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Final Project 1

First open the doc that says indications, there you can have everything that you need to do

ActionResearch Manuscript Template

This document serves as a guide for the requirements of the FINAL ACTION RESEARCH PAPER SUBMISSION – each section must be completed. USE APA and Double Space

a) Cover page – Per APA – Title of Project, Your Name, University Name, Course Title

b) Abstract – The abstract consists of a single, concise paragraph describing the problem, purpose, methods, and results of your study. Use no more than 250 words. Do not write the abstract until you are nearly finished writing, and then draft and redraft until it reads as is a clearly as possible.

c) Introduction and Statement of the Problem (1.5 page maximum)

An overview of the topic of interest and some background information on what your topic is about and how it relates to your school and community. The research question should be described here and remember that at it is to be answered at some point later in the paper. The goal of this section is to combine information about the setting of the action research project and the story behind the project into a smooth narrative that gets the reader engaged in your work’s context; the critical question is also introduced here. This section is usually about three to five pages long. The reader should have a good idea what the paper is about before finishing the first page. In the introduction, be cognizant of the following:

· Context. It is important to communicate to the reader a clear picture of the overall context of your AR project. The way you write the beginning of your paper lays the foundation (weak or strong) for the credibility and trustworthiness of your results and conclusions.

· Use storytelling. Instead of telling about your setting, illustrate it for the reader using stories and anecdotes taken from your notes, reflections, and data. Introduce major players in your analysis and results.

· Include active and layered description. Use multiple data sources to illustrate the setting and story behind the research. It must be clear to the reader that you are thoroughly immersed and engaged in your setting, and are therefore qualified to make credible analyses and interpretations. By referring to some data here you signal to the reader prior to the rest of the paper what type of research this is and how data were generally collected.

· Your story. It is also important to communicate to the reader a clear picture of yourself as the student teacher-researcher and how your own biases and experiences, and assumptions not only influence the study but also provided the fodder for your critical question. This may be woven into your illustration of context by including your own thoughts and memories. If there are key quotes that tell your story in another’s words, consider including the quote in this section. Make it clear how you arrived at your critical question.

· Your critical question. Bring your narrative to a climax in which you lay out your critical question in detail. Explain briefly what your action(s) consisted of. Tell briefly what your conclusions look like (don’t try to keep the reader in suspense).

Literature Review of your Topic (3 page maximum) – Please take your literature review and synthesize the fine points, major themes into a maximum of 3 double spaced pages. What have other researchers found on your topic and in your area? The goal of this section is to introduce the reader to the major issues and/or themes learned from distant colleagues in the literature surrounding your critical question. By broadening your readers’ understanding of the major issues surrounding your research, you further solidify the credibility and trustworthiness of your work. This section is generally about three pages long.

· It is best to organize this section in one of two ways: either group the literature you are reviewing by themes or review the literature to provide an overview of the history leading up to the framework for your AR project. For example, one of our students organized her literature review according to these themes: 1) literature on the effectiveness of reading aloud; (2) strategies for increasing reading fluency and comprehension; and (3) meaningful reading fluency and comprehension assessment strategies. Another student organized her literature review as a historical overview of assessment in mathematics. Her review looked at the evolution of mathematical assessments to its present emphasis on problem-solving.

Choose a format that will allow your readers to make the connection between your literature review and the AR study by establishing the theoretical foundation of the action, curriculum review, self-study, or ethnography you later describe in your AR paper.

Note: This section will contain the majority of your citations, although we suggest bringing in the voices of the other researchers that you used in your literature review and also sprinkle that information throughout the paper. Remember that the research question you are exploring is tied to other research that’s already been done on this question.

Methodology: My Action Research Project (4 pages maximum)

This is a brief, concise section focusing your reader on the essential elements of your AR project. Assume a more professional style and tone to answer precisely:

· Research Site and Sample Population – A demographic description of sample

· Research Methods Used – Procedures Carried out

· what the critical question was, why the study was conducted, needs assessment, baseline data,

· where the project took place (research site: description of setting);

Intervention (4 pages maximum)

· the interventions, analysis, or strategies you implemented to improve the “problem”;

· the data collection strategies and sources you used, when the data collection occurred (dates of implementation and/or data collection, length of study);

· how data collection was completed (data collection methods – in detail);

· the contents of the data sets you collected;

· the methods you used to analyze, interpret, and deconstruct the data;

· changes you made in your research design.

This is a technical piece of the paper in which the reader gets an inside view of your research process. The idea here is that someone else could do the same research in their classroom by following your detailed descriptions of methodology.

(Discussion/ Findings (3 page maximum)

The goal of this section is to illustrate what you have learned as related to your critical question. Use your data to tell the story of your research and support your conclusions and emerging theories. This section is the heart and soul of your action research paper. This is where you tell your story. The section is rich in voice, style, and data. Remember the writing advice: show, don’t tell as you write. Interweave important data into your narrative. Include tables, charts, and quotes from interviews and your observations and reflections. Use your data to illustrate your ideas, and to provide the reader the freedom to draw his/her own conclusions as well. Explain how you interpret your data. Support your interpretations with examples. Use multiple data sources to support major assertions or ideas. Include multiple voices and perspectives, including those of critical colleagues, students, and “distant mentors” (literature review). Deconstruct your work, providing counterexamples and alternative interpretations.

Further Reflection and Continuing Questions about My Action Research Journey (Conclusion)

In this section, you bring themes together and begin the process of concluding your paper. Consider the following questions as writing prompts for this final reflection of your action research journey:

· What are some of the most important lessons you will take into your teaching career?

· What will you do differently next time?

· What additional questions did this research project pose for you?

· What was your action research journey like? How has this journey transformed your image of teacher, teaching, students, schools, learning? How have your paradigms been altered, confirmed, and/or challenged?

· What have you learned about action research? How has your definition of AR changed? How do you see yourself using this process in the future?

Conclusion: How to Write a Memorable Conclusion

Conclusions are tough: how do you end a good date, or say goodbye after a long visit? More than likely, you will write your concluding paragraph several times before you are satisfied. An effective way to write the concluding paragraph is to use a quote, either from someone famous, your students, other participants, or from your own researcher’s notebook. Another possibility is to end with a short story, a vignette, from your data that illustrates the central focus of the study. Sometimes, a combination works well.

In the example below, the student teacher had conducted an action research project about homework. In his classroom, students either did not turn in homework or they turned in poor quality homework. He attempted two different kinds of homework strategies to improve both quality and completion rates. However, he found that a reward system which gave students “free time” points for turning in homework regardless of quality, trumped all his other homework strategies. This is how he concluded his piece:

To conclude my research I decided to ask the entire class one question. “Would you rather earn homework points by turning in an assignment that you know you could do better on or sacrifice the homework points but get the best score in the class on a big assignment?” Seventy-six percent of the class said they would choose the homework points. Only six of the 25 students polled would take the top score. Students are getting mixed messages. They’re motivated to get the homework points even though we want them to produce their best work. They’re motivated by the wrong thing; completing assignments no matter what the quality is. Absolutely, they still struggle to complete their work, but they do understand that completing work is what is valued regardless of the quality. More than anything else, I’ve learned that students are smart. They learn early on in the school year what is important, and most students strive to achieve that. As a teacher, I need to be aware of this and careful not to send a message to my students that I don’t want them to receive. Students will provide us with the information we need to create the types of classrooms we want if we look for it. I credit the students for teaching me the lessons that I will take from this action research project, one of which is summarized by this quote, “The question educators need to ask is not how motivated their students are, but how their students are motivated” (Kohn, 1994, p. 3).

This conclusion returns to the heart of the action research study. It summarizes the main lesson the student teacher/researcher learned. And, it encourages the reader to ask, “What kind of mixed messages do I send to my students?” This makes for a memorable final curtain call!

References:

Consult carefully with APA guidelines, or whatever other citation methods required in your program, to ensure that references are done correctly. References are yet another element of trustworthiness. Plagiarism is not only legally and ethically wrong; it cheapens the quality of your journey. Attend to references carefully.

-Appendices

A writer places in the appendices additional information that supports or illustrates points in the paper. Items in the appendices allow the reader to go deeper or gain a clearer view of what is being said in the main text. Appendices are important but they are not a “dumping ground.” For example, not all data goes in the appendices; however, a log of data sets may be appropriate. Not all student work would be placed in the appendices, but a sample that clarifies an assignment would be appropriate. Must include questionnaires, surveys, interview questions, pre and post tests, etc. used in the study

Possible inclusions in the appendices include:

· a log of data sets or specific items from a data set;

· assessments;

· surveys, questionnaires, and interview questions;

· letters home (including how you gained permissions);

· lesson plans;

· artifacts.

Note that anything placed in the appendices must be referenced in the text of the paper. Check the appropriate citation guidelines on how to do this.

Indications

I attached some doc so you can have guide, first open the doc that says (Action-Research-Manuscript-Template) we only going to start working on the parts that are highlighted. Very important the part that is in green is from a previous assignment the literature review, remember that you need to fix the professor annotation, Also I there are two projects from some of my friend that I attached so you can have an idea of what the professor want, this is the first part of the assignment, we are going little by little.

I also attached a document (statement of focus) that is the subject of the research, everything is around that. Remember the subject is “decreasing escape maintain behaviors during paper-based homework in students diagnosed with ASD at elementary level.””

Runninghead: INCREASING TIME ON TASK DURING DISTANCE LEARNING

INCREASING TIME ON TASK DURING DISTANCE LEARNING

Increasing Time on Task During Distance Learning in Gifted Students Diagnosed with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) at the Elementary Level

Abstract

The onset of the COVID-19 pandemic has created an enlarged setting for distance learning, challenging teachers, parents and students. Students were required to adjust from school environment to home setting to complete the academic year. This event triggered maladaptive behaviors, especially for our target population: gifted students with ADHD at elementary school levels. This study focused on designing and applying an intervention plan to increase time on task during distance learning with the above-mentioned population. We then developed interventions based on the results of the Needs Assessment which included a questionnaire, an antecedent, behavior, consequence (ABC) data recording model, and Questions About Behavior Function (QABF, Matson & Singh, 1993). To increase on-task behavior and foster following instructions, appropriate escape, stay seated in a designated area, and stay on task, we applied the following interventions: Differential Reinforcement of Alternate Behaviors (DRA), Premack Principle, Escape Extinction, and Token Economy. The implementation of the Behavior Intervention Plan (BIP) showed a significant improvement of the students’ time on-task behavior. Therefore, the study gives ground for further inquiry on different strategies and further use in other settings and amongst larger samples.

Keywords: maladaptive behaviors, ADHD, intervention strategies, on-task time, appropriate escape.

Increasing Time on Task During Distance Learning in Gifted Students Diagnosed with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) at the Elementary Level

Introduction

Problem Statement

The current year has presented society with a challenge.

body was really prepared for the social distancing required due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Education has been one of the areas where regular activities have been affected the most. Educators have faced the need for remote instruction. The rhythm of classes and activities for children are totally alien for parents and caregivers who find themselves unable to organize student’s routines. Children with behavioral challenges are part of this instance, including the group we decided to focus on. We decided to address the increase of on-task behavior during distance learning time in gifted students with ADHD at the elementary level.

This change is particularly meaningful to us because, as educators, we want our students to successfully engage in academic learning time outside of the classroom setting. Schools’ boundaries have expanded, and parents need to be aware of the needs of their children to be able to comply with the continuing education outside the classrooms. Parents were not ready for this situation, especially those with children who demand a lot more time and attention.

Based on the current news provided through sources of media, when asked regarding the current situation and how to handle learning issues, other educators agree that the classroom setting is the most successful one when it comes to knowledge acquisition because in this setting, students have less distractions than at home. Another concern that educators have in relation to this matter is that in the home setting there is no classroom schedule and/or structure. Additionally, caregivers are not trained on teaching skills and most of the time responses to exercises/tests can be biased by their help and/or other environmental distractors.

Applying behavioral intervention programs to keep students focused and engaged on tasks can be a method to successfully increase their academic learning time. Therefore, we decided to state the following hypothesis for the research: Can behavioral intervention programs keep students focused during distance learning to achieve academic results similar to classroom environments?

Literature Review

The main criteria for the selection of the literature were the innovative approach of the referred subject, and the resemblance to the strategies applied. All referenced articles carried out extensive research in the area pertaining to the chosen topic. The challenges of current situations have highlighted the use of resources to continue education in a non-traditional model, which is particularly troublesome for gifted students with ADHD.

Riley, McKevitt, Shriver, and Allen (2011) proposed a study on the increase of on-task behavior through the use of teacher attention on a fixed-time schedule. The aforementioned article addressed an increase in time on-task during distance learning by using teacher attention. It explains the effectiveness of the fixed-time attention delivery during the learning process while increasing students’ on-task behavior and decreasing their off-task behavior. The study used subjects in general public schools and without limitations to its target. It revealed that a fixed-time schedule is effective to get responses from students and it improves their understanding of the process. The research study also revealed teacher attention is a positive element to shape positive learning behaviors.

Karrie and Godwin (2016) carried out yet another study pertaining to the off-task behavior of elementary school children. They found that there are three main elements (i.e., environment, gender, class and peer intervention), that could affect the on-task behavior of children. This research provided ways to analyze how environmental distractions affect the time on task behavior of students.

On the same line of research regarding time on task and success in education, Lee (2018) had some relevant findings pertaining to our topic. This study found that students with higher Self-Regulating Learning (SRL) capacity had longer time-on-task that is continuous by off-task exercises than students who did not have enough SRL capacity. These results represent the relationship between time on task and online classes. This study showed how time on task responses are interrupted in online classes.

Park (2018), referring to distance learning, showed that, after one semester, students who were engaged with legitimate plan/advancement-based learning exercises demonstrated an essentially higher number of social collaborations with the Modular Object-Oriented Dynamic Learning Environment (Moodle) and Learning Management System (LMS) than students engaged with bona fide conversation based learning exercises. Therefore, it was concluded that there is a direct relationship between course design/beliefs and motivation of students. We addressed the motivation element in the questionnaire proctored to the students.

More directly related to the subject of ADHD, Tycho and Dekkers, (2017), studied 54 children with ADHD and 57 without ADHD from elementary schools for a total 111 children from 9-13 years old. They used an activity design where, after recording initial responses, both groups were asked to respond on trials (i.e., a reinforcing or a non-reinforcing condition). Later, the responses were used as a measure to explain the motivation levels as well as behavioral activeness. The results stated that stronger time-on-task effects were found in children with ADHD as compared to children without ADHD on indices of basic attention. Thus, this provides evidence for the existence of a difference between the effect of time-on-task in children with and without ADHD. This paper also informed researchers on how children diagnosed with ADHD lack motivation for certain tasks.

Our last reference focuses primarily on the use of peer-mediated intervention in children with ADHD. Nines (2010) analyzed and replicated procedures using peer attention delivery as an intervention in afterschool programs. The author determined how interventions affect the population’s behavior. Findings of this result showed that off-task behavior is sensitive to attention from peers. Thus, we may conclude that the intervention of peer in learning behavior is helpful. Thus, the study demonstrated that it is good to conduct both functional analysis and a peer-mediated intervention in an afterschool program. This research has addressed the same issue with addition of peer intervention. We used this article for its research findings about the effect of peer intervention on the behavior of children diagnosed with ADHD. Therefore, it provides evidence of peer intervention as an agent of behavior change.

Methodology: Action Research Project

Participants

The study used two subjects, both gifted students who have been diagnosed with ADHD, attending second grade at the elementary level in a public school. Student A was an 8-year-old Hispanic male, and Student B was an 8-year-old Hispanic female. Both came from functional families. High activity levels, difficulty remaining focused for long periods of time, and limited attention spans, are common to young children in general. However, in children diagnosed with ADHD the aforementioned behaviors are noticeably greater in comparison with neurotypical aged children, and they can also interfere in the individual’s performance in daily living skills, academic tasks, and social interactions in different settings.

Procedures

We proctored a Needs Assessment to appropriately establish the variables of our study and to assess the needs and expectations of our population. Therefore, the Needs Assessment helped us to design an accurate Behavior Intervention Plan (BIP) by using different instruments to collect necessary data of the students’ particular needs. The assessment is an effective tool that helps researchers to identify the major problems and come up with desirable solutions in order to improve the behavior of the identified students (Grande et al., 2017). According to Nayahangan et al. (2017), this organized review helps to give an overall understanding of different functions performed at individual level, as well as the organizational level, so as to overcome problems (e.g., ADHD), thus improving learning at the elementary level.

The data collection was carried out implementing several instruments. First, we proctored a questionnaire to the population addressing the topic of distance learning and their perception of specific areas such as time and workload. Then, in the case of the caregivers, we proctored the Questions About Behavior Function (QABF), which is a widely used indirect assessment tool designed to assist mental health practitioners in assessing the function of maladaptive behaviors in individuals diagnosed with a developmental disability. This questionnaire allowed us to establish the functions of the maladaptive behavior displayed by both students, and to acquire a more precise and reliable information from the caregivers. Finally, we used an Antecedent-Behavior-Consequence chart, also known as ABC recording model, for the periods of direct observation with the students. An ABC Chart is used to organize information over several observation sessions by recording the types of behaviors observed and the events that precede and follow the behavior. Observing and recording ABC data assisted us in forming the hypothesis statement and gathering evidence that the function maintaining a problem behavior has been identified.

The techniques used both qualitative and quantitative approaches to combine a more comprehensive outcome. We could therefore identify the challenges, capabilities, environmental factors, and functions to be addressed and measured during the study.

After using qualitative methods (ABC recording, QABF assessment, and survey), the following maladaptive behaviors were identified as barriers to completion of academic tasks during distance learning:

· Bolting: any instance when the student runs away more than 10 feet from the working area to another part of the setting without safety implications.

· Off-task: any instance of the student engaging in any tasks other than the assigned task or ongoing activity (e.g., looking around the room, playing with items) for more than 10 seconds following a demand.

· Task refusal: any instance of student refusing to comply with instructions, requests, academic tasks.

The BIP included a data collection chart reflecting the frequency of occurrence of the maladaptive behaviors described above.

Our critical question was the actual effect of the interventions to increase time on task behavior during distance learning. This target is particularly meaningful to us because, as educators, we want our students to successfully engage in academic learning time outside of the classroom setting. We intend to increase the on-task behavior during distance learning time at the home setting. The BIP comprised the corresponding interventions to target the maladaptive behaviors according to their functions. Despite the notion of the school as the ideal setting for learning acquisition for gifted students, we propose that children can also learn in home settings when in possession of the appropriate resources (e.g., parent training). Applying behavioral intervention programs to keep them focused and engaged on tasks can be a method to successfully increase their academic learning time.

The study was completed in five weeks; we collected the baseline data and proctored the Needs Assessment during the first week. Data was graphed weekly. Data sheets for collection of maladaptive behaviors and replacement programs, and charts analyzing the resulting data for student A and Student B independently (refer to Appendix A), have been completed.

Interventions

The study was conducted from Monday, May 4th, 2020 to Friday, June 5th, 2020. The following is the schedule of instruments used:

· Monday 4th: Proctoring QABF to caregivers

· Tuesday 5th: Proctoring Questionnaire to students

· Wednesday 6th: Engaging in ABC recording and taking Baseline

· Thursday 7th: Engaging in ABC recording and taking Baseline

· Friday 8th: Engaging in ABC recording and taking Baseline

The remaining four weeks, we collected data during two in-home sessions weekly (two hrs. each).

To address maladaptive behaviors during distance learning, several interventions were designed. First, we implemented preventive strategies/antecedents’ manipulations strategies to remove environmental triggers to maladaptive behaviors detected during observation.

More accurately, off-task environmental triggers were managed by keeping the workspace clean and removing any object/edible that could be a distractor from the area the client was working on the academic activities. We also made sure Student A used the bathroom and drank water and/or ate before he had to sit in the work area to complete the activities. Finally, we set up the computer or paper activity that the student was going to work on before delivering the instruction.

To manage task refusal, frequent breaks were provided in order to decrease motivating operations to escape from tasks. We decided to advise students of what was coming after the academic activity (highly preferred reinforcer); a timer was used to mark the beginning and end of the breaks and advised the client the amount of time that they had left during the activities. This strategy helped with transitions from a preferred activity to a non-preferred one. Another intervention was to develop a sequence interspersing preferred subjects’ activities with non-preferred ones.

To reduce the episodes of Student B engaging in bolting, we decided to accommodate the work space by placing the desktop far from the door(s). We sat next to the student (no more than 6 ft. away to block the behavior and redirect her to the activities).

The interventions selected to target maladaptive behavior were the following:

DRA: “(…) reinforcement is delivered for a behavior that serves as a desired alternative to the behavior targeted for reduction and withheld following instances of the problem behavior (e.g., reinforcing completion of academic worship items when the behavior targeted for reduction is talk-outs)” (Cooper et al., 2014, p. 5). As an alternative behavior, the students were taught to escape appropriately by verbally requesting a break.

Premack Principle: “a principle that states that making the opportunity to engage in a high probability behavior contingent on the occurrence of a low frequency behavior will function as reinforcement for the low frequency behavior” (e.g., if you finish this assignment, then you can play in your iPad) (Cooper et al., 2014, p. 13).

Token Economy: a system whereby participants earn generalized conditioned reinforcement (e.g., chips, points) as an immediate consequence for a specific behavior; participants accumulate tokens and exchange them for items and activities from a menu of back up reinforcers (Cooper et al., 2014, p. 18). For student A, we created a five-response token board using Roblox characters as a generalized conditions reinforcer, and for student B we used different types of flowers as a theme for the token board.

Escape Extinction: Behaviors maintained with negative reinforcement are placed on escape extinction when those behaviors are not followed by termination of the aversive stimulus; emitting the target behavior does not enable the person to escape the aversive situation (Cooper et al., 2014, p. 6).

Besides applying interventions, it is necessary to teach the students an appropriate alternative behavior (i.e., replacement behavior):

· Appropriate escape for Student A and B (requesting for a break)

· Stay on task for Student A (L1: 5min; L2: 8min); Student B (L1: 1min; L2: 2Min)

· Following instructions for Student A and B (L1: within 10 sec; L2: Within 5 sec; L3: Immediately)

· Stay seated in a designated area only for Student B (L1: 1min; L2: 2Min; L3: 3min), due to the incidents of Bolting.

Methods used were a combination of qualitative and quantitative approaches. The graphs used showed the progress of the variables as a steadily increasing curve during the four weeks that described the actual events as progress happened.

Findings

This was an exploratory study to determine the validity of several strategical interventions to target the maladaptive behavior affecting time on task during distance learning of gifted students with ADHD in elementary school. The Needs Assessment led us to accurately create a BIP. The data collected proved the positive effect of the interventions in targeting maladaptive behaviors and increasing appropriate responses.

The results of the questionnaire proctored to both students show that Student A is happy about distance learning; he preferred Mathematics and found Science as the most challenging. Data revealed that Student A considered that the amount of activities is higher in the home setting than in the school and it takes about 20 minutes for him to complete each task. He found paper assignments more difficult than on-screen activities.

Student B referred to be worried about distance learning. Her favorite subject was Mathematics and the most challenging one was Grammar. Student B indicated spending about 10 minutes to complete a task and found on screen activities easier than on paper assignments. Both subjects prefer in person classes and wanted to get A in their next homework. This speaks of a concern about in home session and good motivation. They both rely on teacher for help.

The primary function of behaviors determined by the QABF was escape. The ABC chart backed up the results obtained in the QABF by corroborating escape as a consequence of maladaptive behavior.

In the case of task refusal, for Student A, it was observed a decreasing trend from baseline (an average of 5 incidents per session) to 2 incidents during the fourth week of BIP implementation. Also, the off-task behavior slightly decreased from 7 incidents on baseline to 6.

Figure 1. Line Graph. This figure demonstrates the occurrence of task refusal per session.

Figure 2. Line Graph. This figure demonstrates the occurrence of off-task behavior per session.

Goals were also depicted in the graphs. Replacement 1 was to teach Student A to Appropriate Escape by requesting a break. With the interventions designed, Student A improved from an average of 20 of % opportunities during baseline to 80% at the end of the fourth week. Another goal that was taught to Student A was to following instructions within certain time after it was delivered. Different levels were set to decrease the amount of time that the student started complying with the task after the demand was placed (L1: within 10 sec; L2: Within 5 sec; L3: Immediately). Student A stayed at L1, but with a higher percentage of opportunities: baseline 50% and by the end of the fourth week he was following instructions within ten seconds at 85% of opportunities. Finally, it was observed an increasing trend in stay on task, in which Student A progressed from an average of five minutes on task at 50% of opportunities during baseline to 8 minutes at 100% of opportunities reaching L2.

Figure 3. Line Graph. This figure demonstrates the average of opportunities of appropriate escape per session.

Figure 4. Line Graph. This figure demonstrates the average of opportunities of following instructions per session.

Figure 5. Line Graph. This figure demonstrates the average of opportunities of stay on task per session.

In the case of task refusal, for Student B, it was observed a decreasing trend from baseline (an average of 6 incidents per session) to 4 incidents during the fourth week of BIP implementation. Also, Bolting behavior also decreased from 6 incidents during baseline to 3 at the end of the treatment period.

Figure 6. Line Graph. This figure demonstrates the occurrence of task refusal per session.

Figure 6. Line Graph. This figure demonstrates the occurrence of Bolting per session.

Replacement 1 was also to teach Student B to Appropriate Escape by requesting a break. With the interventions designed, Student B improved from an average of 10% opportunities during baseline to 50% at the end of the fourth week. Another goal that was set for Student B was to following instructions within certain time after it was delivered. Different levels were established to decrease the amount of time that the student complied with the task demand after it was placed (L1: within 10 sec; L2: Within 5 sec; L3: Immediately). Student B stayed at L1, but with a higher percentage of opportunities: baseline 30% and by the end of the fourth week he was following instructions within 10 seconds at 45% of opportunities. An increasing trend in stay on task replacement was observed, in which Student B progressed from an average of 1 minute on task at 70% of opportunities during baseline to 2 minutes on task at 70% of opportunities reaching L2. Finally, for Student B, a fourth replacement was included for Bolting behavior in which she was required to stay seated on a designated area for a certain amount of time (L1: 1min; L2: 2Min; L3: 3min). During baseline, Student A remained seated for 1 min at 80% of opportunities and by the end of the period, she was able to remained seated for 1 min at 100% of opportunities.

Figure 7. Line Graph. This figure demonstrates the average of opportunities of appropriate request for break per session.

Figure 8. Line Graph. This figure demonstrates the average of opportunities of following instructions per session.

Figure 9. Line Graph. This figure demonstrates the average of opportunities of stay on task behavior per session.

Figure 10. Line Graph. This figure demonstrates the average of opportunities of stay seated on designated area per session.

Further Reflection and Continuing Questions about Our Action Research Journey

After conducting our research, we were able to determine how off-task behavior, bolting, and task refusal could be modified through changes in the workspace, provisory routines, clear advice and timely interventions applied. The main goal of increasing time on task during distance learning was met. It was supported for an increase trend in the replacement behaviors and decreasing trend in the maladaptive behaviors targeted.

This study proves how a systematic implementation of a BIP can lead to improvement on increasing the amount of time that students are engaged in academic activities during distance learning time.

Conclusions

Upon starting the research and stating its goals, we encountered some limitations such as the limited amount of time to implement the BIP (last 5 weeks of academic year) and the limited number of participants due to COVID-19 mandatory quarantine and social distancing. Although, the results showed the positive impact of intervention strategies applied to maladaptive behaviors and a subsequent increase of appropriate behaviors, we feel compelled to continue along this line of inquiry.

In the future, we would like to extend the interventions to larger and more diverse population. Likewise, we would like to implement alternating treatment design to define the most accurate and effective intervention in various settings; that would comprise classroom settings as well. We propose to establish a comparative study which includes the analysis of time on task during distance learning in children without ADHD in contrast with our target population. This line of research could be useful to determine the precision of strategies as related to different population groups, settings, length of study, study subjects, and many other determinant variations.

We are intended to continue to search through the databases of our institution to find related papers. We encourage our classmates to research. This is a positive practice that keeps our practice alive. Students respond to the quality of our attention, communication skills combined with research methods can create a collaborative environment rendering excellent results.

Our personal experience using intervention strategies to mitigate the negative impact of change in the teaching-learning environment from a classroom to the in-home setting has provided us with a new understanding of teaching methods and resources.

Appendices

Appendix 1: Questionnaire

i. How do you feel about distance learning?

Happy worried sad

ii. Did you do well in your last online task?

Yes

iii. What part of distance learning do you prefer?

iv. What part of distance learning do you not prefer?

v. What’s your favorite subject?

vi. Do you think is too much work?

No
Yes

vii. How long does it take you to finish a lesson on the computer?

viii. What do you prefer more online or in person lessons?

ix. Are you able to ask for help to your teacher?

No
Yes

x. What score do you want to achieve in the next exam?

xi. What is more difficult for you on-paper or on-screen assignments?

xii. How do you feel about homework given by your teacher?

Happy Worried Sad

Appendix 2: Questions About Behavioral Function

QABF
Questions About Behavioral Function
Timothy R. Vollmer & Johnny L. Matson

Student:_______________________________

Staff:_____________________

Target Behavior:________________________

Date:_____________________

**One behavior per form**

Rate each question on the following scale. Scoring on second page.

X 0 1 2 3 Does not apply Never Rarely Sometimes Often

___

1. Engages in the behavior to get attention.

___

2. Engages in the behavior to escape work or learning situations.

___

3. Engages in the behavior as a form of “self-stimulation”.

___

4. Engages in the behavior because he/she is in pain.

___

5. Engages in the behavior to get access to items such as preferred toys, food or beverages.

___

6. Engages in the behavior because he/she likes to be reprimanded.

___

7. Engages in the behavior when asked to do something (brush teeth, work, etc.)

___

8. Engages in the behavior even if he/she thinks no one is in the room.

___

9. Engages in the behavior more frequently when he/she is ill.

___

10. Engages in the behavior when you take something away from him/her.

___

11. Engages in the behavior to draw attention to him/herself.

___

12. Engages in the behavior when he/she does not want to do something.

___

13. Engages in the behavior because there is nothing else to do.

___

14. Engages in the behavior when there is something bothering her/him physically.

___

15. Engages in the behavior when you have something he/she wants.

___

16. Engages in the behavior to try to get a reaction from you.

___

17. Engages in the behavior to try to get people to leave him/her alone.

___

18. Engages in the behavior in a highly repetitive manner, ignoring this/her surroundings.

___

19. Engages in the behavior because she/he is physically uncomfortable.

___

20. Engages in the behavior when a peer has something he/she wants.

___

21. Does he/she seem to be saying “come see me” or “look at me” when engaging in the behavior?

___

22. Does he/she seem to be saying “leave me alone” or “stop asking me to do this” when engaging in the behavior?

___

23. Does he/she seem to enjoy the behavior, even if no one is around?

___

24. Does the behavior seem to indicate to you that he/she is not feeling well?

___

25. Does he/she seem to be saying “give me that (toy, item, food)” when engaging in the behavior?

QABF Scoring

Attention

1. Engages in the behavior to get attention.
6. Engages in the behavior because he/she likes to be reprimanded.
11. Engages in the behavior to draw attention to him/herself.
16. Engages in the behavior to try to get a reaction from you.
21. Does he/she seem to be saying “come see me” or “look at me” when engaging in the behavior?

Escape

2. Engages in the behavior to escape work or learning situations.
7. Engages in the behavior when asked to do something (brush teeth, work, etc.)
12. Engages in the behavior when he/she does not want to do something.
17. Engages in the behavior to try to get people to leave him/her alone.
22. Does he/she seem to be saying “leave me alone” or “stop asking me to do this” when engaging in the behavior?

Non-social

3. Engages in the behavior as a form of “self-stimulation”.
8. Engages in the behavior even if he/she thinks no one is in the room.
13. Engages in the behavior because there is nothing else to do.
18. Engages in the behavior in a highly repetitive manner, ignoring this/her surroundings.
23. Does he/she seem to enjoy the behavior, even if no one is around?

Physical

4. Engages in the behavior because he/she is in pain.
9. Engages in the behavior more frequently when he/she is ill.
14. Engages in the behavior when there is something bothering her/him physically.
19. Engages in the behavior because she/he is physically uncomfortable.
24. Does the behavior seem to indicate to you that he/she is not feeling well?

Tangible

5. Engages in the behavior to get access to items such as preferred toys, food or beverages.
10. Engages in the behavior when you take something away from him/her.
15. Engages in the behavior when you have something he/she wants.
20. Engages in the behavior when a peer has something he/she wants.
25. Does he/she seem to be saying “give me that (toy, item, food)” when engaging in the behavior?

15 15

14 14

13 13

12 12

11 11

10 10

9 9

8 8

7 7

6 6

5 5

4 4

3 3

2 2

1 1

0 0

Attention Escape

Non-social

Physical

Tangible

1. attention 2. escape

3. self stim

4. in pain

5. access to items

6. reprimand 7. do something

8. thinks alone

9. when ill

10. take away

11. draws 12. not do

13. nothing to do

14. physical prob

15. you have

16. reaction 17. alone

18. repetitive

19. uncomfortable

20. peers has

21. “come see” 22. “leave alone”

23. enjoy by self

24.not feel well

25. “give me that”

Appendix 3: Antecedent-Behavior Consequence Chart

ABC OBSERVATION FORM

Student Name: ____________________ Date: ___________________________

Observer: _________________________ Time: ___________________________

Setting: ___________________________ Staff: ___________________________

Task/Lesson: _________________________________________________________

Antecedent Events

Behavior

Consequent Events

(Describe what happened immediately prior to the behavior.)

(Describe what the student did in objective, observable terms.)

(Describe what happened immediately following the behavior.)

The following are some examples of possible Antecedents, Behaviors and Consequences.

Please indicate the number in the columns above and make notes about what you saw.

Possible Antecedents

1. Task presentation
2. Others’ comments
3. Activity change
4. Escalating chain
5. Rate of instruction
6. Other: ___________
____________________
____________________

Behavior

1. Delayed initiation
2. Refusal
3. Verbal threats/agg.
4. Physical aggression
Specify: ____________
5. Running away
6. Other: __________
____________________

Possible Consequences

1. Task termination
2. Activity change
3. Neg. adult attention
4. Neg. peer attention
5. Pos. adult attention
6. Pos. peer attention
7. Other: _________
__________________

Appendix 4: Behavior Data Collection Sheet for Student A

DATA COLLECTION OF PROBLEM BEHAVIOR (Rate)

Student Name:

Month:

BA Name:

Year:

Date

Off-Task

Tot

hrs

Task Refusal

Tot

hrs

Sunday
/ /

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 24 26 27 28 29 30

Monday
/ /

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 24 26 27 28 29 30

Tuesday
/ /

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 24 26 27 28 29 30

Wednesday
/ /

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 24 26 27 28 29 30

Thursday
/ /

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 24 26 27 28 29 30

Friday
/ /

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 24 26 27 28 29 30

Saturday
/ /

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 24 26 27 28 29 30

Total

Rate

Divide total count by total hours

Date

Tot

hrs

Tot

hrs

Sunday
/ /

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 24 26 27 28 29 30

Monday
/ /

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 24 26 27 28 29 30

Tuesday
/ /

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 24 26 27 28 29 30

Wednesday
/ /

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 24 26 27 28 29 30

Thursday
/ /

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 24 26 27 28 29 30

Friday
/ /

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 24 26 27 28 29 30

Saturday
/ /

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 24 26 27 28 29 30

Total

Rate

Divide total count by total hours

DATA COLLECTION OF PROBLEM BEHAVIOR (Rate)

Student Name:

Month:

BA Name:

Year:

Date

Bolting

Tot

hrs

Task Refusal

Tot

hrs

Sunday
/ /

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 24 26 27 28 29 30

Monday
/ /

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 24 26 27 28 29 30

Tuesday
/ /

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 24 26 27 28 29 30

Wednesday
/ /

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 24 26 27 28 29 30

Thursday
/ /

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 24 26 27 28 29 30

Friday
/ /

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 24 26 27 28 29 30

Saturday
/ /

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 24 26 27 28 29 30

Total

Rate

Divide total count by total hours

Date

Tot

hrs

Tot

hrs

Sunday
/ /

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 24 26 27 28 29 30

Monday
/ /

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 24 26 27 28 29 30

Tuesday
/ /

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 24 26 27 28 29 30

Wednesday
/ /

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 24 26 27 28 29 30

Thursday
/ /

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 24 26 27 28 29 30

Friday
/ /

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 24 26 27 28 29 30

Saturday
/ /

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 24 26 27 28 29 30

Total

Rate

Divide total count by total hours

Appendix 5: Behavior Data Collection Sheet for Student B

Client: Student A
Week of: ________ to __________.

“+” Correct “-” Incorrect “P” Prompted
Mastery Criteria 1= 90% for 4 consecutive sessions*

Program

Objective

Monday Date:____________

Tuesday Date:____________

Wednesday Date:____________

Thursday Date:____________

Friday Date:_____________

Replacement Behavior:
Appropriate Escape

Requesting for a break

Level: ___ Total %=______

Stay on task

L1. 5min
L2. 8min
L3.

Level: ___ Total %=______

Following instructions within

L1. 10sec
L2. 5ec
L3. Immediately

Level: ___ Total %=______

Appendix 5: Replacement Data Collection Sheet for Student A

Appendix 6: Replacement Data Collection Sheet for Student B

Client: Student B
Week of: ________ to __________.

“+” Correct “-” Incorrect “P” Prompted
Mastery Criteria 1= 90% for 4 consecutive sessions*

Program

Objective

Monday Date:____________

Tuesday Date:____________

Wednesday Date:____________

Thursday Date:____________

Friday Date:_____________

Replacement Behavior:
Appropriate Escape

Requesting for a break

Level: ___ Total %=______

Stay on task

L1. 1min
L2. 2min
L3.

Level: ___ Total %=______

Stay seated on a designated area

L1. 1min
L2. 2 min
L3. 3min

Level: ___ Total %=______

Following instructions within

L1. 10sec
L2. 5ec
L3. Immediately

Level: ___ Total %=______

References

Cooper, Heron, & Heward. (2019). Applied Behavior Analysis. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.

Dekkers, T. J., van Rentergem, J. A. A., Koole, A., van den Wildenberg, W. P., Popma, A., Bexkens, A., … & Huizenga, H. M. (2017). Time-on-task effects in children with and without ADHD: Depletion of executive resources or depletion of motivation? European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 26(12), 1471-1481. Retrieved from

https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00787-017-1006-y

Godwin, K. E., Almeda, M. V., Seltman, H., Kai, S., Skerbetz, M. D., Baker, R. S., & Fisher, A. V. (2016). Off-task behavior in elementary school children. Learning and Instruction, 44, 128-143. Retrieved from

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0959475216300275

Grande, G. E., Austin, L., Ewing, G., O’Leary, N., & Roberts, C. (2017). Assessing the impact of a Carer Support Needs Assessment Tool (CSNAT) intervention in palliative home care: A stepped wedge cluster trial. BMJ Supportive & Palliative Care, 7(3), 326-334. Retrieved from

https://spcare.bmj.com/content/7/3/326.short

Lee, Y. (2018). Effect of uninterrupted time-on-task on students’ success in Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs). Computers in Human Behavior, 86, 174-180. Retrieved from

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0747563218302073

Nayahangan, L. J., Konge, L., Schroeder, T. V., Paltved, C., Lindorff-Larsen, K. G., Nielsen, B. U., & Eiberg, J. P. (2017). A national needs assessment to identify technical procedures in vascular surgery for simulation-based training. European Journal of Vascular and Endovascular Surgery, 53(4), 591-599. Retrieved from

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S107858841730059X

Nines, M. D. (2010). Use of Peer-Mediated Intervention in Children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, Vol. 13, pp. 547-551.

Park, S. (2017). Analysis of time-on-task, behavior experiences, and performance in two online courses with different authentic learning tasks. International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 18(2), 213-233. Retrieve from

https://www.erudit.org/en/journals/irrodl/1900-v1-n1-irrodl05001/1066140ar/abstract/

Riley, J. L., B. M. (2011). Increasing On-Task Behavior Using Teacher Attention Delivered on a Fixed-Time Schedule. Psychology Faculty Publications, Vol. 217, pp. 27.

Following Instructions

Following Instructions 5/11/20 5/13/20 5/18/20 5/20/20 5/25/20 5/27/20 6/1/20 6/3/20 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.7 0.5 0.7 0.9 0.8

Weeks

Percentage

Stay on Task

Stay on Task 5/11/20 5/13/20 5/18/20 5/20/20 5/25/20 5/27/20 6/1/20 6/3/20 0.5 0.7 0.9 0.9 0.9 1 0.7 0.8

Weeks

Percentage

Problem Behaviors Task Refusal

Task Refusal 5/6/20 5/7/20 5/8/20 5/12/20 5/14/20 5/19/20 5/21/20 5/26/20 5/28/20 6/2/20 6/4/20 7 5 7 8 7 5 8 6 5 3 4 5/6/20 5/7/20 5/8/20 5/12/20 5/14/20 5/19/20 5/21/20 5/26/20 5/28/20 6/2/20 6/4/20

Weeks

Frequency of occurrence

Problem Behaviors Bolting

Bolting 5/6/20 5/7/20 5/8/20 5/12/20 5/14/20 5/19/20 5/21/20 5/26/20 5/28/20 6/2/20 6/4/20 5 6 6 7 6 6 10 4 6 3 2 5/6/20 5/7/20 5/8/20 5/12/20 5/14/20 5/19/20 5/21/20 5/26/20 5/28/20 6/2/20 6/4/20

Weeks

Frequency of occurrence

Appropiate Escape (Requesting for a break)

Appropiate Escape (requesting for a break) 5/12/20 5/14/20 5/19/20 5/21/20 5/26/20 5/28/20 6/2/20 6/4/20 0.1 0 0.2 0.2 0.4 0.3 0.4 0.5

Weeks

Percentage

Following Instructions

Following Instructions 5/12/20 5/14/20 5/19/20 5/21/20 5/26/20 5/28/20 6/2/20 6/4/20 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.6 0.3 0.5 0.5 0.4

Weeks

Percentage

Stay on Task

Stay on Task 5/12/20 5/14/20 5/19/20 5/21/20 5/26/20 5/28/20 6/2/20 6/4/20 0.7 0.9 0.7 0.6 0.9 1 0.8 0.9

Weeks

Percentage

Stay seated on a designated area

Stay seated on a designated 5/12/20 5/14/20 5/19/20 5/21/20 5/26/20 5/28/20 6/2/20 6/4/20 0.8 0.7 0.8 0.7 0.8 1 0.8 1

Weeks

Percentage

Problem Behaviors Task Refusal

Task Refusal 5/6/20 5/7/20 5/8/20 5/11/20 5/13/20 5/18/20 5/20/20 5/25/20 5/27/20 6/1/20 6/3/20 3 5 6 7 4 3 5 4 3 3 1 5/6/20 5/7/20 5/8/20 5/11/20 5/13/20 5/18/20 5/20/20 5/25/20 5/27/20 6/1/20 6/3/20

Weeks

Frequency of occurrence

Problem Behaviors Off-Task

Off-Task 5/6/20 5/7/20 5/8/20 5/11/20 5/13/20 5/18/20 5/20/20 5/25/20 5/27/20 6/1/20 6/3/20 9 5 7 7 9 6 7 7 4 6 5 5/6/20 5/7/20 5/8/20 5/11/20 5/13/20 5/18/20 5/20/20 5/25/20 5/27/20 6/1/20 6/3/20

Weeks

Frequency of occurrence

Appropiate Escape (Requesting for a break)

Appropiate Escape (requesting for a break) 5/11/20 5/13/20 5/18/20 5/20/20 5/25/20 5/27/20 6/1/20 6/3/20 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.3 0.7 0.7 0.5 0.8

Weeks

Percentage

Runninghead: ACTION RESEARCH

ACTION RESEARCH

Evaluating the Effects of Behavioral Interventions on Off-task/On-task Behavior in Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder: An Action Research Study

Abstract

During the teaching-learning process of students with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), educators must frequently address off-task behaviors that interfere with classroom instruction and contribute to poor academic performance. Due to the COVID 1

pandemic, all students, including those with ASD, started to attend their classes at home through distance learning sessions. This change led to an increase in the frequency of student’s off-task behaviors. Due to this change, the analysis of strategies to minimize them was crucial. This research project aims to e

amine the effects of behavioral antecedent and consequent strategies to decrease students’ off-task behaviors and increase the performance of positive behaviors, such as time on task and requesting assistance or attention. The data collection process took place through the observation, the Functional Assessment Screening Tool (FAST), and the Event Recording Tool. These methods helped identify the factors that influenced the students’ off-task behaviors and record their frequency in real-time. In conjunction with the literature review, these methods allowed the application of the best interventions for decreasing students’ off-task behaviors and increasing their compliance with academic tasks. Based on the results of a functional behavioral assessment, the researchers applied a behavioral intervention plan. Data were collected before, during, and after implementing the interventions to show to what extent the interventions were effective. The action research demonstrated that the behavioral antecedent and consequent interventions decreased the off-task behaviors in the students and increased the performing of replacement skills such as time on task and the requesting of assistance or attention.

Comment by Arbelo, Dr. Floralba: Very well written. Good detail, all aspects of your study are covered here.

Keywords: Autism Spectrum Disorder, off-task behavior, behavioral intervention, replacement skills, distance learning

Evaluating the Effects of Behavioral Interventions on Off-task/On-task Behavior in Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder: An Action Research Study

Introduction
and Statement of the Problem Comment by Arbelo, Dr. Floralba: This is a level 2 heading and should have been left aligned.

In our profession as behavior therapists, we work with students with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) who exhibit off-task behaviors during their presentation and performing of non-preferred demands and activities. Due to the COVID

pandemic, these students experienced significant environmental changes when they started to attend their classes at home through distance learning sessions. This situation implied changes in the context and instructions of academic activities. Consequently, off-task behaviors increased during this time at home learning school. Instead of taking care of prescribed schoolwork, the students preferred to do unrelated things. They avoided eye contact with instructors and materials frequently and did not follow instructions by moving away from the area of learning and making noises or vocalizing out of context. This situation was a challenge for parents who do not have the necessary resources and strategies to deal with the maladaptive behaviors of their children. Parents and caregivers may find themselves struggling to balance their professional and household responsibilities while supporting their children during these uncertain times (Eske,

20).

This research project aims to examined the effects of behavioral antecedent and consequent strategies to decrease students’ off-task behaviors and increase the performing of positive behaviors, such as time on task and requesting assistance or attention. Investigating the causes of off-task behavior, as well as finding ways to mitigate, it is significant because off-task behavior has the potential to undermine the academic performance and growth of a student (Akey, 200

; Cocea, Hershkovitz, & Baker, 2009; Breakthrough Collaborative, 2009, as cited in George, 20

). Therefore, this change is meaningful for all the persons involved in the teaching-learning process: students, educators, parents, and behavior therapists because students will collaborate in their teaching and successfully engage in distance learning sessions at home.

The data collection process took place through the observation, the Functional Assessment Screening Tool (FAST), and the Event Recording Tool. These methods helped the researchers to identify the factors that influenced the students’ off-task behaviors and record their frequency in real-time. Also, in conjunction with the literature review, these methods allowed the researchers to apply the best interventions for decreasing students’ off-task behaviors and increasing their compliance with academic tasks. Based on the results of a functional behavioral assessment, the researchers applied a behavioral intervention plan. Data were collected before, during, and after implementing the interventions to show to what extent were effective.

The results indicated that the main functions that kept off-task behaviors on the students were the escape from non-preferred academic activities, attention, and access to preferred activities. At the end of the implementation of the behavioral intervention plan, the students’ off-task behaviors decreased significantly and increased the performing of desired behaviors such as time on task and the requesting of assistance or attention.

Through this action research project, the researchers were able to validate behavioral interventions effective to address students’ off-task behaviors. These interventions are relatively simple to apply and require very little training to understand their use. Therefore, they can be applied by parents at home.

Literature Review

Off-task/On-task Behavior

ASD leads to students having some form of off-task behavior, which affects their learning. Off-task behavior is where the student or child is engaging in inappropriate interactions with their immediate environment that is against the instruction. It is critical to understand how to increase the on-task behavior for autistic students when they are learning at home.

The variety of interventions or intervention approaches that can be and have been effectively applied to disruptive, off-task behaviors is considerable. DuPaul, Wyandt, and Janusis (20

) provided a comprehensive review of these interventions, the most common of which were identified as medications and behavioral interventions. The behavioral interventions, those based on learning theory, were further characterized as being antecedent- or consequence-based ones.

Behavioral Antecedent and Consequent Strategies

There are various behavioral antecedent and consequent strategies that can reduce the task refusal behavior (Pellecchia et al., 2020) and can be useful when the students are engaging in distance learning sessions at home.

Behavioral antecedent strategies are the people, events, and things that come immediately before the problem behavior. In behavioral antecedent strategies, antecedent stimuli are manipulated to evoke appropriate behaviors to differentially reinforce them and reduce inappropriate behaviors that interfere with appropriate behaviors (Miltenberger, 20

). A number of antecedent strategies have been developed to address off-task behaviors in children with ASD. Four commonly utilized strategies to enhance on-task behavior are the delivery of reinforcement on a fixed-time (FT) schedule (sometimes referred to as noncontingent reinforcement or NCR), the high probability sequence, reducing task demands by modifying the length and/or difficulty of assignments, and giving students choices of which assignments or steps to complete first.

NCR involves giving the student access to a reinforcer frequently enough that they are no longer motivated to exhibit disruptive behavior to obtain that same reinforcer. It consists of allowing students to take small breaks during the presentation of non-desirable tasks. Research has shown that NCR decrease disruptive behavior and increase the time engaged in tasks and the compliance to academic instructions (Carr et al., 2000; Kodak, Miltenberger, & Romaniuk, 2003;

Waller

Higbee

, 20

). High probability request (high-p) sequences consist of having students consistently comply with several directions to perform desirable behaviors, and that momentum persists when a subsequent direction is changed to a perceived undesirable behavior. High-p have been an effective intervention for improving compliance and work completion for students who display challenging behaviors (Maag, 2020).

Reducing task demands by modifying the length and/or difficulty of assignments has been proven to decrease triggering behaviors in children with ASD. Reducing task length, allows children with ASD to decrease any frustrations they could be feeling from the lengthy, difficult task, thus minimizing challenging behaviors that may be exhibited for the purpose of escaping the situation (Luke, 201

). Offering children with ASD choices between activities (e.g., working on math or English), instructional materials (e.g., using a pen or pencil), or environmental arrangements (e.g., where to sit) has been shown to reduce challenging behavior maintained by escape from task demands (Rispoli et al., 20

Behavioral consequent strategies are techniques that can be used after the behavior occurs to decrease the reinforcement and provide the student with an alternative behavior (Miltenberger, 2013). Two behavioral consequence interventions that are effective in reducing off-task behaviors are the Premack Principle and Differential Negative Reinforcement of Alternative Behaviors (DNRA).

The Premack Principle (Premack, 19

9, as cited in Maag, 2020) states that a high-probability behavior can be contingent upon the occurrence of a low-probability behavior. A high-probability behavior is one that students have a greater likelihood of engaging in when they have free access to preferred activities or objects. High preference activities will be used to reinforce the participation of the students in low preference activities (e.g., school assignments and homework).

The DNRA consists of allowing the students to exit the non-preferred activities for several minutes when they request a break in an appropriate manner (using his/her words appropriately or using a gesture). DNRA has been used in a wide variety of studies to decrease behavior problems maintained by negative reinforcement, and to increase appropriate behaviors, which substitute for behavior problems (Golonka et al., 2000; Marcus & Vollmer, 1995; Piazza, Moes & Fisher, 1996; Roberts, Mace & Daggett, 1995; Etak Steege, 1990, as cited in Miltenberger, 2013).

Reinforcement is a common effective practice that has been used in combination with the other strategies explained above. The teacher and parents may reinforce on-task behaviors with praise or a token that would later be traded in for a desired reward. Reinforcement describes the connection between a student’s behavior and a consequence for that behavior. The consequence is only considered reinforcing if it increases the chance that the student will engage in the behavior again in the future (Wong et al., 20

). An example of using reinforcement in the classroom or at home is a teacher or parent providing an attention-seeking student with a high-five when the student completes a task. In this example, the student likes the attention received when he or she completes the task, and therefore is more likely to continue completing tasks, in order to keep getting those high-fives. Reinforcement is used when the behavior is positive, and the adult wants it to continue. Research showed that the use of positive reinforcement (e.g., positive behavior-specific note to take home), increased on-task behavior of a first-grade student (Bayles, 2020).

Methodology

Research Site and Sample Population

The individuals who participated in the research were two students of third grade (i.e., one girl and one boy) with ASD. They were of Latin origin. During the COVID-19 pandemic, these students were learning from home. They tended to engage in off-task behaviors during learning rather than focus on-task. They avoided eye contact with instructors and materials and did not follow instructions by moving away from the area and making noises or vocalizing out of context. This situation was a challenge because at home the learning is assisted by parents and guardians who might not have as much experience in learning compared to the rest.

The study took place in the students’ homes throughout the distance learning sessions. There was consent from the caregivers and parents, and they were informed about all steps of the action research.

Assessments

The researchers used three assessment tools: the Functional Assessment Screening Tool (FAST), the observation, and the Event Recording. The FAST allowed the researchers to identify environmental and physical factors that influenced the participants’ off-task behaviors. The tool had three sections. First, there is the Informant-Client section, which collected data on the interactions between these two stakeholders. Second, there was the section for Problem Behaviors Information, which collected information regarding the severity and the frequency of the behavior of the participants. The last section presented questions related to the functions of the problem behaviors (see Appendix A).

The researchers applied a behavior analysis observation using Antecedent, Behavior, and Consequence (ABC) data. The ABC data is a type of data collection that helps with functional behavior assessments. The ABC chart is a direct observation tool used to collect information about the events that happen within the students’ environment. The data collection through observation helped create an image of the possible function of behavior such as access to tangibles and activities, attention, and escape. The observation was an important part of creating interventions to decrease off-task behaviors and increase on-task behaviors of the students (see Appendix B).

The third tool that the researchers used was Event Recording, which allowed them to collect and document the frequency of the students’ off-task behaviors in real-time (Leblanc et al., 2016). The researchers used the tool at specific periods during the distance learning sessions and made tally marks whenever students engaged in maladaptive behaviors (see Appendix C).

Critical Research Questions

Our critical research questions were: 1) What factors influence the students’ off-task behaviors, 2) What are the effects of antecedent and consequent strategies on the students’ off-task behaviors, and 3) What is the effect of antecedent and consequent strategies on the students’ replacement skills (time on task and requesting assistance or attention). Behavior analysts assert that the refusal to carry out tasks by special needs students is a maladaptive behavior, which negatively impacts their ability to attain academic success and perform conventional activities of daily living (ADLs). By finding a good answer to these critical research questions, behavior analysts, caregivers and educators could alter the off-task behaviors of students and ensured they had numerous opportunities to attain their academic and social goals. Additionally, answering these questions was vital in advocating for the inclusion of special needs students in the community.

Reason for Conducting the Study

The researcher wished to alter the off-task behaviors portrayed by the members of the population sample. The objective was to increase on-task behaviors and reduce off-task behaviors while enhancing how the students complied with activities and demands that they did not like. This change was crucial because the refusal of the students to conduct on-task activities is detrimental to their wellbeing as it adversely affects how they socialize, acquire new skills, learn, and become independent.

Therefore, the researcher wished to conduct this study not only to observe the maladaptive behaviors of students with ASD, but also to get insight that facilitated the making of recommendations of corrective actions, which could reverse or minimize the students’ off-task behaviors.

In turn, the study results have serious implications for all people involved in the teaching-learning process: students, parents, educators, and behavior analysts. If carried out successfully, the study will promote actions that facilitate improved student performance in school and social life as well.

Needs Assessment

The researchers conducted the assessment during the Covid-19 outbreak when children started to receive distance learning sessions at home. The process of assessment started with the researcher explaining to the students, their parents/caregivers, and educators all the steps of the research process. Thereafter, the researcher administered the FAST tool. The results of this tool were used to identify environmental and physical factors that influenced the participants’ off-task behaviors. In conjunction with the FAST, the researchers used the observation to deepen the possible function of students’ off-task behaviors (access to tangibles and activities, attention, and escape). During a direct observation, the researchers document the antecedents and consequences of the students’ off-task behaviors. This information allowed the researchers to inquire about the factors that were maintained the maladaptive behavior. Thereafter, the Events Recording Tool was used during a period of two weeks to collect the frequency of the students’ off-task behaviors and construct a baseline before implementing the interventions. During the implementation of the intervention plan that lasted four weeks, the researchers continued using the Event Recording.

The data collected was analyzed to get an idea of the gaps that exist in the current learning model while learning at home. Data were collected to show to what extent behavioral antecedent and consequence interventions decreased the occurrence of off-task behaviors during home learning. The findings were analyzed using the appropriate methods to determine whether there were effects of the intervention on the results.

Intervention

The researchers selected different behavioral antecedent and consequence interventions to decrease the students’ off-task behavior and increase their compliance with academic tasks.

Behavioral antecedent strategies refer to the people, events, and things that come immediately before the problem behavior. During the implementation of behavioral antecedent strategies, the researchers manipulated antecedent stimuli to evoke appropriate behaviors to reinforce them differentially and reduce inappropriate behaviors (Miltenberger, 2013). The behavioral antecedent interventions that were implemented are noncontingent reinforcement (NCR), the high probability sequence, reducing task demands by modifying the length and/or difficulty of assignments, and provide choices.

Non-contingent reinforcement consisted of allowing students to take brief breaks during the presentation of non-desirable tasks in the distance learning sessions. The high probability sequence consisted of begin the demands with tasks that are relatively easy to complete to create a behavioral impulse. The idea is that once compliance is obtained for several high-probability directions that momentum will carry over to a low-probability direction (Maag, 2020). The use of Provide Choices intervention gave opportunities to the students to exert control within his environment in more appropriate ways. Examples of choices included the time or order in which the students completed required tasks, instructional materials (e.g., using a pen or pencil), environmental arrangements (e.g., where to sit) and options of reinforcing activities students had available when they completed the tasks.

The behavioral consequent strategies involved techniques that were used after the maladaptive behavior occurred to decrease the reinforcement and provide the students with alternative behavior (Miltenberger, 2013). The behavioral consequence interventions that were implemented were Premack principle, differential negative reinforcement of alternative behaviors (DNRA) and reinforcement. The use of the Premack principle consisted of the use of high probability behaviors (those performed frequently under conditions of free choice) to reinforce low-probability behaviors. The researchers allowed the students to get involved in a preferred activity just after they completed the required academic tasks. DNRA consisted of allowing the students to exit the non-preferred activities for some minutes when they requested a break in an appropriate manner (using his words appropriately or using a gestures). Reinforcement was also used in combination with the other strategies explained above. The researchers reinforced on-task behaviors with praise, attention, or a token that the students could later exchange for a desired reward.

In conjunction with the behavioral antecedents and consequence interventions, the researchers taught the students replacements skills that allowed them to acquire desired behaviors and reduce the off-task behaviors. As the researchers worked to eliminate the problem behavior, they simultaneously reinforced more acceptable alternatives. Below are the replacement skills and the goals that students should achieve in each one:

Time on task: The student will increase time on task to 10 min independently while refraining from engaging in maladaptive behaviors in

0% of trials across 3 observations (See Appendix D).

Request for assistance or attention: The student will ask for assistance or attention using an appropriate words or gestures independently while refraining from engaging in maladaptive behaviors in 80% of trials for 3 consecutive observations (See Appendix E).

The researchers gave the students different prompts to encourage them to request for assistance or attention during difficult activities, such as verbal and modeling prompts (“help, please”, “can you help me? please”, “what can you do if you need help?”).

Data Collection

The study took six weeks from May 11 to June 20. The first two weeks (May 11-May 23), the researchers recorded the frequency of students’ off-task behaviors to construct a baseline for each student. The following weeks, the researchers implemented the antecedent and consequence interventions and taught replacement skills in each session that they worked with the students during distance learning sessions (from Monday to Saturday). The Event Recording tool gave an accurate baseline, and the graphs showed the evolution of the variables as progress happened. The paper appendices include the datasheets with the weekly frequencies of students’ off-task behaviors and the replacement skills and charts that analyze the resulting data for Student A and Student B independently. The researchers used a mixed research approach (quantitative and qualitative approaches) to find the effectiveness of the intervention. The researchers conducted the study by

· Applying and analyzing the parents’ surveys.

· Conducting home observation and then data analysis.

· Collect data in baseline and analyze the data.

· Implement the intervention plan.

· Collect data during the intervention and analyze the data.

The datasheets recorded the number of occurrences of the off-task behaviors among the students while they were engaging in their daily academic activities. Researchers recorded data while implementing the interventions through observations. Student A and student B showed the off-task behaviors by ignoring the demands and avoiding eye contact with instructor and materials, and not following instructions by moving away from the area and/or making noises or vocalizing out of context. This behavior started after 3 minutes of the delivery of the demand and ended when they complied, or the demand was removed.

The average weekly frequency of students’ off-task behaviors and replacement skills was recorded. The parent was involved in the collection of data on the behavioral pattern observed. The study involved the use of data sheet by placing tally mark every time the students displayed off-task behaviors and engaged in the replacement skills. At the end of the intervention, the total marks per behavior were counted per student to make the final count. The total was imputed in table to create

Y graph. The data was analyzed through visual inspection, where student behavioral patterns were examined to determine the effects of the intervention. The visual inspection was meant to help assess the impact of the intervention by checking the changes in mean frequencies of the maladaptive behavior and replacements skills.

Once the data collection for the construction of the off-task behavior baseline began, the researchers realized the need to include a new replacement program (request for assistance or attention) to teach students due to the complexity of academic activities. Teaching this replacement skill allowed students to lessen the frustrations they felt with difficult tasks, thereby minimizing the challenging behaviors they might exhibit to escape the situation.

Findings

Through the data collection process, the researchers could investigate the factors that influenced the students’ off-task behaviors. These factors were increase of duration, amount, and complexity of the tasks, a non-stimulating learning environment, lack of the use of reinforcers to increase on-task behaviors, and parental reinforcement of their children’s escape behaviors and avoidance of academic assignments. For example, in the Functional Assessment Screening Tool (FAST), parents noted that when problem behavior occurred, they generally gave students a break from tasks, or usually tried to calm them down, or tried to engage them in preferred activities.

Through the observation, the researchers corroborated the information given by the parents on the FAST. For example, during an observation, one situation presented was that the mother told the student A that it was time to start his school tasks, the student avoided eye contact with his mother and continued watching TV. Then, the mother allowed the student to continue watching TV. Another situation observed was when the student B was doing a social studies task of large duration.

The student began to make loud noises and vocalizations out of context

. Then, the student’s father told the student that he could finish the task later. The score summary of the FAST indicated that the main functions that kept off-task behaviors was escape and attention/preferred items (social). The observation allowed to verify that functions.

From graphs and tables (see Table 1) we could visually analyze the results to respond the second research question: What is the effect of antecedent and consequent strategies on the students’ off-task behaviors? (see Appendix F). This involved inspecting the line graph to determine if the students’ off-task behaviors were changing and if the change occurred in the desired direction. From the graphs above, one could see there was a decreasing trend in both students. The student A engaged in off-task behaviors 39% of opportunities per week during the baseline phase. Once the intervention started, the off-task behaviors decreased through the weeks, and moved from 33% to 9% of opportunities per week. The student B showed off-task behaviors 33% of opportunities per week during the baseline phase, and post intervention the frequency decreased until 5% of opportunities per week.

Table 1
Weekly Average of Students’ Off-task Behaviors

Phases
Weeks

BL
05/

-05/23/2020

Tx W1
05/25-05/30/2020

Tx W2
06/01-06/06/2020

Tx W3
06/08-06/13/2020

Tx W4
06/

-06/20/2020

Student A

39%

33%

26%

Student B

33%

25%

17%

10%

Note. BL= Baseline, Tx= Treatment, W=Week

From the graphs (see Appendix G) and tables (see table 2 and table 3), we could visually analyze the results to respond the third research question: What is the effect of antecedent and consequent strategies on the students’ replacement skills (time on task and requesting assistance or attention)? This involved inspecting the line graph to determine if the students’ replacement skills were changing and if the change occurred in the desired direction. From the graphs above, one could see there was an increasing trend in both students for the two replacement skills. During the baseline phase, student A stayed focused on academic tasks for 10 minutes, 7% of the trials presented, and the student B 10% of trails. This percentage showed the average by a week. Once the intervention started, the time on task increased through the weeks in both students. Student A increased this replacement skill from 8% to 87% of opportunities per week, and student B moved from 10% to 83%.

Table 2
The Weekly Average of Students in Replacement Skill Time on Task

Phases
Weeks

BL
05/18-05/23/2020

Tx W1
05/25-05/30/2020

Tx W2
06/01-06/06/2020

Tx W3
06/08-06/13/2020

Tx W4
06/15-06/20/2020

Student A

25%

57%

87%

Student B

10%

37%

58%

83%

Note. BL= Baseline, Tx= Treatment, W=Week

Concerning the other replacement skill taught, during the baseline phase, the student A requested for assistance or attention in 8% of the trials presented and student B in 13%. After implementing the interventions, the trails in which students A and B requested help or attention using appropriate words or gestures increased. Student A was able to request assistance or attention using appropriate words or gestures independently while refraining from engaging in maladaptive behaviors in 82% of trials, and Student B in 85% of trials. Both students reached the goals set by the researchers.

Table 3
The Weekly Average of Students in Replacement Skill Request for Assistance or Attention

Phases
Weeks

BL
05/18-05/23/2020

Tx W1
05/25-05/30/2020

Tx W2
06/01-06/06/2020

Tx W3
06/08-06/13/2020

Tx W4
06/15-06/20/2020

Student A

13%

48%

68%

82%

Student B

13%

52%

70%

85%

Note. BL= Baseline, Tx= Treatment, W=Week

The study showed that behavioral antecedent and consequent interventions, which addressed the students’ off-task behaviors, had a positive impact on home school learning. These findings coincide with the results obtained by other researchers who have demonstrated the effectiveness of different behavioral interventions in reducing off-task behaviors such as noncontingent reinforcement (Carr et al., 2000; Kodak, Miltenberger, & Romaniuk, 2003; Waller & Higbee, 2010), high probability request (high-p) sequences (Maag, 2020), differential negative reinforcement of alternative behaviors (Golonka et al., 2000; Marcus & Vollmer, 1995; Piazza, Moes & Fisher, 1996; Roberts, Mace & Daggett, 1995; Etak Steege, 1990, as cited in Miltenberger, 2013), reducing task demands (Luke, 2017), provide choices (Rispoli et al., 2013), and reinforcement (Bayles, 2020).

The antecedent strategies allowed to prevent and reduce the student’s off-task behaviors. The delivery of reinforcers after the students completed a required time on non-preferred tasks was an effective strategy. The students engaged with more frequency on non-preferred tasks and stayed the required time when they received a preferred activity after finishing the tasks. Also, the teaching of the replacement skills such as request for assistance or attention was effective in reducing the off-task behaviors because the students could manage the frustrations due to the difficulty of the tasks with positive behaviors.

Further Reflection and Continuing Questions about My Action Research Journey

In future research, what we researchers would do differently is change the selection of the research application scenario, which would be the school. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the researchers were only able to study the participants in their homes. Also, the researchers would select a larger sample, which cwould lead to more significant results. The effect of behavioral interventions on other maladaptive behaviors displayed by students will also be studied. Therefore, another additional question that this research posed for the investigators is what is the effect of behavioral antecedent and consequent strategies on students’ verbal aggressive and isolation behaviors?

Due to the successful result of this action research, we will certainly continue to implement replacement skills in ASD students struggling with off-task behavior. In general, the researchers plan to use initial assessments to construct baselines, design strategies to intervene in the maladaptive behaviors, and evaluate these strategies comparing the results with the baseline. Through the reflection, the researchers were able to mark the practices used and they will continue to grow by using these skills. In conclusion, the behavioral therapy and replacement skills implemented on the third-grade students with ASD were successful at lowering the off-task behavior exhibited and increasing the student attitudes towards learning.

The researchers learned that action research is useful in their practice as behavioral therapists because it provides them with the opportunity to critically examine the methods and interventions implemented and how they impact their clients. This process can be beneficial for the parents because they can learn and apply successful interventions to address the maladaptive behaviors of their children. The researchers pretend to use in the future this process to improve their daily practice as behavior therapists and future educators.

Conclusion

The study indicated that the behavioral antecedent and consequent interventions and the teaching of replacement skills influenced off-task and on-task behaviors of students with ASD in the desired direction. The graphs provided a visual of how much off-task behaviors and the replacement skills changed from the non-treatment phase through to the treatment phase. One lesson the researchers were able to learn from this action research project is that studying the findings of other researchers is an important step in the success of future research and the improvement of their practices as behavior therapists and future educators. Also, the objective and accurate measurement of the effects of interventions used on the students’ behaviors through the performing of initial assessments is a powerful and effective strategy.

References

Bayles, B. (2020). Using Positive Reinforcement to Increase On-Task Behavior of a First Grade. Eastern Illinois University

Carr J.E., Coriaty S., Wilder D.A., Gaunt B.T., Dozier C.L., Britton L.N., Avina C., & Reed C.L. (2000). A review of “noncontingent” reinforcement as treatment for the aberrant behavior of individuals with developmental disabilities. Research in Developmental Disabilities,

(5), 377-91.

https://doi.org/10.1016/S0891-4222(00)00050-0

DuPaul, G.J., Weyandt, L.L., & Janusis, G.M. (2011). ADHD in the Classroom: Effective Intervention Strategies. Theory Into Practice, 50(1), 35-42.

Eske, J. (2020, May 12). How to manage autism during the COVID-19 pandemic. Retrieved from

https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/autism-and-covid-19

George, K. (2016). Evaluating the effects of formal corrective feedback on off-task/on task behavior of mild intellectually disabled students: an action research study (Thesis doctoral, Capella University). https://search-proquest com.ucamia.cobimet4.org/docview/1767788724

Kodak T., Miltenberger R.G, & Romaniuk C. (2003). The effects of differential negative reinforcement of other behavior and noncontingent escape on compliance. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 36, 379–382.

https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.2003.36-379

Maag, J.W. (2020). Are High-Probability Request Sequences as Low an Intensity Intervention as Portrayed? Journal of Education and Learning; 9(2).

https://doi.org/10.5539/jel.v9n2p1

Miltenberger, R.G. (2013). Behavior Modification. Principles & Procedures. Piramide Editions.

Rispoli, M., Lang, R., Neely, L., Camargo, S., Hutchins, N., Davenport, K., & Goodwyn, F. (2013). A comparison of within- and across-activity choices for reducing challenging behavior in children with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Behavioral Education, 22(1), 66-83. doi:10.1007/s10864-012-9164-y

Waller, R.D., & Higbee, T.S. (2010). The effects of fixed-time escape on inappropriate and appropriate classroom behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 43(1),

9–153. doi:

10.1901/jaba.2010.43-149

LeBlanc, L. A., Raetz, P. B., Sellers, T. P., & Carr, J. E. (2016). A proposed model for selecting measurement procedures for the assessment and treatment of problem behavior. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 9(1), 77-83.

Luke, K.A. (2017). Strategies to assist in decreasing escape-maintained behaviors in children with autism spectrum disorder (Master’s Thesis).

Pellecchia, M., Marcus, S. C., Spaulding, C., Seidman, M., Xie, M., Rump, K., & Mandell, D. S. (2020). Randomized trial of a computer-assisted Intervention for children with autism in schools. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 59(3), 373-380.

Wong, C., Odom, S. L., Hume, K. Cox, A. W., Fettig, A., Kucharczyk, S., & Schultz, T. R. (2014). Evidence-based practices for children, youth, and young adults with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina, Frank Porter Graham Child Development Institute, Autism Evidence-Based Practice Review Group. Comment by Arbelo, Dr. Floralba: Not sure if this is a book but if it is, the title should have been italicized.

Appendices

Appendix A, Functional Assessment Screening Tool (FAST).

Appendix B, Observation ABC Recording

	Antecedent		Behavior	Consequence
The student was doing a math task involving multiple steps	The student moved away from the table	The student’s mother yelled at the student and said him that he should finish the task
The mother told the student that it was time to start his school tasks	He avoided eye contact with his mother and continued watching TV	The mother allowed the student to continue watching TV

STUDENT A

STUDENT B

Antecedent

Behavior

Consequence

The student was doing a social studies task of large duration	The student began to make loud noises and vocalizations out of context	The student’s father told the student that he could finish the task later
The father presented the student different school tasks and told him the order in which he should complete them	The student avoided eye contact with materials and ran away from the table	The father gave the students 10 minutes to start to complete the tasks.

Appendix C, Event Recording

Figure C1

Client: Student A Period: 05/10-05/30/2020

40%

47%

33%

40%

47%

33%

40%

33%

40%

33%

27%

33%

27%

33%

40%

33%

Demands and instructions presented				Target Behavior Off-task behavior			Topographic definition Defined as ignoring demands by avoiding eye contact with instructor and materials, and not following instructions by moving away from the area and/or making noises or vocalizing out of context. This behavior starts after 3 minutes of the delivery of the demand and ends when he complies, or the demand is removed.
			15																				x		X
			14
			13
					12
					11
					10
			9
			8
			7
			6
			5
			4
			3
			2
			1
	Days		16		17	18		19	20		21	22	23	24	25	26	27	28		29	30	31
	Total per day									40%									33%		47%			27%
	Total per week	38%

Figure C2

Client: Student A Period: 06/01-06/20/2020

Demands and instructions presented

Target Behavior

Off-task behavior

Topographic definition

Defined as ignoring demands by avoiding eye contact with instructor and materials, and not following instructions by moving away from the area and/or making noises or vocalizing out of context. This behavior starts after 3 minutes of the delivery of the demand and ends when he complies, or the demand is removed.

Days

Total per day

27%

33%

27%

20%

13%

20%

13%

20%

13%

Total per week

20%

13%

26%

17%

Figure C3

Client: Student B Period: 05/10-05/30/2020

Demands and instructions presented

Target Behavior

Off-task behavior

Topographic definition

Days

Total per day

33%

27%

40%

33%

27%

33%

27%

40%

27%

33%

40%

27%

33%

20%

27%

20%

Total per week

22
31%	34%	25%

Figure C4

Client: Student B Period: 06/01-06/20/2020

Target Behavior

Off-task behavior

Topographic definition

Days

Total per day

20%

13%

20%

13%

Total per week

17%

Demands and instructions presented
	0%
10%	5%

Appendix D, Time on task

Figure D1

Client: Student A Period: 05/10-05/30/2020

Figure D2

Client: Student A

Period: 06/01-06/20/2020

Figure D3

Client: Student B

Period: 05/10-05/30/2020

Figure D4

Client: Student B

Period: 06/01-06/20/2020

Appendix E, Request for assistance or attention

Figure E1

Client: Student A Period: 05/10-05/30/

Figure E2

Client: Student A

Period: 06/01-06/20/2020

Figure E3

Client: Student B

Period: 05/10-05/30/2020

Figure E4

Client: Student B

Period: 06/01-06/20/2020

Appendix F, Graphics of Students’ Off-task Behaviors

Appendix G, Graphics of Students’ Replacements Skills (Time on Task and Requesting) Assistance)

Graph G1

Graph G2

Graph G3

Graph G4
off-task behavior
STUDENT B
Measurement Type: Percentages Measurement Units: weeks
Off-task behavior 05/10-05/23/2020 05/24-05/30/2020 05/31-06/06/2020 06/07-06/13/2020 06/014-06/20/2020 BL 33 25 17 10 5
% of opportunities

off-task behavior
STUDENT A
Measurement Type: Percentages Measurement Units: weeks
Off-task behavior 05/10-05/23/2020 05/24-05/30/2020 05/31-06/06/2020 06/07-06/13/2020 06/014-06/20/2020 BL 39 33 26 17 9
% of opportunities

TIME ON TASK
STUDENT A
MEASUREMENT TYPE: PERCENTAGES MEASUREMENT UNITS: WEEKS
Time on task 05/18-05/23/2020 05/25-05/30/2020 06/01-06/06/2020 06/08-06/13/2020 06/15-06/20/2020 7 8 25 57 87 WEEKS

% OFF OPPORTUNTIIES

TIME ON TASK
STUDENT B
MEASUREMENT TYPE: PERCENTAGES MEASUREMENT UNITS: WEEKS
Time on task 05/18-05/23/2020 05/25-05/30/2020 06/01-06/06/2020 06/08-06/13/2020 06/15-06/20/2020 10 12 37 58 83 WEEKS

% OFF OPPORTUNTIIES

REQUEST FOR ASSISTANCE OR ATTENTION
STUDENT A
MEASUREMENT TYPE: PERCENTAGES MEASUREMENT UNITS: WEEKS
Request for assisstance or attention 05/18-05/23/2020 05/25-05/30/2020 06/01-06/06/2020 06/08-06/13/2020 06/15-06/20/2020 8 13 48 68 82 WEEKS

% OFF OPPORTUNTIIES

REQUEST FOR ASSISTANCE OR ATTENTION
STUDENT B
MEASUREMENT TYPE: PERCENTAGES MEASUREMENT UNITS: WEEKS
Request for assisstance or attention 05/18-05/23/2020 05/25-05/30/2020 06/01-06/06/2020 06/08-06/13/2020 06/15-06/20/2020 13 22 52 70 85 WEEKS

% OFF OPPORTUNTIIES

Name:

Statement of Focus (100 points)

Answer the following questions honestly. No one will read your responses. Doing so will contribute to an effective area of focus.

1. What area of ESE or Education do you feel YOU can change or improve? Please think of this in light of your proposed action research focus this term

I would like to focus on decreasing escape maintain behaviors during paper-based homework in students diagnosed with ASD at elementary level.

2. Why is this change particularly meaningful to YOU as an educator?

This is particularly meaningful to me because, as an educator, I would like my students to successfully engaged in academic learning activities at home, without exhibit maladaptive behaviors.

3. What do other educators or professionals tell you when YOU discuss this topic with them?

After consulting with other educators and professionals, they all agreed that this is an important topic for research, because this is a recurrent issue that parent had at home during academic activities outside of the classroom setting. This research can help parents to work with their kids, who are escaping or non-compliant during homework activities.

4. How is the desired outcome a part of YOUR educational philosophy.

Some children’s with ASD function well at both settings, but as an educator, create an intervention plan that can help those who struggle; and provide them with the opportunity to learn and keep focus, in different setting presented; is it very important. Maybe that can be a first step for our kids to integrate in society.

5. Describe the situation with your student/group of students that you want to change by implicitly focusing on: (What is the problem you would like to improve)

Who? What? When? Where? How?

What? I would like to focus on decreasing escape maintain behaviors during paper-based homework

Who? students diagnosed with ASD at elementary level.

When? During paper base homework in this school’s year.

Where? At home when maladaptive behaviors are usually presented.

How? Creating a behavior interventions plan, and replacement program for maladaptive exhibits during this research.

Action Research Plan

Giselle D Calderon

Albizu University

EEXX 507 Instructional Design and Assessment

Dr. Arbelo

October 29,

2020

Goal: Decrease escape maintain behavior during paper-based homework

T and C

At home during homework

Datasheets and graphs

Summary of findings and research questions	Person responsible T =Therapist S=Student, C=Caregiver	Recommended action targeted to findings	Who will monitor/collect data?	Timeline	Resources
1: What maladaptive behaviors exhibit the participant during paper-based homework?			T	form designed to identify behavioral functions	September 8th: 2020	Question About Behavior Function (QABF)
2: How topography of maladaptive behavior is presented?	T	using an ABC recording is an important part of creating an effective intervention	September 9th, 10, 11 2020	ABC recording chart
3: What are the effects of using Preventive Strategies & Reactive Strategies based on functions of the maladaptive behaviors. Interventions to reduce maladaptive behaviors escape motivated.			T and C		At home during homework		Datasheets and graphs
4: what is the effect of implemented replacement goals for maladaptive behaviors presented.\?	Compare the graphed data of student escaping behaviors before and after the implementation of the interventions	T and C

References

Mills, G.E. (2018). Action Research. A Guide for the Teacher Researcher (6th ed.). Pearson.

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