and roots made the transatlantic voyage.

Figure 3.16 Adriaen van Ostade, a Dutch artist, painted An Apothecary Smoking in an Interior in 1646. The large European market for American tobacco strongly influenced the development of some of the American colonies.

Just as pharmaceutical companies today scour the natural world for new drugs, Europeans traveled to America to discover new medicines. The task of cataloging the new plants found there helped give birth to the science of botany. Early botanists included the English naturalist Sir Hans Sloane, who traveled to Jamaica in 1687 and there recorded hundreds of new plants (Figure 3.17). Sloane also helped popularize the drinking of chocolate, made from the cacao bean, in England.

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Figure 3.17 English naturalist Sir Hans Sloane traveled to Jamaica and other Caribbean islands to catalog the flora of the new world.

Indians,whopossessedavastunderstandingoflocalNewWorldplantsandtheirproperties,wouldhave been a rich source of information for those European botanists seeking to find and catalog potentially useful plants. Enslaved Africans, who had a tradition of the use of medicinal plants in their native land, adapted to their new surroundings by learning the use of New World plants through experimentation or from the native inhabitants. Native peoples and Africans employed their knowledge effectively within their own communities. One notable example was the use of the peacock flower to induce abortions: Indian and enslaved African women living in oppressive colonial regimes are said to have used this herb to prevent the birth of children into slavery. Europeans distrusted medical knowledge that came from African or native sources, however, and thus lost the benefit of this source of information.

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headright system

indenture

Jesuits

Middle Passage

maroon communities

musket

patroonships

repartimiento

Timucua

wampum

Key Terms

a system in which parcels of land were granted to settlers who could pay their own

way to Virginia

a labor contract that promised young men, and sometimes women, money and land after they worked for a set period of years

members of the Society of Jesus, an elite Catholic religious order founded in the 1540s to spread Catholicism and to combat the spread of Protestantism

the perilous, often deadly transatlantic crossing of slave ships from the African coast to

the New World

groups of runaway slaves who resisted recapture and eked a living from the land

a light, long-barreled European gun

large tracts of land and governing rights granted to merchants by the Dutch West India Company in order to encourage colonization

a Spanish colonial system requiring Indian towns to supply workers for the colonizers

the native people of Florida, whom the Spanish displaced with the founding of St. Augustine, the first Spanish settlement in North America

shell beads used in ceremonies and as jewelry and currency

Summary 3.1Spanish Exploration and Colonial Society IntheiroutpostsatSt.AugustineandSantaFe,theSpanishneverfoundthefabledmountainsofgoldthey sought. They did find many native people to convert to Catholicism, but their zeal nearly cost them the colony of Santa Fe, which they lost for twelve years after the Pueblo Revolt. In truth, the grand dreams of wealth, conversion, and a social order based on Spanish control never came to pass as Spain envisioned them.

3.2Colonial Rivalries: Dutch and French Colonial Ambitions The French and Dutch established colonies in the northeastern part of North America: the Dutch in present-dayNewYork,andtheFrenchinpresent-dayCanada.Bothcolonieswereprimarilytradingposts for furs. While they failed to attract many colonists from their respective home countries, these outposts nonethelessintensifiedimperialrivalriesinNorthAmerica.BoththeDutchandtheFrenchreliedonnative peoples to harvest the pelts that proved profitable in Europe.

3.3English Settlements in America The English came late to colonization of the Americas, establishing stable settlements in the 1600s after several unsuccessful attempts in the 1500s. After Roanoke Colony failed in 1587, the English found more success with the founding of Jamestown in 1607 and Plymouth in 1620. The two colonies were very different in origin. The Virginia Company of London founded Jamestown with the express purpose of making money for its investors, while Puritans founded Plymouth to practice their own brand of Protestantism without interference.

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Both colonies battled difficult circumstances, including poor relationships with neighboring Indian tribes. ConflictsflaredrepeatedlyintheChesapeakeBaytobaccocoloniesandinNewEngland,whereamassive uprisingagainsttheEnglishin1675to1676—KingPhilip’sWar—nearlysucceededindrivingtheintruders back to the sea.

3.4The Impact of Colonization The development of the Atlantic slave trade forever changed the course of European settlement in the Americas. Othertransatlantic travelers, including diseases, goods, plants,animals, andevenideas likethe conceptofprivatelandownership,furtherinfluencedlifeinAmericaduringthesixteenthandseventeenth centuries. The exchange of pelts for European goods including copper kettles, knives, and guns played a significantroleinchangingthematerialculturesofnativepeoples.Duringtheseventeenthcentury,native peoplesgrewincreasinglydependentonEuropeantradeitems.Atthesametime,manynativeinhabitants died of European diseases, while survivors adopted new ways of living with their new neighbors.

Review Questions 1. Which of the following was a goal of the Spanish in their destruction of Fort Caroline? A. establishing a foothold from which to battle the Timucua B. claiming a safe place to house the New World treasures that would be shipped back to Spain C. reducing the threat of French privateers D. locating a site for the establishment of Santa Fe

2. Why did the Spanish build Castillo de San Marcos? A. to protect the local Timucua B. to defend against imperial challengers C. as a seat for visiting Spanish royalty D. to house visiting delegates from rival imperial powers

3. How did the Pueblo attempt to maintain their autonomy in the face of Spanish settlement?

4. What was patroonship? A. a Dutch ship used for transporting beaver furs B. a Dutch system of patronage that encouraged the arts C. a Dutch system of granting tracts of land in New Netherland to encourage colonization D. a Dutch style of hat trimmed with beaver fur from New Netherland

5. Which religious order joined the French settlement in Canada and tried to convert the natives to Christianity? A. Franciscans B. Calvinists C. Anglicans D. Jesuits

6. How did the French and Dutch colonists differ in their religious expectations? How did both compare to Spanish colonists?

7. What was the most lucrative product of the Chesapeake colonies? A. corn B. tobacco C. gold and silver D. slaves

8. What was the primary cause of Bacon’s Rebellion? A. former indentured servants wanted more opportunities to expand their territory B. African slaves wanted better treatment C. Susquahannock Indians wanted the Jamestown settlers to pay a fair price for their land D. Jamestown politicians were jockeying for power

9. The founders of the Plymouth colony were: A. Puritans B. Catholics

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C. Anglicans D. Jesuits

10. Which of the following isnottrue of the Puritan religion? A. It required close reading of scripture. B. Church membership required a conversion narrative. C. Literacy was crucial. D. Only men could participate.

11. How did the Chesapeake colonists solve their labor problems?

12. What was the Middle Passage? A. the fabled sea route from Europe to the Far East B. the land route from Europe to Africa

C. the transatlantic journey that African slaves made to America D. the line between the northern and southern colonies

13. Which of the following isnotan item Europeans introduced to Indians? A. wampum B. glass beads C. copper kettles D. metal tools

14. How did European muskets change life for native peoples in the Americas?

15. Compare and contrast European and Indian views on property.

Critical Thinking Questions 16. CompareandcontrastlifeintheSpanish,French,Dutch,andEnglishcolonies,differentiatingbetween the Chesapeake Bay and New England colonies. Who were the colonizers? What were their purposes in being there? How did they interact with their environments and the native inhabitants of the lands on which they settled?

17. Describe the attempts of the various European colonists to convert native peoples to their belief systems. How did these attempts compare to one another? What were the results of each effort?

18. Howdidchattelslaverydifferfromindenturedservitude?Howdidtheformersystemcometoreplace the latter? What were the results of this shift?

19. What impact did Europeans have on their New World environments—native peoples and their communities as well as land, plants, and animals? Conversely, what impact did the New World’s native inhabitants, land, plants, and animals have on Europeans? How did the interaction of European and Indian societies, together, shape a world that was truly “new”?