Essay 5
How does Adam Smith conceptualize the “invisible hand” and the role of morality in self-interest? Then, read Porter and Russell’s New York Times article. Based on the other readings on Smith, how would he react to the consistent problem of income inequality in the contemporary period?
NYT article:
https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2017/12/14/business/world-inequality.html (Links to an external site.)
Guidelines:
File uploads to Canvas will have to be in either Microsoft Word ( , x) or PDF ( ) formats.
Readings:
https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/smith-moral-political/
A S L T I R
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S : R I S , J ., 1996, . 22, N . 1 (J ., 1996), . 5-28
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Re ie f I e a i al S die (1996), 22, 5-28 P i ed i G ea B i ai
Ada S i h a d he libe al adi i i
i e a i al ela i *
ANDREW WYATT-WALTER
I d c i
The a e f Ada S i h i c l a cia ed i h he i f a a al
‘ha f i e e ‘ be ee i di id al i he a ke , he eb he ‘i i ible
ha d’ f c e i i elf- ega di g beha i i agg ega e cial be efi .
J e h C e ech e hi ie i gge i g ha ‘S i h i f i e e f hi ha e
i he deflec i f li ical hil h a d ec ic a d f hi fa
elab a i f he i ci le f f ee e e i e libe al ca i ali ‘.1 S i h i f e
ee a a di g i a l g li e f B i i h li ical hil he e chi g back
H bbe a d L cke a d Be ha a d l i a el J h S a Mill, hi
i ci al c ib i he libe al adi i bei g hi le a he g ea ke a
f lai e fai e a d he i i ali a e.2
Thi c ie f S i h i i ed i i e a i al ela i li e a e, i h
S i h all bei g a ed a e f he f di g fa he f ‘ec ic libe al
i ‘ i li ical ec a d f he ‘libe al i e a i ali ‘ ha E. H. Ca a
a ack ha l i he 1930 f i ia i . Ca a S i h a he ke a
f a ‘ i hf l i i f i e al f ee ade’ lai e -fai e, belie i g ha ‘ he
i di id al c ld be elied , i h e e al c l, e he i e e f he
c i f he e ea ha h e i e e e e ide ical i h hi ‘.3 I
i ila fa hi , Ke e h Wal held S i h ha e ‘laid he f al f da i f
E gli h libe ali ‘, i h i e ha i i di id al i i ia i e eg la ed b c e i i
a he ha a i e e i i a e, a d i belief i g e a d he i a i ali f
a .4 Ma i Wigh a ea ha e laced S i h (al g i h he lai e -fai e
d c i e) i hi ‘Re l i i ‘ adi i , fi l e i g hi a a f Reali .5
* I ld like ha k Ia Cla k, I e Ne a , Ada R be , Ti D e, B A g e, H ll
W a -Wal e , Ma k Zache a d Ma i Ceadel f hel f l c e ea lie d af f hi
a icle. The a h i e ible f he e ai i g e . A i ila e i f hi a icle i
f hc i g i I. B. Ne a a d I. Cla k (ed .), Cla ical The ie i I e a i al Rela i
(L d , 1996), a d I a g a ef l he bli he f all i g blica i he e.
1 J e h C e , Ada S i h a d P li ical Phil h ‘, i A d e S. Ski e a d Th a Wil
(ed .), E a Ada S i h (O f d, 1975), . 132.
2 See al E. H. Ca , The T e Yea ‘ C i i 1919-1939 (L d , 1946), . 43-5.
3 Ibid., . 43.
4 Ke e h N. Wal , Ma , he S a e a d Wa A The e ical A al i (Ne Y k, 1959), . 86, 90. I
gh be ed, h e e , ha Wal d e ie S i h’ c e i e a i al ela i a
‘ if l e e icaci ha h e f libe al f he e i d’. Ibid., . 96 . 33.
5 Ma i Wigh , I e a i al The : The Th ee T adi i , ed. Gab iele Wigh a d B ia P e
(Leice e a d L d , 1991), . 263. See al . 115.
5
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6 A d e W a -Wal e
A a ia f hi ie i he i e a i al ela i li e a e i ha S i h
e e e he b idge be ee he libe al i e a i ali adi i ide ified b Ca
a d he libe al adi i i i e a i al li ical ec . R be Gil i a g e
ha ‘f Ada S i h [libe ali ‘ ] c e a e , libe al hi ke
ha e ha ed a c he e e f a i a d belief ab he a e f h a
bei g , cie , a d ec ic ac i i ie ‘.6 A ke ele e i hi adi i i he idea
ha ec ic li kage be ee e le a e a i i g, acif i g f ce i i e
a i al affai , a d ha he eal f ec ic e a e acc di g i
e f l l gic. S i h’ a a e belief i he ibili f g e a he i e
a i al le el l ca e hi fi l i he ideali U ia adi i f libe al
i e a i al ela i he f c e a , f e e e e ed b he e
‘c e cial libe ali ‘.7
Thi c e i al ie f S i h de i e i f ce f he ic e f S i h a he
g ea ide l gical e f he e ca ili . He i idel held ha e ejec ed he
ke e e f e ca ili h gh : he b e i i h a i al e , he g
a cia i be ee e a d a i al ec ic eal h, a d he e ha i
a ha he e ca ili ha e i h eali hi ke i e a i al affai . While
S i h hi elf i al a e lici ch a e , he c e i al ie h ld he
i lica i f hi idea be clea . F Ja e Sh ell: The li ical d c i e f
i e a i al eace i a a allel he ec ic d c i e f Ada S i h, f i e
i ila l a ec g i i f c a d eci cal a e ial i e e , hich
e e d be d a i al f ie .’8 Michael H a d i ila l lace S i h b adl
i hi libe al a i- a adi i , ba ed he ie ha ‘P ide ce had li ked
a ki d b a chai f eci cal eed hich ade i ible, a i i, a cla h
f ec ic i e e ‘, leadi g Th a Pai e’ decla a i li le e ha a ea
af e S i h’ dea h ha f ee ade ‘ ld e i a e he e f a ‘.9
Th gh he e a e a ia i , he c e i al ie i ha S i h i fi l i hi
he libe al i e a i ali adi i i i e a i al ela i e e di g f he la e
eigh ee h he ea l e ie h ce , a d clea l a dd i h he eali a d
e ca ile adi i . I addi i , i ce S i h’ h gh i ee a efig i g ha
f la e libe al a d adical , i al e f i e a i al ela i ch la hi ha
bee ee a li i ed, he e i ha he e la e a h , f Pai e
Sh ell, e e e e lici ha S i h hi elf.
Thi e a a g e ha hi c e i al ie f S i h i i ake a d e e
a e de c ead back i e ee h-ce idea i S i h ha a cl e
a al i f S i h’ k , hi e a d hi hi ical a d i ellec al
ilie .10 T ai e i ill be a ked he e. Fi , ha e e ca S i h be
a cia ed i h he ha – f-i e e idea i cial he , hich achie ed i
f lle f i i i he i e ee h ce ? Sec d, a d e ecificall , ha
6 R be Gil i , The P li ical Ec f I e a i al Rela i (P i ce , 1987), . 27.
7 F a di c i , ee Ma k W. Zache a d Richa d A. Ma he , ‘Libe al I e a i al The :
C Th ead , Di e ge S a d ‘, i Cha le W. Kegle (ed.), C e ie i I e a i al
Rela i The : Reali a d he Ne libe al Challe ge (Ne Y k, 1995).
8 Ja e Sh ell, Wa a a I e f Na i al P lic (Ne Y k, 1921), ed i Wal , Ma ,
S a e a d Wa , . 98.
9 Michael H a d, Wa a d he Libe al C cie ce (O f d, 1981), . 25, 29.
10 Michael J. Sha i , Readi g Ada S i h’: De i e, Hi a d Val e (L d , 1993), al de a
f he c e i al ie i clai i g S i h a ‘a i e e ial c i ical he i ‘, a diffe e li e f
e i ha ake i hi e a .
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Ada S i h a d libe al adi i 7
e e did he h ld he ie ha ‘i a i al li ic ‘ ld g ad all be di laced
b he i i g i ac f c e ce i h a affai , leadi g e a i al,
eacef l a d d c i e ela i be ee a e ? I i h a g e ha S i h fi l
ejec ed he idea f a a al ha f i e e i hi i a b k, The
Weal h f Na i (1776), a d ha i e a i al a e S i h i f e cl e
he eali a d e ca ile adi i i i e a i al ela i ha libe al i e
a i ali .11 I addi i , f de f i e a i al ela i a d li ical
ec S i h i e eciall h eadi g f hi hi ica ed a al i f he
ce f i e a i al c flic a d he b idge he ffe be ee eali a d libe al
a al e f he ela i hi be ee eal h a d e i i e a i al ela i .
M e ge e all , h e e , S i h’ h gh lead ejec he ece a a cia i
be ee libe ali a d ia i ha i i lied i he c i ici ade b Wal ,
Ca , Gil i a d H a d.
The e a ha he f ll i g c e. Fi , S i h’ c ce f a a al de
l i g de i he cial ld ill be e a i ed, a d i ela i he ha – f
i e e d c i e di c ed. Sec d, S i h’ de a di g f he ela i hi
be ee he i e f c e ce a d f ‘libe ‘ i h a affai a d he e e
hich hi igh ill e i g e i i e a i al ela i ill be c ide ed.
Thi d, hi a a e e i i ega di g he ef f i e a i al ela i a d i
i i i i li ed. The c cl i di c e he g d f a d he c
e e ce f S i h’ di e ge ce f ideali libe ali , hile al i g ele e f
c e ge ce i h he libe al adi i i i e a i al ela i e b adl defi ed.
The a al de : a ha f i e e ?
The e f a al libe
S i h’ ce al c ce , like ha f a eigh ee h-ce hi ke a d h e f
he Sc i h e ligh e e i a ic la , a h ec cile he ac i i i e a d
a e iali ic i f e le i c e cial cie i h he c ce f he ci ic
e blica a d Ch i ia adi i ela i g he i e f he g d ci i e .12
Be a d Ma de ille’ l i i hi Fable f he Bee P i a e Vice , P blick
Be efi (1714) a ha e ‘ ice c ld be eli i a ed b c ld k he
blic be efi if cha elled h gh he a ia e i i i . While S i h fel a
11 The f ll i le f S i h’ k i A I i i he Na e a d Ca e f he Weal h f Na i
[1776], ed. R. H. Ca bell a d A. S. Ski e (O f d, 1976). Ci a i f hi a d he f
S i h’ k ill e he a da d f a a cia ed i h he Gla g bice e ial edi i f
Ada S i h’ k a d c e de ce ( bli hed b O f d U i e i P e ), i cl di g he
f ll i g abb e ia i :
WN The Weal h f Na i [1776], ed. Ca bell a d Ski e (1976).
TMS The The f M al Se i e [1759], ed. A. L. Macfie a d D. D. Ra hael (1976).
LJ Lec e J i de ce [Re f 1762-3 a d 1766], ed. R. L. Meek, D. D. Ra hael a d
P. G S ei (1978).
C . C e de ce f Ada S i h, ed. E. C. M e a d I. S. R (2 d ed , 1987).
12 See Je Z. M lle , Ada S i h i hi Ti e a d O : De ig i g he Dece S cie (Ne Y k,
1993), ch. 3, a d e ge e all , I a H a d Michael Ig a ieff (ed .), Weal h a d Vi e: The
Sha i g f P li ical Ec i he Sc i h E ligh e e (Ca b idge, 1983).
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8 A d e W a -Wal e
eed ejec he c ici f Ma de ille, he ade g d e f hi idea i The
Weal h f Na i , a ic la l i hi i ha i a e i e e e e he ge e a
f ec ic a d cial g e . I The The f M al Se i e (1759), S i h
had gi e g ea e a e i he a i hich cial i i i igh cha el
e ‘ a i a d i e. Ye i i hi a al f he blic be efi hich fl
f he i f ec ic i e e hich i be k a d f e ed:
A e e i di id al, he ef e, e dea a ch a he ca b h e l hi ca i al i
he f d e ick i d , a d di ec ha i d ha i d ce a be f
he g ea e al e; e e i di id al ece a il lab e de he a al e e e f he
cie a g ea a he ca . He ge e all , i deed, ei he i e d e he blick
i e e , k h ch he i i g i . B efe i g he f d e ic
ha f f eig i d , he i e d l hi ec i ; a d b di ec i g ha i d i
ch a a e a i d ce a be f he g ea e al e, he i e d l hi gai ,
a d he i i hi , a i a he ca e , led b a i i ible ha d e a e d hich
a a f hi i e i .13
S i h i cl e Ma de ille he he g e a g e ha :
N i i al a he e f he cie ha i a a f i . B i g hi
i e e he f e e l e ha f he cie e effec all ha he he eall
i e d e i . I ha e e e k ch g d d e b h e h affec ed ade
f he blick g d. I i a affec a i , i deed, e c a g e cha , a d
e fe d eed be e l ed i di adi g he f i .14
Acc di g S i h, he e i a de l i g a al de b il he
i e ded c e e ce f elf-i e e ed beha i , di c e able h gh he a li
ca i f cie ific e h d h a affai . Thi a al de ill e a e
effec i el h gh a e f ‘ a al libe ‘, a g a e f ec ic libe ali
a i hich a e i ed d e he iad f eg la i a d c i i b
hich g e e had fe e ed c e ce. A Vi e ha i ed , S i h’
adical g a e i l ed he i f f ee ch ice f cc a i , f ee ade
i la d, f ee i e al ade a d f ee ade i f eig c e ce ( he la f hich i
c l a cia ed i h he ‘ e ca ile’ e ).15 I ed he ab li i f
la ela i g e le e a d a e ice hi , f la f e ail a d i ge i e,
f l cal c a e , a d f he le h a f d ie , b ie , hibi i a d
adi g lie a cia ed i h f eig c e ce i S i h’ i e. I he e a ea ,
he e a a cl e c e de ce be ee i a e a d blic i e e , a d i
c a he di c i f he le f h a a h a d be e le ce i The
The f M al Se i e , i a afe i hi ca e el g eed:
I i f he be e le ce f he b che , he b e e , he bake , ha e e ec
di e , b f hei ega d hei i e e . We add e el e , hei
h a i b hei elf-l e, a d e e alk he f ece i ie b f hei
ad a age . N b d b a begga ch e de e d chiefl he be e le ce f hi
fell ci i e .16
13 WN, IV.ii.9.
14 Ibid.
15 Jac b Vi e , ‘Ada S i h a d Lai e Fai e’, J al f P li ical Ec , 35 (A il 1927),
. 198-232, e i ed i Jac b Vi e , The L g Vie a d he Sh : S die i Ec ic The
a d P lic (Gle c e, 1958), . 227. \
16 WN,U\2.
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Ada S i h a d libe al adi i 9
H e e , elf-i e e had be ke i hi he c fi e f j ice,17 a d he i ic
gge i ha he blic i be e ff i h e l elf-i e e ed beha i ha
i h e ficial blic- i ded i e i he l he e f The Weal h f
Na i , le al e The The f M al Se i e . A e h c ld belie e, a
did G a M dal, ha S i h a ‘bli d cial c flic ‘ a d adhe ed a ai e
ha – f-i e e d c i e eed l ca all e e The Weal h f Na i
b ai a e e f S i h’ c ce e h ea il e f l i a e i e e ,
a ic la l h e f e cha a d a fac e , igh b e he blic i e e
h gh hei i fl e ce i he li ical ce .18 I a he e ‘ e cha a d
a fac e .. . [ h ] ee ha e bee he igi al i e f h e e ai
he i a i f f eig g d , hich ec e he he l f he
h e a ke ‘.19 I ge e al, ‘Pe le f he a e ade eld ee ge he , e e f
e i e a d di e i , b he c e a i e d i a c i ac agai he
blick, i e c i a ce ai e ice .’20 A e f he a e a le f
hi , S i h ed ha ‘Whe e e he legi la e a e eg la e he diffe e ce
be ee a e a d hei k e , i c ell a e al a he a e .’21
The f da e al fla i he a al de de i e f a ‘ a e, hich i
S i h’ ie i fa f he h ec ic f la e , e f al ec ic
he i i g. A Na ha R e be g ha i ed , S i h’ a al a i l hf l,
gi e i d le ce a d di i a i , a ic la l ce eal h ha bee ac i ed. The
effec f high fi , S i h gge , i h ea e he e ce f ca i al
acc la i , i ce i ‘ ee e e he e de ha a i hich i he
ci c a ce i a al he cha ac e f he e cha . Whe fi a e high,
ha be i e ee be e fl , a d e e i e l i be e ha
affl e ce f hi i a i ‘.22 He ce, lai e -fai e i a i leadi g de c i i f
S i h’ e c i i , i ce ha i ece a i c le e f eed f c
ai a d he e e i f c ll i be ee age , b , he c a ,
i i i al echa i ha b i g e le ac i ciall be eficial a .
The e e e a i i i i al l i he e fla i he a al de .
Ce al S i h’ ideal i i i al c e a he i i i f he a ke
i elf, hich b bala ci g he i e e f e cha , a fac e , a e a d
a e ice , c ld d ce blic le ce. The e ca ile e had be efi ed
h e h e j ed lie a he e e e f cie a la ge, a d a he ef e
highl de i able. T e e d he a ke ld be ake g ea e ad a age f he
ibili ie f he di i i f lab a d f a ‘ a al e i e cha ge,
he f ec ic g h hich had bee c ai ed de he e ca
ile e .23 B a a ke l i a a ia e fficie i all ca e , a d
17 WN, IV.i .51. F a di c i f he le f be e le ce a d a h i he al de f
TMS, ee Vi e , ‘S i h a d Lai e Fai e’, a d Th a Wil , ‘S a h a d Self-I e e ‘, i
Th a Wil a d A d e S. Ski e (ed .), The Ma ke a d he S a e: E a i H f
Ada S i h (O f d, 1976).
18 G a M dal, The P li ical Ele e i he De el e f Ec ic The (L d , 1953), . 107.
19 WN, IV.ii.21.
20 WN, I. .c.27.
21 WN, I. .c.61. F i ila c ce , ee TMS, VII.i .36.
22 WN, . ii.c.61. See Na ha R e be g, ‘S e I i i al A ec f The Weal h f Na i ‘,
J al f P li ical Ec (Dece be 1960), . 558, a d al Vi e , ‘S i h a d Lai e Fai e’,
. 228fT.
23 WN, I.iii.
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10 A d e W a -Wal e
he a ke i elf had be ed b he a ia e i i i . S i h b iefl
li e i B k IV ha c ld be ee a a ‘ i i ali ‘ le f g e e :
Acc di g he e f a al libe , he e eig ha l h ee d ie a e d ;
h ee d ie f g ea i a ce, i deed, b lai a d i elligible c
de a di g : fi , he d f ec i g cie f he i le ce a d i a i f he
i de e de cie ie ; ec dl , he d f ec i g, a fa a ible, e e e be f
he cie f he i j ice e i f e e he e be f i , he d f
e abli hi g a e ac ad i i a i f j ice; a d, hi dl , he d f e ec i g a d
ai ai i g ce ai blick k a d ce ai blick i i i , hich i ca e e be f
he i e e f a i di id al, all be f i di id al , e ec a d ai ai .24
Ye i de j dge h ‘ i i ali ‘ S i h’ c ce i i , e e e be
hi he ical e; af e all, he he ical dile a f j h ch
e ha i e fla i he a al de , a d h a e he e ial f ‘ a ke
(a d g e e ) fail e’ ha lag ed ec i e e i ce S i h.25 A Vi e
a g ed, i did i S i h’ he ical e e l e ha i e he i i e
le f g e e , gi e hi g e e f he i a lica i f g e e
a h i i hi da .26 Hi ce ici c ce i g he abili f g e e , e eciall
B i i h g e e , i e e e j dici l a d effec i el a dee . ‘I i he
highe i e i e ce a d e i , he ef e, i ki g a d i i e , e e d
a ch e he ec f i a e e le . . . [ he ] he a e he el e al a ,
a d i h a e ce i , he g ea e e d h if i he cie .’27 E e hi a
e a a e f e e ie ce ha d g a, i ce S i h ac all a ed f he
e ca ile jec f all, ‘a i c a ic’ g e e ch a h e f Ve ice a d
A e da , h he ed f hei ‘ de l , igila , a d a i i ad i i
a i ‘, i c a B i ai ‘ ‘ l hf l a d eglige ‘ g e e .28
I i clea f ca e ed e a k h gh S i h’ k ha he e i aged a
ig ifica le f g e e hich e ell be d i e ee h-ce lai e
fai e d g a. Fi , S i h did di e he clai f h e h ca e be k
a he ‘ e ca ili ‘ i e ha a i al defe ce a a i a c di i f
a i al eal h, a d ha eal h i laid he f da i f a ade a e e
f defe ce.29 The e-e i e ce f B i ai a a adi g a d i e i g a i ade
b h he a a d he e cha a i e c cial he a i al ec i , a
ec g i ed b he e ca ile e i he Na iga i Ac f 1660, hich ‘e
dea ed gi e he ail a d hi i g f G ea B i ai he l f he
ade f hei c ‘ h gh a i hibi i a d b de f eig
hi i g.30 F S i h, a i ell k :
24 WN, IV.i .51.
25 F a a e e f he le f he ic i ec ic a d he cial cie ce i ge e al, ee
D ald N. McCl ke , The Rhe ic f Ec ic (Madi , 1986).
26 Vi e , ‘S i h a d Lai e Fai e’, . 231-5.
27 WN, II.iii.36.
28 WN, V.ii.a.4.
29 F a i ila a g e , ee Jac b Vi e , ‘P e e Ple a Objec i e i F eig P lic i he
Se e ee h a d Eigh ee h Ce ie ‘, i Vi e , L g Vie , a d Ed a d Meale Ea le, ‘Ada
S i h, Ale a de Ha il , F ied ich Li : The Ec ic F da i f Mili a P e ‘, i
Ed a d Meale Ea le (ed.), Make f M de S a eg : Mili a Th gh f Machia elli Hi le
(P i ce , 1971).
30 WN, IV.ii.24ff.
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Ada S i h a d libe al adi i 11
The ac f a iga i i fa able f eig c e ce, he g h f ha
le ce hich ca a i e f i … A defe ce, h e e , i f ch e i a ce ha
le ce, he ac f a iga i i , e ha , he i e f all he c e cial eg la i f
E gla d.31
A f ‘ he ad i i a i f j ice’, S i h’ fail e i e hi la ed hi d
aj k j i de ce ha lef i h l he h li e i hi Lec e
J i de ce (ba ed he e f de i he 1760 ) a d i B k
V f The Weal h f Na i . Thi f c i f g e e a ea e iall
all-e c a i g a fi igh , he d f he e eig bei g aid be ‘ ha f
ec i g, a fa a ible, e e e be f he cie f he i j ice
e i f e e he e be f i ‘.32 Ye hi a i la ge ea e he
eed f a e f i i e la e e a e le f j ice idi g f he
ec i f he e f i di id al a d he e f ce e f c ac , i h
hich acc la i i i ible.33 I a b ade e e, h e e , S i h f a ed hi
c i ici f he e ic i e legi la i hich e e ched i ilege a d i e ali
he ba i f i i j ice a ell a i i efficie c , a d j ified hi e f a al
libe a leadi g ‘ ha i e al le ce hich e e d i elf he l e a k
f he e le’.34
The hi d f c i , f idi g ‘ce ai blick k ‘ i addi i defe ce a d
j ice, i cl de i i i f he facili a i f c e ce a d f blic ed ca
i . The f e ca eg i cl de ‘g d ad , b idge , a igable ca al , [a d]
ha b ‘ a d he la e l cal ch l f he ed ca i f he l e de f
cie , h gh S i h held he e e ible he ‘ e a ‘ i ci le.
Fi all , he e e e a i ag a ic e ce i he e f a al libe .
S i h acce ed he a g e ha f ee ade h ld be i d ced a idl
a i c acce able c f adj e , f ea f ‘h a i ‘ (a d,
e abl , g d li ic ).35 He al li e e ha a hi f a ‘i fa
i d e ce i ‘ f ee ade i hi defe ce i e ca e f ‘ e a
lie ‘, hich la e c i ic ch a Ale a de Ha il a d F ied ich Li e e
e ha i e a he a ia e a h a d i d iali a i f c ie f ll
i g af e B i ai .36 He e e ec e d legi la i fi i g a e li i he a e
f i e e , le a high a ke a e e c age ‘ digal a d jec , h al e
ld be illi g gi e hi high i e e ‘ (f hich he a c i ici ed b
Be ha ).37 Of c e, all he e e a le f a ke fail e did ega e he fac
ha he e f a al libe a i ge e al he be ac ical g ide lic ,
e eciall beca e g e e a f e i c e e a d e f e bjec
ecial i e e e e . S e hi g , ch a he ec e c i acie f e cha ,
e e i ible e e i a le abl f ee cie , b he g e e ce ai l
gh e c age he .38 Q i e i c a he c e i al ie f S i h
31 WN, IV.ii.30.
32 WN, V.i.b.l.
33 7MS, VII.i .36; HW, V.i.b.2-3, 12, a d V.iii.7.
34 WN, Li. 10, a d edi ‘ i d c i , . 37.
35 0W, IV.ii.4(M.
36 WN, IV. ii.c.95, Vi.e.30. See al Gil i , P li ical Ec , . 180-3.
37 WN, II.i .15.
38 WN, I. .c.27.
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12 A d e W a -Wal e
a a ideali , i fac he a e be a he ec f hi ed e
f a al libe :
T e ec , i deed, ha he f eed f ade h ld e e be e i el e ed i G ea
B i ai , i a ab d a e ec ha a Ocea a U ia h ld e e be e abli hed i i .
N l he ej dice f he blick, b ha i ch e c e able, he i a e
i e e f a i di id al , i e i ibl e i … Thi l [ f a fac e ]
ha ch i c ea ed he be f e a ic la ibe f he , ha , like a
e g a di g a , he ha e bec e f idable he g e e , a d a
cca i i i ida e he legi la e.39
I e a i al a a ch a a fla i he a al de
If he e i li le ec f a a i a e ha f i a e a d blic i e e
i ac ice, a d i he l i h a ia e i i i bala ce a d cha el
e le’ ac i , ha d e hi i l ab he i e a i al eal ? Al h gh
S i h a el add e e he i e head- , hi e a a g e ha he e i i lici i
ch f hi a g e he idea ha he e a e i ec cilable c flic f i e e
be ee a e , d ci g a ec i dile a f i di id al a e , a d ha hi
c i e a he f da e al fla i he a al de . The f – ed e e ce
f The Weal h f Na i , ha ‘defe ce’ i f ch e i a ce ha
‘ le ce’, i he ‘ i ial e ce i ‘ he e f a al libe ha i i
f e ee be.40 Ra he , i i fi l g ded ha c ld be ee a a
f da e all eali ie f i e a i al ela i .
Thi i ea abl clea f S i h’ di c i f defe ce a a c e a e
f c i , a d hi a i ‘ a i al ec i ‘ e ce i he e f a al
libe . The e i a c cial a egic-i d e ce i f ee ade, ‘ he e
a ic la f i d i ece a f he defe ce f he c ‘, a i h he
a fac e f g de a d ailcl h.41 S i h ce ai l h ld ha he e ca ile
e e ce i e a d i a i al e i be ee a e , a d acce ha ‘ he
ac f a iga i . . . a ha e ceeded f a i al a i i ‘. B he g e
a g e ha ch ‘a i i a ha a ic la i e ai ed a he e a e bjec
hich he delibe a e i d ld ha e ec e ded, he di i i f he
a al e f H lla d, he l a al e hich c ld e da ge he ec i f
E gla d’.42
I he d , al h gh S i h h ld e ca ile licie i h hei e – ie
f i e a i al ela i ha e bee ed i he a ial i e e f ‘ a aci
e cha a d a fac e ‘, he ake a clea di i c i be ee ch a ial
i e e he e ha d a d a i al i e e he he . The la e dic a e
de ce a d ca i he a f he a e a b f e de a d licie
e e iall i ila he e ca ile e . Acc di gl , a c ld be e el a
39 WN, IV.ii.43.
40 See Ca , T e Yea ‘ C i i , . 45.
41 WN, IV.ii.24. See al WN, IV. .a.36, he e S i h al ec e d f a i al ec i ea
b ie he e a i f B i i h ailcl h a d g de .
42 WN, IV.ii.29.
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Ada S i h a d libe al adi i 13
d c f ig a ce he f ll f a e e , a i a f Be ha a d he
i e ee h-ce adical h f ll ed hi , b e f da e all a a
d c f i e a i al a a ch . Se ible lic a a i i e eal h a a ea
a i al defe ce, aki g e ce i he f ee ade i ci le he e ece a
f a i al ec i e :
The iche , a d fa a e de e d iche , he e f e e c ,
al a be i i he al e f i a al d ce, he f d f hich all a e
l i a el be aid. B he g ea bjec f he li ical ec f e e c , i
e c ea e he iche a d e f ha c .43
I hi , S i h a i ag ee e i h he e ca ili . The c e e ca ili
e i e, a Vi e a g ed, a ha ‘ eal h a d e a e each e l i a e e d
f a i al lic ‘ a d ha ‘ he e i l g- ha be ee he e e d , al h gh
i a ic la ci c a ce i a be ece a f a i e ake ec ic
ac ifice i he i e e f ili a ec i a d he ef e al f l g-
e i ‘.44 S i h l ag eed i h hi d c i e, b ac all e f he ha
a e ca ili i gge i g ha ‘defe ce i e i a ha le ce’, a
ie i lici i he i alici ed a i ab e. I c a a la e libe al
i e , S i h did l e igh f he c le ela i hi be ee eal h a d
e i i e a i al ela i .
I deed, hi de a di g f he c le i f he i e e e ed S i h f
elab a i g a ha d-a d-fa le a ec af i hi a ea. A g d e a le i hi
ea e f he Na iga i Ac . Af e e lici l a i g h e ligh e ed hi
legi la i a a a e ce i he f ee ade i ci le, he a ea ha e ec d
h gh he he ec e d he g ad al e di g f l e ic i he
c l ial ade, la e i B k IV.45 I hi e e i i ec i , S i h ee gge
ha , i e c agi g a ‘ e g ‘ ade i h he c l ie he de i e f ade
i h E e, he Ac ed ced B i i h eal h a d he eb B i i h a al e a d
a i al ec i . C i e i h hi i hi a g e ha B i ai ‘ hi ic a al
e ac e he D ch a d F e ch a ha e ed hi g he Ac . Thi i
e ha a dd i h hi ea lie ie , a d h h S i h a ca able f
i chi g i i i a a ic la he ical e.46 He e e add a e
a g e hich i i e e i g i he e e c e . The Na iga i Ac a ha e
ed ced B i i h e l b li i i g i le ce, b al i he ligh f a
a egic c ide a i :
The l f he c l ade … b f ci g a d i a ch g ea e i f
he ca i al f G ea B i ai ha ld a all ha e g e i , ee ha e b ke
al ge he ha a al bala ce hich ld he i e ha e ake lace a g all he
diffe e b a che f B i i h i d . . . He c e ce, i ead f i g i a g ea
be f all cha el , ha bee a gh i ci all i e g ea cha el. B he
h le e f he i d a d c e ce ha he eb bee e de ed le ec e … The
e ec a i f a e i h he c l ie , acc di gl , ha ck he e le f G ea
43 WN, ll. .31, i alic added.
44 Vi e , ‘P e e Ple ‘, . 286.
45 WN, IV. ii.c.22-64.
N e he e ial c adic i i h hi ea lie ie he Ac : c a e WN, IV. ii.c.23 i h
IV.ii.29. I i al able ha hi e ial c adic i a ced b G e Th a
P ell, MP, i hi le e S i h f 25 Se e be 1776. (C ., a e di A, . 357-8.)
46
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14 A d e W a -Wal e
B i ai i h e e ha he e e fel f a S a i h a ada, a F e ch i a i . . .
S e de a e a d g ad al ela a i f he la hich gi e G ea B i ai he e cl i e
ade he c l ie , ill i i e de ed i a g ea ea e f ee, ee be he l
e edie hich ca , i all f e i e, deli e he f hi da ge .. ,47
Cha ac e i icall , S i h gge ha i a be lef ‘ he i d f f e
a e e a d legi la ‘ decide h a d ha e e all e ai
c l ial ade, i cl di g he Na iga i Ac , gh be e ed.48 S a e had
bala ce i e f e a d eal h i h i e f a egic de e de ce
a ic la a ke , a d ac ical a e e a he ha hil he e e be able
j dge ch a e . Whe e S i h l de a ed f he e ca ili , he , a
i he eal f ea a he ha e d , a g i g ha hi e f a al libe f
he a c i ed a ch e i ea f a i i i g a i al eal h a d
e .
I a f hi ea ha S i h c i ici ed he a he e e e e ca ili ie f
he like f C lbe a d J iah Child ha i e a i al c e ce a ‘ e e al
c ba ‘ a i h ec ic ea .49 B he a i f e ca ili , S i h held,
‘ a i ha e bee a gh ha hei i e e c i ed i begga i g all hei eigh
b . Each a i ha bee ade l k i h a i idi e e he e i
f all he a i i h hich i ade , a d c ide hei gai a i l .’
The eal h f eighb gh be a a e f ‘ a i al e la i , f
a i al ej dice e … I ch i e e each a i gh , l
e dea i elf e cel, b f he l e f a ki d, e, i ead f
b c i g he e celle ce f i eighb .’50
Agai he li e f a g e ake i hi a icle, i igh be gge ed ha he
la a i h ha S i h did h ld a ha – f-i e e d c i e i
i e a i al ela i . I deed, i he e i a age f The Weal h f Na i ,
S i h a ha de he e ca ile e , ‘C e ce, hich gh a all
be, a g a i , a a g i di id al , a b d f i a d f ie d hi , ha
bec e he fe ile ce f di c d a d a i i ’51 B hi bjec i i
ai able, a S i h g e a g e ha he al i e e f a i a e
li i ed. The e i a f da e al c adic i i he a al de , i ce he
acc la i f a i al eal h i b h li icall h ea e i g a d ec icall
ad a age he a e :
The eal h f a eighb i g a i , h e e , h gh da ge i a a d li ick , i
ce ai l ad a age i ade. I a a e f h ili i a e able e e ie ai ai
flee a d a ie e i ; b i a a e f eace a d c e ce i like i e
e able he e cha ge i h a g ea e al e.52
The c adic i be ee a i al ec ic a d li ical i e e i a ic la l
ac e f eighb i g c ie . B i ai a d F a ce c ld gai f e i g he
e ca ile e ic i hei ec ic i e c e:
47 WN, IV. ii.c.43^. See al C ., le e 262.
48 WN, IV. ii.c.44.
49 Albe O. Hi ch a , The Pa i a d he I e e : P li ical A g e f Ca i ali Bef e I
T i h (P i ce , 1977), . 79.
50 WN, IV.iii.c.9, a d TMS, VI.ii.2.3.
51 WN, IV.iii.c.9.
52 WN, IV.iii.c.ll, i alic added.
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Ada S i h a d libe al adi i 15
B he e a e ci c a ce hich ld ha e e de ed a e a d f ee c e ce
be ee he c ie ad a age b h, ha e cca i ed he i ci al
b c i ha c e ce. Bei g eighb , he a e ece a il e e ie , a d he eal h
a d e f each bec e , ha acc , e f idable he he , a d ha ld
i c ea e he ad a age f a i al f ie d hi , e e l i fla e he i le ce f a i al
a i i . .. Me ca ile jeal i e ci ed, a d b h i fla e , a d i i elf i fla ed, b
he i le ce f a i al a i i .53
Me ca ile d c i e a d e ed i e e a e , he , he ca e f a i al
a i i , h gh he e d fa i e heigh f i e i . Ge g a hical
i i a d eal h i elf c ea e c flic be ee a e , i ce eal h ide he
ea age a a d beca e ‘a eal h a i , i f all a i he likel
be a acked’.54 The e i li le ace f he i e ee h- a d e ie h-ce libe al
a g e ha a i a i a i al a d eal h-de i g e e i e. The ‘l e f
a ki d’ ca ha dl c i e a aj c ai i e a i al c flic , i ce
he ibili ie f a h a d ac i f be e le ce a e c fi ed i di id al ‘
fa ilie fi f all, hei cl e eighb , a d, a , he a e i elf.55 A
a e l , e a d ej dice e d eig i i e a i al ela i , a d he e i a
i he e e i be ee a a d ci i e . N ice h S i h ec cile i a e
i e e i h blic a i al i e e i he ( i gle) i i ible ha d a age i The
Weal h f Na i , he e ‘e e i di id al . . . b efe i g he f d e ic
ha f f eig i d . . . [i ] led b a i i ible ha d e a e d hich
a a f hi i e i ‘.56 The l e f e’ c igh hel ec cile he
i e e f ci i e a d a e, b i c ea e c flic a he i e a i al le el be ee
a e .
C e ce, g e a d a
C e ce a d cial c flic
The ecedi g a al i gge ha S i h ca ha dl ha e belie ed ha e e if
e ca ili licie e e be aba d ed a d ade fl i h, c flic be ee
a e ld di a ea , i ce i ake ec ic d c i e a he ble .
Ne e hele , i ce S i h d e h ld he ie ha e a di g c e ce b i g
i h i g e f i h a affai , i i h hile c ide he he he
belie ed c e ce igh i c ea e he ec f i e a i al eace. Thi ea
i e a i al ha k i e c ec ed e i U ia h gh i he
eigh ee h a d i e ee h ce ie . Fi , he e a he i ha ef f he
i e a i al eal c ld be achie ed h gh d e ic li ical ef , la gel b
c ai i g he i a i al a i f he le f h a ki d. Sec d, he e a
he idea ha c e ce c ld e eal a e ha f i e e be ee a i ,
53 WN, IV.iii.c.13, i alic added.
54 WN, Vi.a.15.
55 TMS, VI.ii.2-3.
56 WN, IV.ii.9, i alic added.
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16 A d e W a -Wal e
hich e e e e e a i e g e e igh ig e. Did S i h h ld ei he
f he e i i ?
F S i h, he i e f c e cial cie b i g i h i c ide able cial
be efi , i cl di g he g ad al i d c i f ‘ de a d g d g e e , a d
i h he , he libe a d ec i f i di id al , a g he i habi a f he
c , h had bef e li ed al i a c i al a e f a i h hei
eighb , a d f e ile de e de c hei e i ‘.57 Cha ac e i icall ,
S i h all a ke le f he i e ded c e e ce f i di id al a d cla
beha i i d ci g ch be efi . The i e f he a d f a fac e
led he fe dal l d i hei a i e he c e ciali a i f ag ic l e
a d f he e a -la dl d ela i hi . ‘F a ai f dia d b ckle e ha . . .
f he g a ifica i f he childi h, he ea e a d he did f all
a i ie , he g ad all ba e ed hei h le e a d a h i ’58
The be efi f hi i calc la i ( i Hi ch a ‘ e he i h f
a i e a i al elf-i e e ) e e c ide able, i ce i all ed f he
de el e f le de ea i g a d e i e de e de cial ela i hi
be ee e le f diffe e a k f cie , a d i ce ‘ he g ea ie e e
l ge ca able f i e i g he eg la e ec i f j ice, f di bi g he
eace f he c ‘.59 Th , S i h h ed e lai h he c e ciali a i f
cie c ld all g ea e c e f libe a d j ice, i he e e f ec i f
e a ell a g ea e cial i e de e de ce, a c he e a g libe al
hi ke .60
Did hi g ea e d e ic cial abili aff ded b he c e ciali a i
ce ill e i e eacef l i e a i al ela i ? Af e all, S i h had
i e ha ‘C e ce .. . gh a all be, a g a i , a a g
i di id al , a b d f i a d f ie d hi .’61 D e hi gge a i ila ie
ha f M e ie , h held ha ‘ he a al effec f c e ce i lead
eace’, f hi f ie d Mel , h belie ed ha he ‘ i i f c e a d he
i i f c e ce a e all e cl i e i a a i ‘?62
I i e d b f l ha S i h e e b c ibed ch a ie . The e i li le e e
f he e ai i g le f e e e a i e g e e i hi i i g , like h e f
he eigh ee h-ce i e ch a Ka a d Pai e. I deed, he ed h he
B i i h g e e ‘i i e f a ha c a l ac ed i h all he h gh le
e a aga ce ha de c acie a e a fall i ‘.63 S i h’ eali hi c e i
i a ked c a he a i de f libe al i e ch a Be ha , he Mill ,
C bde , B igh a d A gel?. F S i h, a f J. K. Galb ai h e ece l , a
a e a he ha di g he de ci i e , a d ‘ hi a e e c e a e he
all diffe e ce be ee he a e hich he a acc f he a , a d h e
hich he had bee acc ed a i i e f eace. The a e c l
57 WN, III.i .4. A S i h e , hi a a he e hich H e al had ch a (a d i deed
he Sc i h e ligh e e a a h le). S i h i hi i i g ide ified f age f ci
ec ic de el e : he age f h e , f he he d , f ag ic l e, a d f c e ce.
58 WN, III.i .10. See al WN, III.i .17.
59 WN, III.i .15.
60 See Zache a d Ma he , ‘Libe al I e a i al The ‘.
61 WN, IV.iii.c.9.
62 B h ed i Hi ch a , Pa i a d I e e , . 80.
63 WN, V.ii.a.4.
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Ada S i h a d libe al adi i 17
di a i fied i h he e f eace, hich a e d hei a e e , a d
a h a d i i a h e f c e a d a i al gl , f a l ge c
i a ce f he a .’64 Nei he de c ac c e ce igh e e eace. A
ci i e ha e a i a ell a ec ic i e e , S i h (like Galb ai h) igh
ha e ee he a g e f Michael D le, ha libe al de c acie ha e a l
e i a , a e i g a e ce i el a ie f h a a e.65
S i h’ a i de he c l ie al b i g hi c le ie f h a a e
a d he e ha i a ‘ – ec ia a i . He a he ela i hi
be ee E ea a e a d hei c l ie a ec icall i efficie a d
fi able, b d b ed ha hi i i elf ld be fficie b i g he e a e
e de hei c l ie l a il .
N a i e e l a il ga e he d i i f a i ce, h ble e e e
i igh be g e i , a d h all e e he e e e hich i aff ded igh be i
i he e e e hich i cca i ed. S ch ac ifice , h gh he igh f e e l
be ag eeable he i e e , a e al a if i g he ide f e e a i , a d ha i
e ha f ill g ea e c e e ce, he a e al a c a he i a e i e e f he
g e i g a f i .66
Ne e hele , he ade e e f l ec ic a g e i fa f l a
B i i h dec l i a i . The e i i g e , he a g ed, ided he f b h
ld , i ce he e e f l A e ica ef ed a a e hile he B i i h had
defe d hei i e e he e. The e la e e ce f The Weal h f Na i i a
e f l lea f he B i i h gi e he failed jec f e i e, a d igh ha e
ade C bde B igh d:
If a f he i ce f he B i i h e i e ca be ade c ib e a d he
f he h le e i e, i i el i e ha G ea B i ai h ld f ee he elf f he
e e e f defe di g h e i ce i i e f a , a d f i g a a f hei
ci il ili a e abli h e i i e f eace, a d e dea acc da e he f e
ie a d de ig he eal edi c i f he ci c a ce .67
Ye S i h i e c e a i e he i e ha hi adical cce . He a
fa ci a ed i h he bjec f he A e ica ebelli a d he i e f he
blica i f The Weal h f Na i , a d i a i a e e a d f Feb a
1778 Ale a de Wedde b (S lici -Ge e al i L d N h’ g e e ) he
ied ab he l f d e ic a d i e a i al e ige ha a l a
i hd a al igh e ail f he g e e . A he a e i e, he ffe a eal li ik
l i hich ld ha e h ified i e ee h-ce libe al : b e i g
‘Ca ada F a ce a d he Fl ida S ai ; e h ld e de [i
de e de ] c l ie he a al e e f he e a chie a d c e e l
he a al allie f G ea B i ai ‘.68 I hi blic i i g he bjec i The
64 WN, Viii.37. F a e all c ical a d e a kabl i ila ie f he ela i hi be ee
de c ac a d a , ee J h Ke e h Galb ai h, The C l e f C e e (L d , 1993), ch. 9.
65 See Michael W. D le, ‘Ka , Libe al Legacie , a d F eig Affai ‘, Phil h a d P blic Affai ,
12, . 3 a d 4 (1983).
66 WN, IV ii.c.66.
67 WN, Viii.92.
68 C ., a e di B: ‘S i h’ Th gh he S a e f he C e i h A e ica, Feb a 1778′,
. 382-3.
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18 A d e W a -Wal e
Weal h f Na i , h e e , S i h efe ed fai h i he -dec l i a i
e i al f a ‘ a al affec i f he c l ie he he c ‘.69
U de a di g ha he e a li le cha ce f a l a B i i h i hd a al f
A e ica, S i h ed a a al e a i e a f ll li ical a d ec ic i
be ee B i ai a d A e ica. The ‘ a al a i c ac ‘ f e e a i a i
a ed i a il b c ide a i f i elf-i a ce, e a d e ige. A
i c ld all he B i i h e ai hei e e f elf-i a ce, hile ‘a e
e h d f ac i i g i a ce, a e a d e da li g bjec f a bi i
ld be e e ed he leadi g e f each c l ‘.70 If i e e be bjec ed
ha ch a i de e e he e e e f a d ed a i c ac , i eed l be
c e ed ha S i h i l did hi k i ch e . S i h did , f c e,
ide if ‘libe ‘ i h de c ac , a d f hi ab l i a i c a ible i h
a fl i hi g c e cial cie .71
I c a M e ie , a d he libe al i e a i ali f a la e i e, he ,
f S i h he a i f e c ld be e c e b e e ec ic i e e .
Wha acc f hi ‘ eali ‘? F da e all , i i ha S i h, like he e he
i e , ee e le a i a ed b a e c le a d e f l e f a i
ha i l ec ic elf-i e e . I ed diffic l f hi e i age e le
ac i g ‘i a i all ‘ f he i f ie f hei ec ic i e e . A d if hi i
e f i di id al , i i e e e e f a i , h e beha i i f e
d i a ed b he a i f a i al e i e . F M e ie , h e e , h a
cha ac e a e i le: ‘i i f a e f e be i a i a i i hich,
h gh hei a i a he be icked, he ha e e e hele a
[ec ic] i e e i bei g ‘.72 Thi a he ba i f hi belief ha he g h
f c e ce igh c ai he e de c a . F S i h, e e if he i a i al
e ca ili i f a i al ec ic ad a age c ld be e e ed f
f he di i g i e a i al ela i , hi ld ha dl be fficie e able
he eli i a i f c flic i h a affai . F e a le, e e e ce i el b de
e a e igh be fficie ed ce blic f a : ‘Whe a a i
i al ead e b de ed i h a e , hi g b he ece i ie f a e a ,
hi g b ei he he a i i f a i al e gea ce, he a ie f a i al
ec i , ca i d ce he e le b i , i h le able a ie ce, a e a .’73
Fi all , i h ld be e ha i ed ha , de i e hi e ha i h a a i ,
S i h’ acc f he ca e f a i , e l Ke e h Wal ‘ ca eg ie ,
a e i el ‘fi i age’ e la a i .74 A di c i f he fla i he
i e a i al de ha S i h b e ed ha h , he e i e ce f i e a i al
a a ch c ea e a ec i dile a f e e a e: ‘i de e de a d eighb i g
69 WN, IV. ii.c.66.
70 WN, IV. ii.c.74, 75. S i h’ al e ailed f ll e ali f e e e a i a d a a i , f eed
f ade, a d e e a i i f he f e e al f he ea f he E i e ha a ‘ hich
c ib ed he ge e al defe ce a d f he h le’. (See WN, IV. ii.ci.75-9.)
71 F S i h’ ce ici ega di g he ela i hi be ee c e ce a d e e e a i e g e e ,
ee D ca F be , ‘Sce ical Whiggi , C e ce a d Libe ‘, i Ski e a d Wil (ed .),
E a . F be al i dica e h S i h’ e ha i a ‘ ba e i i c led hi ce ici
ha ec ic g e ld b i g ab he de i e f la e , hich S i h held be
ec icall i efficie a ell a i al. (Ibid., . 199-200.)
72 M e ie , De l’e i de l i [1748], XXI, 20, ed i Hi ch a , Pa i a d I e e , . 73.
73 WN, Viii.40.
74 Wal , Ma , S a e, a d Wa .
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Ada S i h a d libe al adi i 19
a i , ha i g c e i decide hei di e , all li e i c i al
d ead a d ici f e a he ‘.75 Ye i i he a i f ci i e hich k
e ace ba e hi e ial f c flic be ee a e , a ‘ he ea i ci le f
a i al ej dice i f e f ded he ble e f he l e f c ‘.76
Thi acc f hi ce ici a he likelih d ha de c ac ld eli i a e
a , i ce i e a i al a a ch i he e i i e ca e f c flic a d a , a d he
a i f i di id al he d i i g f ce.
C e ce, fi a ce a d c i
A i clea f he ab e b e a i , he S i h efe he a i hich
c e ce e de he fe dal la dl d ‘ l ge ca able f i e i g he
eg la e ec i f j ice, f di bi g he eace f he c ‘,77 he i
eaki g f d e ic a he ha i e a i al eace, he d e ic ce e bei g he
h le f c f B k III f The Weal h f Na i . I B k V, cha e 3, he ake
he bjec f he c ai ha c e ciali a i lace he e eig
(a ed fe dal l d ). He e, S i h di c e h he ce f c e
ciali a i ha e c i g effec , a d acc di gl a e ai a i al
a i . The e eig ‘ ‘f i l a i ‘ a e all likel lead hi i d lge
hi elf ‘ i h all he c l i ke hich c e he le did, b i ig ifica
agea f a c ‘ a d i d i g ‘ e d h e lea e g ea a a
f hi e e e a debili a e e ch he defe i e e f he a e’. Ye
beca e f he i i i ali a i f he e f blic deb i a c e cial
cie , he g e e ‘i e a e e i elf hi abili a d illi g e
f i bjec le d i hei e e a- di a cca i . . . a d he ef e
di e e i elf f he d f a i g’. I i he e ea e f fi a ci g ch
e a di a e e di e hich e e he fi a cial c ai fliga e
e eig ( f ha a e fliga e de c acie ) f bi i g, e e if i ‘ ill i
he l g- babl i , all he g ea a i f E e’.78
T e f , S i h e a ef f i i i al echa i e c e
ch ble . He gge ha all a h ld be fi a ced l b a e , ha
‘The f e igh f he hea a d a idable b de f a ld hi de he e le
f a l calli g f i he he e a eal lid i e e figh f .’
Wa igh he ‘be e eedil c cl ded, a d le a l de ake ‘.79
He e, h e e , hi e cha f ef ge he be e f hi , i ce i e he
ie he ha ea lie di i ed, ha ec ic i e e e l cha elled igh
c ai he a e i e f a . I a ca e, i h ch a efficie e f blic
fi a ce a B i ai had de el ed b he la e eigh ee h ce , hi ef a
75 TMS, VI.ii.2.3.
76 Ibid.
77 WN, III.i .15.
78 WW, V.iii.3, 8, 10. S i h ha ed i h B ke, H e a d he f hi i e a g a e c ce ab he
c i g i fl e ce f i c ea i g blic i deb ed e . See J. G. A. P c ck, ‘The P li ical Ec
f B ke’ A al i f he F e ch Re l i ‘, Hi ical J al, 25, . 2, (1982), . 331^9. F
he cla ic acc f he ‘fi a cial e l i ‘ f he e e ee h ce hich e ha ced he
a – aki g ca abili ie f he B i i h a e, ee P. G. M. Dick , The Fi a cial Re l i i
E gla d: A S d i he De el e f P blic C edi , 1688-1756 (L d , 1967).
79 ?W,V.iii.50.
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20 A d e W a -Wal e
li icall eali ic. N c ld S i h e i l ha e belie ed i ld be e
effec i e i c bi g a , he ba i f hi a g e . I be ec ed ha
S i h’ i e e di a e f blic i deb ed e all ed hi he ic, f he fi
i e, be d hi c e belief hi a e . I deed, S i h he e i i
hi e h gh he he g e de ai ‘ f aki g ch g e a d ha
libe a i [ f he blick e e e] i i e f eace, a e e c e a e
he f he acc la i f he blick deb i he e a ‘.80
M e e , fa f h i g ha c e ce ld e adica e he i a i a
b de i i g he li ical i i f he a i c ac , S i h fea ed ha i igh
a he ake ci ili ed a i eak a d l e able. A ed ea lie , S i h fea ed
ha he a ai e f eal h a c i g f ci ic e blica al e , a d he
e e d hi he e i hi di c i f he decli e f he ‘ a ial i i ‘ f cie .
The ba i f hi c i a he e ce f ec ic g e i elf, he
di i i f lab :
I he g e f he di i i f lab , he e l e f he fa g ea e a f h e
h li e b lab , ha i , f he g ea b d f he e le, c e be c fi ed a fe
e i le e a i . . . The a h e life i e i e f i g a fe i le
e a i ha cca i e e hi de a di g, e e ci e hi i e i … He
a all l e , he ef e, he habi f ch e e i , a d ge e all bec e a id a d
ig a a i i ible f a h a c ea e bec e. The f hi i d e de
hi , l i ca able f eli hi g bea i g a a i a a i al c e a i , b f
c cei i g a ge e le, ble, e de e i e , a d c e e l f f i g a
j j dg e c ce i g a e e f he di a d ie f i a e life. Of he g ea a d
e e i e i e e f hi c , he i al ge he i ca able f j dgi g; a d le e
a ic la ai ha e bee ake e de hi he i e, he i e all i ca able f
defe di g hi c i a . .. Hi de e i a hi a ic la ade ee , i hi
a e , be ac i ed a he e e e f hi i ellec al, cial, a d a ial i e . B i
e e i ed a d ci ili ed cie hi i he a e i hich he lab i g , ha i ,
he g ea b d f he e le, ece a il fall, le g e e ake e ai
e e i .81
Hi had h ha he g ea ci ili a i f G eece a d R e c lla ed
beca e c e ce ade he l e able a ack b highl ili a i ed ba ba ia
a i (a d e e be ha eal h i i ed a ack).82 The eal h E ea a i
f S i h’ i e e e l e able i a i ila a . Al h gh he i e i f fi ea
had hif ed he bala ce f e a a f ba ba ia a i i fa f eal hie
c e cial a i , hich a ‘ce ai l fa able b h he e a e c a d
he e e i f ci ili a i ‘, hi l e ha ced he i a ce f eal h f
e f a i al ec i .83 Weal h a i , beca e f hei l e abili ,
eeded fe i al a di g a ie i ie f ‘ he a al e i i hich he
ili ia f a ba ba , ha e ha f a ci ili ed a i ‘.84 B S i h a
c e lea e i a hi . The eed f he a e i c lca e a ial i e i e e
i l lie ci i e ecei e b a ial ea e b h i hi Lec e a d i The
80 WN,V. .61.
81 WN, V.i.f.50.
82 WN, V.i.a.36, a d V.i.f.59.
83 WN, V.i.a.43-4.
84 WN, V.i.a.39.
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Ada S i h a d libe al adi i 21
Weal h f Na i . S ch i e igh be i illed h gh ci i e ‘ ili ia ,
le e i g a a di g fe i al a .85
The ef e, hile S i h ag eed i h he libe al ie ha ec ic g e c ld
e he ead f e ge le a d acifi ic e i e i hi he b d li ic,
f hi hi a e hi g be la e ed (d e i e a i al a a ch a d he
i c i e a ch f g e ) a d h ef ll e e ed b a ia e ef . I
ie f hi e he le f a i al a i i a d f e f eal h a i ,
hi eal fea ee ed be ha B i ai igh bec e la a d eglec i defe ce
hile he a i (e e eal h e ) ld be l lea ed ee B i ai
di i i hed. While i i el a f da e all eali i i ha he l
ec e a e e e ci ili a i a d libe i e a e f a , a i i S i h
ad i h fal e i g, he d e elab a e hi ible c adic i i hi
a g e . A ch, he fal e be ee eali a d libe ali . O e igh add ha , i
he ca e f ba ba c ie , he ee ed lace e h e i a H bbe ia
l i ha i c e ciali a i : A i i l b ea f a ell- eg la ed
a di g a ha a ci ili ed c ca be defe ded; i i l b ea f i ,
ha a ba ba c ca be dde l a d le abl ci ili ed.’86
I e a i al li ic a d i i i al ef
Gi e S i h’ ca e ed e hi ica ed e a k a a d i e a i al affai , i
i i i g ha he d e add e hi elf di ec l e i f i e
a i al ela i , a he eigh ee h-ce i e ch a Ka a d R ea
had d e? I a be fai e ch a e i , i ce S i h k a
cha ac e i icall b ad eigh ee h-ce ie f hi chai i al hil h . I
i f a ic la i e e f ch la f i e a i al ela i beca e f S i h’
e ha i he le f cial i i i i ha i g a d cha elli g h a
i e e a d ac i . A R e be g gge ed, S i h’ a g e i hi ega d
‘a lie he h le ec f cial c i a ce a d i e ic ed
ec ic affai ‘.87 I c ide i g i ch de ail he i i i al ce f cha el
li g a d bala ci g he i e e ac he h le ec f h a affai a he
d e ic le el, S i h ga e ela i el i i al a e i h hi igh be d e a
he i e a i al le el. Ha i g ejec ed he i ha deli e a ce f a
igh f ll f de c a i a i a d c e ciali a i a he d e ic le el, h
did he g f he ?
S i h f ll hi i i i al i i c i b iefl efe i g i The The f M al
Se i e he a i hich a e e , b i g a i al i e e h gh
allia ce , a i di ec l e e e he i de e de ce f a e a d he eace h gh
he e a i f he bala ce f e .88 Ye f he ha hi he d e g , de i e
he g d ha had bee c e ed hi b hi ke i h h S i h a e
85 See he di c i i Wi ch, Ada S i h’ P li ic , . 105-12.
86 WN, V.i.a.40. I hi Lec e , S i h i e L ckea i he ca e f B i ai (LJ(A), i .178), h gh
hi ge e al i i i ha a a di g a l al ki g a d c i he be g a a f
d e ic libe . (LJ(A), i .179, a d WN, V.i.a.41.)
87 R e be g, ‘I i i al A ec ‘, . 560.
88 TMS, VI.ii.2.4.
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22 A d e W a -Wal e
fa ilia , ch a G i , P fe d f, M e ie , H e, a d he e ca ili . Hi
ce ici c ce i g he e ilib a i g le f he bala ce f e ee
e e hi f aki g a ible a al g i h he i i ible ha d f d e ic
ec ic elf-i e e .
A he fac hich igh ha e bee e ec ed b i g S i h delibe a e e
f ll i e a i al a e a he ab e ce f al ela i i i hi h gh .
Thi i i lici i he de ice f he ‘i a ial ec a ‘ f The The f M al
Se i e , he bjec i e ba i b hich e le igh di i g i h i f ba e
beha i . H e e , a e ha e ee , S i h a e ac ical li i hi de ice, a d
he e i be ee a a d ci i e hich a ea clea l i The Weal h f
Na i i al i a i hi al hil h . I The The f M al Se i
e , S i h ec g i e h ‘l e f a i ‘ lace ge g a hical li i
a h f a d l e f h a ki d. We e a d fea he eal h a d e f
eighb i g a i , a d hile e all bea ill- ill di a a i , ‘I
e a el ha e , h e e , ha . . . [ hi ] ca be e e ed i h ch effec .’89 Thi
i i l a e ig ed acce a ce f he b i ac f he ba e e i e f a ,
b e a ec g i i f hei c le i , i ce l e f c i e f he ai
d i e f h a g e . S i h i di dai f l f he de ached ie f he
hil he h , c e la i g he ali f G d’ c ea i , ake a i e ali ic
al a d i a d he eb i k eglec i g ‘ he ca e f hi ha i e , f ha
f hi fa il , hi f ie d , hi c ‘.90 I hi Lec e , S i h b i g he e c a
dic i he f e:
The eal ca e h he h le a i i h gh a ea able bjec f e e e i ha e
d feel f h e a a di a ce a e d f h e ea . We ha e bee i j ed b
F a ce, e e e i e agai he h le a i i ead f he g e e , a d he ,
h ‘ a bli d i di c i i a i g fac l a al a ki d, bec e bjec f a
ea able e e e . Thi i h e e i e c a he le f j ice b e ed
i h ega d bjec .91
Beca e f he de h f a i al a i , i e a i al li ic i e e e
e ha d e ic li ic he d i a i f a ial i e e , aki g i
ch e diffic l i i e a i al affai b ai he i i f a i a ial
ec a .92
Ne e hele , S i h c de ed he ‘ a age i j ice’ f E ea licie agai
he c l ial e le .93 I e a i al la , hich i l di c ed b iefl i The
The f M al Se i e a d i e acc f hi Lec e , i di i ed a a
fai l eak d i h hich c ai he a i a d i e e f e f l
a i . ‘F he alle i e e , he ligh e ca i , e ee h e
a e le e e da , ei he e aded di ec l i la ed i h ha e e e.’94
S i h e ea hi i i he Lec e , a g i g ha ‘Thi ece a il be he
ca e, f he e he e i e e legi la i e e j dge e le diffe e ce ,
89 TMS, VI.ii.2.6. See al TMS, III.3.4.
90 TMS, VI.ii.3.6.
91 L/^J, 344-5.
92 See K d Haak e , The Scie ce f a Legi la : The Na al J i de ce f Da id H e a d
Ada S i h (Ca b idge, 1981), . 133^1, a d TMS, III.3.42.
93 WN, IV.i.32, a d IV. ii.c.80, 100.
94 TMS, VI.ii.2.3.
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Ada S i h a d libe al adi i 23
e a al a e ec ce ai a d i eg la i .’95 E e he la f a a e
c a l i la ed, a d a e ‘laid d i h e li le ega d he lai e a d
b i le f j ice’.96 Like eali , S i h b i lica i lace
li i ed fai h i he i i i f i e a i al cie c ai a e beha i
a d e i e a i al j ice. F he e, he a g e i e lici l eali
la g age ha i i l h gh i c ea ed e ha eake a i igh e e
all c e e e ch i j ice a d i il al e ec :
He eaf e , e ha , he a i e f h e c ie a g ge , h e f E e
a g eake , a d he i habi a f all he diffe e a e f he ld a a i e
a he e ali f c age a d f ce hich, b i i i g al fea , ca al e e a e he
i j ice f i de e de a i i e f e ec f he igh f e a he . B
hi g ee e likel e abli h hi e ali f f ce ha ha al
c ica i f k ledge a d f all f i e e hich a e e i e
c e ce f all c ie all c ie a all , a he ece a il , ca ie al g
i h i .97
Thi a age i al e eali g beca e i gge ha he eal c ib i ha
c e ce igh ake eace a d j ice be ee a i i b ed ci g he
i e ali f eal h a d e ha cha ac e i e ela i be ee a e e he
l g e . I he d , i i h gh he bala ce f e (a e hich S i h
d e e l he e a d hich he l b iefl all de i hi he k 98) ha
g ea e al e ec be ee a i igh e e ge, a he ha h gh i e
a i al la ‘l e f a ki d’. While S i h c ld ha dl , he ef e, ha e ag eed
i h B igh a d la e libe al ha c e ce ld e e all de a i al
b de a d he bala ce f e ,99 did he lace ch fai h i he i i
i f i e a i al cie e e i e a i al eace a d j ice. He de e
e a e i i he Lec e he a i hich g i g c e ce be ee
a i i de i e e ace ba e a he ha ed ce c flic , ece i a i g he
e cha ge f e a e a ba ad be ee a e . Ye hi a e e f he
e ial c ib i f hi a ic la i i i i cha ac e i icall ca i .100
S i h he ef e fail c ide he ibili f i i i al ef a he
i e a i al le el, h gh clea fla e i i he i e a i al de . The e i a
e i i e i i ce f R ea i hi gge i ha ‘The i le ce a d i j ice
f he le f a ki d i a a cie e il, f hich, I a af aid, he a e f
h a affai ca ca ce ad i f a e ed ‘101 I c a Be ha a d a
la e libe al , he i ce ical ha i e a i al la ca ai ai he ba ic i ci le
f a al j ice i he face f i e ali f e be ee a e . F S i h,
e li ic led i i e a i al affai , a d he a he ef e fa f he ie ,
c b h libe al U ia a d Ma i , ha ec ic f ce ld l i
a el i h e li ic .
95 LJ(B), 339. S i h’ di c i i la gel c fi ed he la f a a d di l a ic i i
(ba ed eci ci ). See LJ(B), 339-58, a d TMS, III.3.43, VI.ii.2.2-5, a d VII.i .37.
96 TMS, III.3.42.
97 WN, IV. ii.c.80 (i alic added).
98 LJ(B), 355-6, a d TMS, VI.ii.2.6.
99 See H a d, Wa a d Libe al C cie ce, . 42-4.
100 LJ(B), 353-8.
101 WN, IV.iii.c.9.
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24 A d e W a -Wal e
Pe ha he ai ea f hi ga i S i h’ e i hi ie f he e
li i ed le f he a lica i f Ka ia e ea i i e a i al affai .
Whe ea he a a le f he ‘legi la ‘ ac i g acc di g ge e al i ci le i he
d e ic eal , he e ded lea e he i e a i al eal he ag a ic li ical
kill f he ‘c af a e a li icia ‘. C ide , f e a le, hi i e e i g
de a e f ha a bec e he lic d g a f f ee ade ila e ali i
B i ai i he la e i e ee h ce :
The ca e i hich i a e i e be a a e f delibe a i h fa i i e
c i e he f ee i a i f ce ai f eig g d , i , he e f eig a i
e ai b high d ie hibi i he i a i f e f a fac e i
hei c . Re e ge i hi ca e a all dic a e e alia i , a d ha e h ld i e
he like d ie a d hibi i he i a i f e all f hei a fac e
i . Na i , acc di gl eld fail e alia e i hi a e . .. The e a be
g d lic i e alia i f hi ki d, he he e i a babili ha he ill c e he
e eal f he high d ie hibi i c lai ed f … T j dge he he ch
e alia i a e likel d ce ch a effec , d e , e ha , bel g ch he
cie ce f a legi la , h e delibe a i gh be g e ed b ge e al i ci le hich a e
al a he a e, a he kill f ha i idi a d c af a i al, lga l called a a e a
li icia , h e c cil a e di ec ed b he e a fl c a i f affai .102
Thi a age i a ic la l e eali g beca e S i h’ ge e al ie i ha e hic
a d li ical ec a e ‘ cie ce ‘ i hich he c i e a lica i f
Ne ia e h d i a ia e.103 He e a d el e he e i hi i i g , he e lici l
e cl de he i e a i al eal f ‘ he cie ce f he legi la ‘ a d he a li
ca i f Ne ia e h d, a g i g ag a icall ha e had be el he
de ce f he a e a . I he d , S i h d e e l he a al g f
a he i f i e a i al ela i , ha he cie ific e h d ed i he
d f h a a e igh e all be a lied a e i he i e a i al eal ,
a d i hi he a c a i h a eali a d libe al alike. The i e a i al
eal f S i h i edic able a d da ge , a d ge e al i ci le f f eig
lic he ha de ce a d igila ce a e diffic l f la e. I addi i
R ea , he , a he a allel i i h Ma i Wigh , h a ce ical ab he
e ibili f elab a i g a ge e al i e a i al he , he ba i f hi
ha di i c i be ee he d e ic a d i e a i al he e f life.104 S i h i
i ila l el c a e i age la ge le f ali a d f he i i e
a i al affai . I he e d, i i e ha hi hich deflec S i h f a h gh
a al i f i e a i al ela i .
C cl i : S i h a d he libe al adi i
The e i a c ide able da ge i i e e i g Ada S i h’ ie i e a i al
ela i , i ce he a el add e e di ec l he i e all a cia ed i h he
102 WN, IV.ii.38-9 (i alic added).
103 See WN, edi ‘ i d c i , . 1-4.
104 Ma i Wigh , ‘Wh I The e N I e a i al The ?’, i He be B e field a d Ma i Wigh
(ed .), Di l a ic I e iga i (L d , 1967).
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Ada S i h a d libe al adi i 25
bjec . I addi i , he e i Vi e ‘ c e ha ‘T ace f e e c cei able
f d c i e a e be f d i ha ca h lic b k, a d a ec i ha e
ec lia he ie i deed h ca e f The Weal h f Na i
hi ecial e .’105 H e e , hi i ca be e agge a ed, a d ha i
ea abl clea i he c ide able di e ge ce be ee S i h’ hi ki g ab
i e a i al ela i a d he h gh f c e a a d la e libe al i e
a i ali i h h he i c l a cia ed. A e ha e ee , f S i h he e
i a al ha f i e e be ee a i . N i he e de c
i e a i al c flic ece a il a eli a ed f hi b he i e f e ible
g e e a d f c e ce; i deed, S i h gge ha i i a e ec he
i e f c e ce ca e ace ba e c flic . Fi all , S i h i ce ical c ce i g he
ibili f ef i g he i i i f i e a i al cie le e c flic ,
efe i g i ead f c he e i e e f a ade a e e f a i al
defe ce, a d el i g l i a el he bala ce f e i il al e ec
be ee a e . A Wi ch a d he ha e h , hile i i ible a d i deed
e i g jec i e ee h-ce i age back i S i h’ k , d
d e c ide able i j ice hi a ic la a d c le f f li ical
ce ici .
Thi e a ha a e ed h ha hi i al e f S i h’ h gh
c ce i g i e a i al ela i . I i i e e i g ha i hi a ea he e i
ig ifica di j c e be ee The Weal h f Na i a d The The f M al
Se i e : S i h’ eali e ade hi di c i i e a i al ela i i all
hi aj k .106 Thi i al e f hi c e de ce, hich e eal he a e
ag a i a d i e ide i The Weal h f Na i . S i h’ le e e eal ha
he a i e el i e e ed i he affai f hi da , b i h he i a e ce i
f hi le e he c flic i A e ica, he a e di a i i gl de id f
ig ifica addi i al eflec i i e a i al affai .
I i i a ec g i e ha S i h’ aj k e e i e be ee he
1750 a d 1770 . Al h gh The Weal h f Na i , fi bli hed i 1776, e
h gh fi e edi i i hi life i e, he hi d edi i , beg i 1783 a d bli hed
i N e be 1784, a he la i hich b a i e cha ge e e ade b he
a h .107 Th e i i g f S i h’ ha ha e c e d eda e a e f l
ge i ha Ma i Ceadel e ‘ eace e i e ‘ i B i ai i he 1780 , a d
he bi h f he eace e e d e he F e ch a f 1795.108 S i h, he ,
i a a i i al hi ke ca gh be ee he fa ali ic a i f he ea l
eigh ee h ce a d he i i f he la e eigh ee h a d he i e ee h
ce , he e i d e ha e c e a cia e i h ‘ he libe al adi i ‘ i i e
a i al ela i .
S i h i a d c f hi i e, b hi a i i al a all hi a ce ai
de ach e f i e a i al affai hich beca e i ible f la e i e .
F he e, hi h gh i e a i al ela i i g ded i hi c le ie
105 Vi e , ‘S i h a d Lai e Fai e’, . 221.
106 F a di c i f he l g-deba ed ‘Ada S i h ble ‘ c ce i g he ed i c i e c
f WN a d TMS, ee edi ‘ i d c i , TMS, . 20-5.
107 See edi ‘ e ‘The Te a d A a a ‘, WN, 61-6. M e e , he e cha ge d ela e
he ai a age i e a i al ela i .
108 See Ma i Ceadel, The Bi h f he Peace M e e : F Fa ali a Pacific The f
I e a i al Rela i i B i ai , 1730-1854 (f hc i g, O f d, 1996).
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26 A d e W a -Wal e
f h a a e. The i ha e le a e e elf-i d lge ce a d i
e ce i f hei i e e , b a e i he e d cial bei g i h a a i f
he a ba i f he a d i h e ca aci f a h a d be e le
i agi a i i c cial. S ch a hie c ic l fail e e d be d a i al
b de , a d e e e e i e i e a i al c e ce (le al e de c ac )
i e deli e h a cie f he fla d e i e a i al a a ch .
While S i h i c ce ed e abli h he be efi ci ili a i a d le ce
b gh b libe a d edic abili i he d e ic eal , he i ela i el
c ce ed i h he ble f c ai i g he e e ci e f a bi a e i
i e a i al affai , hich f Michael S i h i he defi i g cha ac e i ic f he
libe al adi i i i e a i al ela i .109
I igh e e be aid ha he e i a hi f c lace c i hi ie f a a a
e e – e e eali hich e i e he ci i e be ed ca ed i he e blica
a ial i e , a d a be f cca i he i lie ha he bad lic f he
e ca ili i a lea a de c i e f h a ad a ce e a d e i a a .
Pe ha if he had li ed h gh he Na le ic a , a a f hi e aged
cce did, he ld ha e hif ed hi e ha i e ha . S ch c lace c
a al ha e bee d e i a S i h’ ‘ a i al e ec i e’; i The Weal h f
Na i , he a ab e all eachi g B i i h legi la ef hei ac ice
a d i i i , a d B i ai a he d i a ec ic a d li ical e ,
ela i el i e he di de f he E ea c i e . H e e , he ca
ha dl be acc ed f e ce i e a iali i hi k , hich a e a ked a he b
hei h a i a d he ac e e f e ce i f h a f ail , a d h i igh
be e acc a e h ld he c a i i h R ea ‘ de ai ab g e
i i e a i al ela i .
O he e i f S i h’ e ibili f he i e i h e f he li ical
i he ‘ li ical ec ‘ f he i e ee h ce a d be d, he c cl i
be a a big e, h gh he e i li le e i i hi a h ‘ i d ha
S i h a e i ed agai ha i i g i hi ega d. S i h d b edl ga e
a a alleled b he bjec f ec ic (a i e e all ca e be
k ) i idi g a e f l e a h f a elf- de i g e , hich ca ed
he i agi a i f h e ha ca e af e , ab e all he e a al ical i d f
Da id Rica d . Thi e a h ca e i i e ee h-ce B i ai de i he
d c i e f f ee ade a d he i i ali a e, i e de i i g i a f he
c i cide ce i h B i i h a i al i e e hich S i h hi elf did ch el ci
da e. The e a e al ce ai l cca i hich S i h cha ac e i e ec ic
f ce a e gi g he all- e f l. I hi c i i e f Q e a ‘ ‘e ac egi e f
e fec libe a d e fec j ice’, S i h chide hi f faili g
ha e c ide ed ha i he li ical b d , he a al eff hich e e a i
c i all aki g be e hi c di i , i a i ci le f e e a i ca able f
e e i g a d c ec i g, i a e ec , he bad effec f a li ical ec .. .
[ hich] h gh i d b e a d e le , i al a ca able f i g al ge he
he a al g e f a a i a d eal h a d e i , a d ill le f aki g i g
back a d . If a a i c ld e i h he e j e f e fec libe a d
109 Michael J e h S i h, ‘Libe ali a d I e a i al Ref ‘, i Te Na di a d Da id R. Ma el
(ed .), T adi i f I e a i al E hic (Ca b idge, 1992), . 202.
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Ada S i h a d libe al adi i 27
e fec j ice, he e i i he ld a a i hich c ld e e ha e e ed. I he
li ical b d , h e e , he i d f a e ha f a el ade a le i i f
e ed i g a f he bad effec f he f ll a d i j ice f a ; i he a e a e a
i ha d e i he a al b d , f e ed i g h e f hi l h a d i e e a ce.110
H e e , hi fai h i he e cef l e f i di id al a d a ke i ed
agai he f ll f g e e d e b i g S i h e e cl e he ideali f
a la e libe al a d adical . F i e ch a Be ha , he Mill , C bde a d
A gel?, he g e i e Zei gei f hi a i di id al elf-i e e , b e
hich a e f l ha i c ld e c e he a i f e le a d di lace
li ic al e i el .111 Si ce ec ic b d be ee e le e e di laci g
he ki d f cial b d , a i ali cea ed be i a a d he bala ce f
e a e e f ll (i C bde ‘ d ) ‘a chi e a’. F he i e ee h
ce e ec i e, a c lla f hi a ha a i d g ad all di laced
ag ic l e a d e i a he ba i f a i al e , a beca e he
i a i al f h a e dea . Fi all , he di lace e f he fe dal eli e a a
f he ce f he c e cial e l i ld g ad all b i g g e e
ac i he i e e f he c e le.
Albe Hi ch a ‘ ie ha he e i lace i The Weal h f Na i f
-ec ic d i e h a beha i i g.112 I a eci el S i h’
c i e ef al e e ha h a i a i c ld be ed ced e e
ec ic elf-i e e ha e e ed hi f cc bi g he li ical ai e
hich ha f e lag ed libe al h gh , a ic la l libe al ec ic h gh , i ce
he e. He igh ell ha e f d e ag ee e i h he e eac i a
Th a Ca l le, h c i ici ed i 1843 ‘ ha b i h g d-f ge i g P fi -a d-L
Phil h ‘ i h i e de c ed ce all cial b d be ee e le e e
‘ca h- e ‘.113 E e , Ge ge S igle , a ed Chicag ec i , c i ici e S i h
f faili g a l he a i f elf-i e e ed beha i he li ical eal :
‘D e calc la e i e i h l gic a d e, b calc la e i e i h
c f i a d a ce?’ S igle g e a e he e i : ‘ clea di i c i
ca be d a be ee c e cial a d li ical de aki g : he c i g f
fa able legi la i i a c e cial de aki g’.114
Thi c i ici i al fai , i ce elf-i e e (a ell a a i ) la a
i a le i S i h’ a al i f li ic . F he e, i a S i h’ i
ed ce li ical, f ha a e ec ic, beha i he e b k h
ec ic f la e ge e a i ; he c e a g e f ‘ec ic he ie f
li ic ‘ ld ha e bee alie hi .115 The a al ical ‘cla ifica i ‘ f S i h’
del, hich cc ied ec i f a ce e af e he blica i f
The Weal h f Na i , l he e e f hi , f he ic a d i , a d ab e all
110 WN, IV.i .28.
111 F a acc f he a li ici f ch libe al h gh , ee Sheld S. W li , P li ic a d
Vi i : C i i a d I a i i We e P li ical Th gh (L d , 1961), . 299ff.
112 Hi ch a , Pa i a d I e e , . 107-13.
113 Q ed b Albe O. Hi ch a , ‘I e e ‘, i The Ne Palg a e: The W ld f Ec ic , ed.
J h Ea ell, M a Milga e a d Pe e Ne a (L d a d Ba i g ke, 1991), . 355.
114 Ge ge J. S igle , ‘S i h’ T a el he Shi f S a e’, i Ski e a d Wil , E a , . 237-8.
See he e e e ded c i i e f S igle i Wi ch, Ada S i h’ P li ic , . 165-72.
115 I TMS, VH.iii.I, S i h fi l ejec he idea ha al he c ld be ba ed e i el
i di id al ‘ elf-l e’.
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28 A d e W a -Wal e
f he c le i f h a a e ha i e e i S i h’ hi ki g. I he
ce , he e ec i e a cia ed f e i h S i h’ a e, libe al i e a i al
i , al l ha hich i ef l i S i h’ h gh f c e a ch la f
i e a i al ela i a d li ical ec . F he i a ce f S i h’ hi k
i g, a ic la l ha ab li ical ec , i ha a ce al le f he ec ic
i h a affai eed a gi ali e he i a ce f i i i i iali e
he li ical.
Thi b i g c cl de he e i f S i h’ ela i he libe al
adi i i i e a i al ela i , i ce he e a e a c e a libe al
he i h ld ha e hi ‘ eali ‘ a be f a e .116 The e ca be
d b ha S i h i a i a if a i i al fig e i he libe al adi i
c cei ed b adl , h gh f he ideali e-1914 a f ha adi i i h
hich he i f e a cia ed. Wi h a libe al , S i h ha e a belief i he
e f l effec f ec ic g e h gh he a ke , he a i hich h a
ea ca be a lied he i e f i i i al ef , a d he eed c ai
e bea i g g e e a d e f l i e e g .
Ye hi belief i g e a he i e a i al le el i e a he lea , a d
hi ce ici ega di g he likel cce f hi gge ed ef i dee . Hi
e ha i he f da e al i ec i f a e d e c al fac a d
h a a e gge ha he c ld be ee a a b idge be ee ec ic
libe ali a d he eali a d e ca ili adi i f h gh i bjec .
Al e a i el , a d e ha e a i f i gl , e gh acce ha adi i f
h gh i i e a i al ela i a e ei he a e igh all e cl i e. The
ich e f S i h’ h gh ch i e h ld be i e e ed a a i dica i f
he ich e f he libe al adi i i elf (a d, e ecificall , f ‘c e cial
libe ali ‘). S i h i ef e hi g ab e all beca e hi h gh de a e ha a
he f ‘ a al libe ‘ c ld e a icall a id he ia i i e a i al
affai hich c i ic ch a Ca a d Wal ha e a g ed a a a d a cel f he
libe al adi i a d i ce al eak e .
116 See Zache a d Ma he , ‘Libe al I e a i al The ‘, . 120?T.
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