Discussion Thread
The assignment for this module will ask you to demonstrate higher-order thinking as it applies to adult learning theory. Please do the following presented in a complete narrative posted to the Discussion. Draw appropriately from the class sources and use appropriate APA citations. Use headings to organize your main points. The overall purpose here is to think critically about the elements of adult learning. You will notice from the following that you integrate elements of application, analysis, synthesis, evaluation, and creation.
Instructions
- After reviewing the chapters on theories of adult learning (Merriam and Baumgartner chapters 5 and 16), and this module’s readings on self-directed learning, experience, adult development, and brain/memory/cognitive, judge what you conclude to be the most important concepts from each of those topics—make sure to address each of the concepts listed. Why do you come to that conclusion—that is provide valid rationale?
- You were introduced to some enduring theories of adult learning. If you were constructing a theory of adult learning, what would you change, add or delete? Determining how adults learn, how would you design the perfect theory of how adults learn?
- Of the elements of adult learning theory presented in the readings, do you identify any underlying themes? What are the similarities and differences between the different elements? Of the elements of adult learning under our control (we can’t change much about brain changes, for instance) what advice would you give to make adult learning the richest experience?
- Project to your own teaching demonstration and explain how you will apply elements of adult learning to that teaching demonstration.-My Teaching Demonstration is Sexual Abuse.
EDCO 725
Discussion Grading Rubric
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Criteria |
Levels of Achievement |
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Content |
Advanced |
Proficient |
Developing |
Below Expectations |
Not present |
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81 to 88 Points Student meets the basic assignment requirements mentioned in the “Proficient” column but does so with exceptional clarity, detail, and insight. |
73 to 80 Points Student adequately addresses each element of the discussion question, providing doctoral level analysis and evaluation, and broad support from the class sources which indicates a sufficient grasp of course content. |
67 to 72 Points Points made by the student show some limits in understanding of material. |
1 to 66 Points Requirements listed in the “proficient” column are significantly lacking at the doctoral level. |
0 points Not Present |
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Replies |
23 to 25 Points Student meets the criteria for “proficient” performance but does so in a way that demonstrates exceptional insight and understanding of the content. Student demonstrates clear understanding of classmates’ points of view including possible omissions or weaknesses in arguments and adds insight as appropriate. Student provides broad support for arguments in response to other student’s post. |
21 to 22 Points Student follows the professor’s direction for replies to students found in the discussion instructions and offers meaningful points, adds related ideas, critiques other students’ comments, disagrees appropriately, or asks probing questions |
19 to 20 Points Student primarily “agrees” with other students in a way that adds little to the discussion or challenges thought. Student demonstrates only a perfunctory understanding of other students’ posts. |
1 to 18 Points Student’s responses to classmates are missing key requirements. |
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Structure |
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Writing, Formatting, and Citations |
12 Points Student writing is exceptionally clear, persuasive and error free. Ideas are fully supported and correctly cited in current APA format. |
11 Points Ideas are adequately presented; sentences are correctly constructed, and paragraphs organized are consistent with doctoral level writing. Writing is largely free of grammar, punctuation, and other writing errors. Contains any appropriate citations and references and correctly cited in current APA format. |
10 Points Student’s writing deviates from the requirements in the “proficient” column in several ways. |
1 to 9 Points Student’s writing deviates from the requirements in the “proficient” column in numerous ways. |
Page 2 of 2
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The rationale for writing on this topic area came about from my experience
with teaching adults on a variety of evening programmes. Students from a
variety of backgrounds tend to enrol on business type courses that are accred-
ited by the Institute of Commercial Management and Institute of Public
Administration. In some cases, the students in these courses left education
at a young age, often before they had completed secondary education, often
due to not being comfortable with the teaching style that was adopted by the
teacher in the classroom. Students felt that the teaching style did not promote
learning in the classroom and that students were not allowed to question the
material discussed in the classroom. When these students enrolled in evening
programmes they were often surprised that they were allowed to contribute
to discussions in relation to a variety of topics. The difference in the teaching
style often encouraged students to further their education and to participate in
more courses at a later stage.
While there may be similarities between adults and children in how they learn
(such as language, interaction and communication), many writers argue that
adult learners are different from child learners in a number of ways. The aim
of this article is to review how adults learn through examining one particular
theory of adult learning.
Adult learners need to know why they are learning new knowledge before they
are willing to participate. In the context of evening courses such as those focus-
ing on business subjects, employers seek to convince adult learners to partic-
ipate in a course by emphasising the benefits of acquiring a qualification or
learning new skills. This can be evidenced in situations where adults partici-
Reviewing the Evidence on How Adult
Students Learn: An Examination of
Knowles’ Model of Andragogy
valer ie mcg rath
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pate in courses that focus on management, marketing and accounting skills.
Students are encouraged to incorporate what they learn in the classroom into
their everyday work lives via a work-based project. If adults are aware why they
are learning new skills, there will be a ‘readiness’ to learn and they will be more
willing to participate in discussions in the classroom or learning context. Adult
learners who have been given a ‘second chance’ at education might be more
motivated to learn than children or secondary school students because they
will be able to draw a connection between the material that is discussed in the
classroom and what is happening in their own lives. Unlike children, adults
tend to take responsibility for their own learning and they do not want to be
directed by the lecturer during class.
Two conflicting learning theories, known as andragogy and pedagogy, have
a particular relevance to the adult educator. The pedagogical theory assumes
that the student will simply learn what they have been told. Some people would
associate pedagogy solely with children, but surprisingly it can also be associ-
ated with adult learning. The majority of today’s adult learners were exposed
to classroom learning in previous educational experiences that promoted
pedagogical practices. As a result of this experience adults may be unwilling
to participate in an adult education type course later in life as they have the
perception that the same style of teaching and learning is still in existence in
today’s adult classroom.
Of course in certain circumstances students come to a course without having
any background knowledge of the field of study. For example, if a person was
to attend an accounting course with no background knowledge of the area,
the lecturer would have to use the pedagogical approach in which they would
explain the basics of accounting to the student. As the course progresses, the
student is asked to apply examples from their own interest or field of practice
to the course so they can create a link between their own experience and the
course material. However, by adopting this strategy it is very difficult to change
direction and encourage the student away from being dependent to being inde-
pendent learners because once the student is comfortable with the style that is
being used in the classroom, they might fear a change in style of teaching.
Even though Knowles was a keen advocate of the theory of andragogy he noted
that ‘pedagogical strategy is appropriate at least as a starting point (when
learners are indeed dependent) when entering a totally strange content area’
(Knowles, 1998, p. 70). In a sense it is contradictory to what he said previously,
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but in reality lecturers in many instances use a pedagogical style of teaching at
the start of a course in order to ensure that students gain an understanding of a
topic that they may not be very familiar with. However, pedagogy is not with-
out its criticism.
Knowles et al (1998, p.61) stated that pedagogy is based on the following
assumptions:
• Firstly, students only need to learn what the teacher teaches them.
Students need only learn material that will be used to answer questions
during an exam.
• Secondly, the pedagogical theory of learning implies that the adult learn-
ers experience is not necessary for learning so adults who have no expe-
rience in an area can gain entry onto a course and learn a new skill. For
example, institutions that have courses in computers for beginners often
state that it is not necessary for students to have previous experience to
attend classes.
• Thirdly, according to Knowles et al (1998, p. 63), the ‘teachers concept of
the learner is that of a dependent personality.’ This is true in the case of
students who have no knowledge in a particular area and therefore they
have to depend solely on the teacher to learn the basics.
They assumed that the teacher’s job was to fill the students minds with their
own information and the students were not encouraged to question what they
were being taught.
The majority of today’s adult learners were exposed to classroom learning in
previous educational experiences that promoted pedagogical practices. Of
course in certain circumstances students come to a course without having
any background knowledge of the area. For example, if a person was to attend
an accounting course with no background knowledge of the area, the lectur-
er would have to use the pedagogical approach in which they would explain
the basics of accounting to the student. As the course progresses the student is
asked to apply examples from their own background to the course so they can
create a link between their own experience and the course material.
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One learning theory that has attempted to overcome some of the negative
aspects of pedagogy is a theory that was introduced by Malcolm Knowles
known as andragogy. Andragogy according to Henschke (1998:8) can be
defined as ‘a scientific discipline that studies everything related to learning and
teaching which would bring adults to their full degree of humaneness.’ This
theory tried to identify how adult learners learn and how to involve them in the
learning process ‘to free them from the oppression of pedagogy.’ Unlike peda-
gogy, andragogy is centered on the idea that the lecturer does not posses all the
knowledge and that students are encouraged to participate in the classroom by
utilising their own experiences.
‘Adult education is quite distinctive in its approach in that it aims to do sub-
stantially more than simply impart information to participants’ (Connolly,
1996, pp. 38-39). The lecturer should act as a facilitator in the learning process.
This can be achieved by asking students questions that they can relate to their
workplace. For example, once students are taught the basic principle of a sub-
ject, they could be asked to apply those principles via a work-based project to
their company. This will enable them to understand how the theory they have
spoken about in class relates to a real life situation. The lecturer can manage
this by asking students relevant questions pertaining to their workplace, which
will require the student to think about what happens in their organisation on
a day-to-day basis. This is further supported in research carried out by Laird
(1998, p. 126) who stated that ‘the andragogic model holds the view that the
instructor should guide and not manage the content, which is the traditional
approach in pedagogy.’
Andragogy might be classed under the category of cognitive theories in that
adults are allowed to analyse the material given to them in the classroom and
they learn to make connections between the material and their own life expe-
riences. In contrast pedagogy is associated with the behaviourist stream of
learning where the student takes for granted what is being said to them and
they learn it word for word so that they can receive positive feedback from
their lecturers. Laird (1998, p. 125) stated that lecturers who adopt the andra-
gogical theory of learning will ‘use more questions because adults do know a
great deal.’
Andragogy is based on five key areas. Firstly, there is the issue that adults need
to be made aware of the reason why they have to learn certain material. Knowles
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has stated that it is important that students are informed of the benefits of cov-
ering this material and how it will benefit them when the course is finished.
It is imperative that students are furnished with the learning objectives when
they start their course (Knowles et al 1998, p. 63). For the majority of evening
courses students are given the course outline and objectives of the course when
they enrol in the course.
The second area is the learner’s concept of himself or herself. If the learner
is very self confident and what Maslow describes as having high self-esteem
needs, then the lecturer has to ensure that they allow the student to discuss or
present their views during the class session. If the lecturer starts out using a
pedagogical method of teaching and encourages the student to become depen-
dent on them for knowledge and then they are in essence creating a dependent
student who will have low self-esteem, which will ensure that the student never
questions what the lecturer says in class.
Thirdly, andragogy is based on is the experience of the learner and the role that
it plays in the classroom. Andragogy assumes that the student has a bank of
experience accumulated over their lifetime and that they would like to apply
this ‘experience’ in the classroom so that they can understand the material
that is being discussed in the session. Unlike pedagogy, andragogical learners
resent having a lecturer’s ideas forced upon them and as stated by Knowles, et
al. (1998, p. 65), ‘adults resent and resist situations in which they feel others are
imposing their will on them.’ Therefore, they want to be responsible for their
own learning. The andragogical model states that adults need to be able to use
their experience in the classroom if they want to learn.
Lecturers should encourage the promotion of dialogue in the adult classroom.
The use of dialogue in the classroom aids the students’ understanding of the
material discussed in the class (Quilty, 2003, p. 63). Dialogue can be encour-
aged through the use of group work, where students are placed in groups and
given scenarios or class studies that are relevant to the student’s experience.
This may also encourage the quieter students in the classroom to participate in
the learning process and to air their views through the group.
Fourthly, students want to learn. Motivation plays an important part in adult
learning, firstly, in that if students are not motivated to learn they may not par-
ticipate in the classroom and therefore may leave the course. Secondly, as men-
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tioned in the previous point, adult students may be more motivated to learn
if the concept of groups were prompted by the lecturer. Maslow stated in his
theory of motivation that people have a need to feel that they belong. Students
are more motivated if they feel that they belong in the adult classroom and for
most adult students they like to belong to a group that they can discuss both
academic and personal issues.
Andragogy states that adults are motivated by both internal and external fac-
tors. Lecturers have to recognise that by praising and building on the self-
esteem of students as it motivates them to learn. Tough found that ‘motivation
is frequently blocked by barriers such as negative self concept and time con-
straints’ (cited in Knowles, 1994, p. 68). While adult learners may respond to
external motivators such as bonuses from their employers when they attain a
certain grade, it is the internal priorities that are more important to the learner.
Fifthly, for andragogy to work effectively in the classroom the lecturer must
promote a climate which provides a safe environment for the student. Abraham
Maslow stated that students, especially those with low self-esteem, need to have
a safe environment if they are participate in the learning experience (Knowles,
1994, p. 14). In the instance where students are encourage to discuss examples,
they are praised for their contribution and not mocked by either the lecturer or
other students for their views on a particular issue. Students could be further
motivated in the classroom if they are allowed to participate in the planning of
the syllabi for the course.
However, in reality, the majority of syllabi are designed by educational institu-
tions or other accreditation bodies such as FETAC or HETAC, which result in
both lecturer and student having very little input in what should be included
in the syllabi for the course. However, it should be remembered that whether
an institution or an accreditation body designs the syllabi students will learn
more effectively if they can apply their experience to the subject matter being
discussed in the session. Adults will learn material if it is presented in a way
that relates to real life situations. Lecturers who use the andragogical method
of learning should therefore consider using case studies or histories in class so
that students can apply the ‘theory’ to a practical situation.
Knowles (1980, p. 54) held the view that adults ‘tend to be problem centered
in their orientation.’ This is something that lecturers or facilitators need to
take into account when they are planning their classes, as they have to allow
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for problem solving as well as interaction with the student. Some adult stu-
dents prefer to be problem centered but others want the lecturer to lead them
through the course, therefore problems arise when adults suddenly find them-
selves in a situation that they have to think for themselves and participate in
the class. Rogers (1989, p. 3) stated that when teaching (adults) the custom-
er, not the subject, should comes first and is always right and the customer is
the learner. This is often forgotten by colleges who see students as a financial
gain and sometimes they are unaware of the method of teaching used by their
lecturers in the adult classroom. Therefore, it is imperative that educational
institutions should distribute a questionnaire at the end of a course to enable
students to air their views on how the lecturer has performed on the course.
Educational institutions such as the National College of Ireland ask students
to complete questionnaires after each module on their front line supervisory
management course.
Andragogy as with many theories is not without fault. Some adult educators
are questioning whether it is really a theory. Hartee (1984, p. 205) suggested
that Knowles was really presenting guidelines for ‘what the adult learner should
be like’ in the classroom but it was not really a tried and tested theory of learn-
ing. Even Knowles (1989, p. 112) came to the conclusion that ‘andragogy is less
a theory of adult learning than a model of assumptions about learning or a
conceptual framework that serves as a basis for an emergent theory.’ Indicating
that it is a ‘conceptual framework’, suggests that there are weaknesses with the
model and that is it not academically viewed as a theory of adult learning.
Pratt (1993, p. 21) questioned whether andragogy could be classed as a theory
of learning. He has admitted that it has helped adult educators understand how
adults learn but in reality if andragogy was analysed more closely ‘it has done
little to expand or clarify our understanding of the process of learning nor has
it achieved the status of a theory of adult learning’ (Pratt, 1993, p. 21).
When Knowles designed this model of adult learning he assumed a number
of factors such as students’ desire to participate and learn. However, in real-
ity lecturers are aware that this is not always the case. For instance, employers
often send employees on training courses just to say that they are developing
and training their students but in the majority of cases they do not investi-
gate whether courses are suitable or of interest to students. As a result students
attend classes that they have no interest in and since most courses are funded
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by employees on condition the student passes the course, they are also forced to
study for exams that they do not really want to sit.
Lack of interest may also indicate that the student will experience a lack of
motivation. Knowles (1994, p. 14) acknowledged that ‘adults tend to be more
motivated to learning that helps them solve problems in their lives.’ However,
students who are forced by their employers to attend courses that have little or
no relevance to what they are doing in the workplace, will feel that what is being
discussed in class is not going to help them perform better in the workplace.
Therefore these students often attend courses with little or no motivation.
Knowles’ theory of andragogy is very much based on the fact that students
want to participate in the classroom and in order to participate they must be
motivated. However, according to Tough ‘motivation is frequently blocked by
barriers such as negative self concept and time constraints’ (cited in Knowles,
1994, p. 68). Adults have often experienced negative events during their previ-
ous education and as a result they come to adult classes with low self-esteem.
Rosenstock stated that ‘adult education required special teachers, special meth-
ods and a special philosophy’ (Knowles et al, 1998, p. 59).
Therefore, the theory of andragogy cannot work in the classroom if the lectur-
er is un-sympathetic to the fact that students may have low self-esteem and if
they target them with questions that they may not be able to answer in front of
the class. As a result, students may feel very uncomfortable and choose to leave
the course rather than sit in the classroom with other students who think that
they do not have the intellectual capacity to be in the course.
Another major factor associated with motivation is that fact that mature stu-
dents, unlike children, teenagers and young adults, have time pressures such as
family and full time jobs that often prevent them from attending classes. Often
these pressures become so great that they are forced to leave a course and fail
to return to education because they feel that they will not be able to finish the
course the next time. Grace (1996, p. 386) acknowledged the fact that ‘Knowles
never considered the organisation and social impediments to adult learning;
he never painted the big picture.’ This would indicate that Knowles never real-
ly considered the constraints on the mature student in a social sense such as
barriers to gaining entry into courses and family life. In Ireland those who are
considered socially disadvantaged such as travellers, single parents and on low
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incomes are often excluded from joining courses that require a fee to be paid.
Knowles concept of andragogy is coupled with the idea that adults are ‘autono-
mous, free and growth orientated’ (Rodgers, 2000, p. 13). He stated that stu-
dents should be allowed to use their past experiences to participate in the
classroom. However, Quilty drew attention to the fact that Dewey stated that
while ‘there are experiences in adult education that are worthwhile there are
those that are not’ (Quilty, 2003, p. 62).
Some students may not be ready for their beliefs to be challenged and as a result
they may feel threatened and not participate in future classes or their past expe-
riences may hinder any new learning because they cannot accept that their pre-
vious beliefs are wrong. Knowles was not aware of the fact that some adults that
attend night courses are what we term ‘young adults.’ These students are aged
eighteen to twenty-five; they may not have accumulated sufficient knowledge
to participate in class debates. In some instances these students may feel iso-
lated in that they cannot take part in a class debate if they do not have the same
experience as other students in the classroom. This may result in the student
‘switching off ’ and becoming bored in the classroom, which in turn may lead to
the student leaving the course early.
Knowles vision of andragogy presents the individual learner as one who is
autonomous, free and growth oriented. However, Grace (1996, p. 383) and var-
ious other critics have argued the point that there is little evidence that states
that adult students are influenced by their society and history and that in real-
ity the educational establishment and awarding bodies set down standards of
learning regardless of whether the student has certain life experiences or not.
In theory it could be argued that the andragogical model would be the most
suitable for the adult learner, but it fails to take into account that at times lec-
turers have time pressures to which they must adhere. If they were to allow
students to discuss material at length they may not be able to cover the course
in the allocated time, as they may have to deprive students of certain modules
on the course. For instance, in some of the business courses, students have to
study two modules each night for two nights a week probably over a period
of twenty-four weeks. If it is a three-hour course it means that each module is
allocated only one and a half hours, which does not allow the lecturer to discuss
material in great depth.
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Lecturers, especially in colleges where students pay for their courses, are likely
to be under pressure to achieve certain grades at the end of the course. In some
of the private second level institutions the grades that students achieve for
their Leaving Certificate are advertised so as to attract students to the college.
Similarly, there are instances where private third level colleges are now promot-
ing the fact that students have achieved certain awards by external awarding
bodies such as ACCA as a way of attracting students. This may place added
pressure on lecturers to ensure that students achieve similar results. As a result,
lecturers may revert to pedagogical practices to try and ensure high grades.
However, there are some lecturers who take the theory of andragogy to the
extreme in that they are aware that mature students may be anxious and may
have low self-esteem and with that in mind they adopt an extremely empa-
thetic manner that often results in no learning in the classroom because the
lecturer is afraid to challenge the student in case it would damage their self-
esteem (Rodgers, 2000, p. 15).
Even though andragogy has numerous faults, Houle (1996, p. 29-30) was of
the opinion that andragogy is the ‘most learner centered of all patterns of adult
education programmes.’ Over the past two decades it has drawn adult educa-
tors’ attention to the fact that they ‘should involve learners in as many aspects
of their education as possible and in the creation of a climate in which both
they and the students can fruitfully learn’ (Houle, 1996, p. 30). It has given adult
educators the option of using an alternative style in the classroom.
By using the andragogical method they can encourage students to return to
education and by allowing them to participate they are treating them like
equals and the student is no longer dependent on them for learning as they
would have been when they were children in primary and secondary school.
This is very evident in the writings of Pratt who has stated that ‘andragogy has
been adopted by legions of adult educators around the world’ (1993, p. 21). He
was also of the opinion that in the majority of cases it is the starting point to
which educators look when they start to teach adults.
Which theory is the most relevant for the adult learning in the classroom? Most
teachers teach the way they learn. The majority of adult educators were taught
using the pedagogical style during primary and secondary schooling and in
the majority of cases their third level education was very much centered on a
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lecturer again using the pedagogical style of teaching. As a result of this many
adult educators are more inclined to use ‘what worked with them’ (Brown,
2003, p. 1). It is imperative therefore that they are aware of the theories that are
associated with adult learning and it would make sense that all adult educators
should be educated ABOUT adult learning principles in some shape or form.
Crews and McCannon stated than once the adult educator is aware of the theo-
ries associated with adult learning principles they may implement these in the
classroom making it a better learning environment for the adult student (cited
in Brown, 2003).
Knowles stated that it is the ‘job of the adult educators to move adult students
away from their old learning and into new patterns of learning where they
become self directed taking responsibility for their own learning and the direc-
tion it takes’ (Knowles et al, 1998, pp. 66-69).
The question that adult educators must ask themselves is, should they allow
students to participate during the lesson on a continuous basis or do they
allow it when it suits them? It is important that educators are aware of what
the adult student truly wants from their educational experience. It is impera-
tive that adults returning to education encounter positive experiences that will
encourage them to further their education. Lecturers must be aware that what-
ever learning styles and teaching methods are used in the adult classroom that
adult education ‘began with the basic education needs of learners. The learning
needs of the adult have to remain centre stage otherwise we will have lost our
way’ (Vaughan, 2004).
Andragogy in essence aims to look at how learning in the classroom can be
made more attractive for adult students. Therefore, it is imperative that lectur-
ers/tutors are aware of the fact that adult needs are very different to the needs
of children in relation to classroom learning. Thereby, the teaching style that is
adopted in the adult classroom should be the focus of attention for educational
institutions, and this should be monitored to ensure that adult students enjoy
the educational experience.
Valerie McGrath has worked as a lecturer in the University of Limerick, Limerick
Institute of Technology and the National College of Ireland. She is also a voluntary lit-
eracy tutor.
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References
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Jossey-Bass.
Brown, B.L. (2003). Teaching Style Versus Learning Style (Myths and Realities No.26).
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Connolly, B. (1996). Community development and adult education: Prospects for
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Hartee, A. (1984). Malcolm Knowles’ Theory of Andragogy: A critique. International
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Knowles. M. (1989). The Making of an Adult Educator. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
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Laird, D. (1998). Approaches to Training and Development. 2nd edition, Reading, MA:
Addison-Wesley.
Pratt, D.D. (1993). Andragogy after Twenty-Five Years. In S.B. Merriam (ed), Update on
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Quilty, A. (2003). Towards a pedagogy of demystification. The Adult Learner, The Journal
of Adult and Community Education in Ireland, 57-66.
Rodgers, J. (2000). Adult Learning. 4th edition, Buckingham: Open University Press.
Sitt-Ghodes, W.L. (2001). Business education students’ preferred learning styles and
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Journalof College Teaching & Learning – December 2011 Volume 8, Number 12
© 2011 The Clute Institute 53
Effective Strategies
For Engaging Adult Learners
Belinda Dunnick Karge, Ph.D., California State University, Fullerton, CA, USA
Kathleen M. Phillips, Ph.D., California State University, San Bernardino, CA, USA
Tammy Jessee, Dodson Middle School, Ranchos Palos Verdes, CA, USA
Marjorie McCabe, Ph.D., California State University, San Bernardino, CA, USA
ABSTRAC
T
Innovative methods in teaching should be used in every college classroom to enhance student
engagement, support any teaching environment and encourage inquiry among learners. Adults
learn best by participation in relevant experiences and utilization of practical information. When
adult students are active in their learning they are able to develop critical thinking skills, receive
social support systems for the learning, and gain knowledge in an efficient way. The authors
highlight several exemplary strategies for adult learners including, Think-Pair-Share, Tell -Help-
Check, Give One, Get One, and the Immediate Feedback Assessment Test.
Keywords: Strategies; Engagement; Adult Learners
he average college student is used to multitasking and processing a variety of information at once.
Regardless of how one views the university classroom, the instructor is on stage from the moment
he/she steps in front of the class (Schwartz & Karge, 1996). It is critical to use proven and
innovative methods in teaching at all levels of education. Furthermore, understanding the adult learner will enhance
instruction and ultimately motivate the student. This article will highlight some of the key concepts related to adult
learning and focus on several easy to use research based effective teaching methods for college instruction.
Knowles, Holton and Swanson (2005) have extensively researched the principles of adult learning. They
coined the term, “andragogy” to signify the science of teaching adults to learn (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner,
2007). Knowles et. al. purport that adult learners have a need to know, a readiness to learn and an orientation to
learning; this combined with motivation creates a healthy environment to acquire knowledge. Adults learn best by
participation in relevant experiences and practical information. Adult learners need to be respected and valued.
Recent studies in neuroscience have validated these principles (Jensen, 2005).
The traditional faculty/student relationship must be altered to facilitate effective adult learning (Knowles,
Holton, & Swanson, 1998). The faculty members’ instructional practices influence the education goals that students
adopt. The choices that faculty make about issues – such as introducing and teaching course content, grading student
work, grouping of students, and how students are recognized for their successes – all influence the types of goals
that students adopt. In turn, these goals affect a number of important motivational outcomes.
Intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation play key roles. Students who are intrinsically motivated will
engage in an academic task to learn for the sake of learning. Students who are extrinsically motivated engage in
academic tasks in order to earn some type of reward, to avoid an externally imposed punishment, or to make a
decision based on something they desire. This can be further explored by looking at the works of Julian Rotter
(1966). Eric Schaps, founder of the Developmental Studies Center, documents “a growing body of research
confirms the benefits of building a sense of community…students with a strong sense of community are more likely
to be academically motivated’ (2003, p. 31).
When students are active in their learning they are able to develop critical thinking skills, receive social
support systems for the learning, and gain knowledge in an efficient way. Faculty must enhance traditional lecturing
T
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54 © 2011 The Clute Institute
with carefully constructed effective teaching strategies designed to enhance skills and gain content knowledge
(Feger, Woleck & Hickman, 2004).
One strategy for enhancing learning in the college classroom is Think-Pair-Share. This strategy was
developed by Lyman (1987, 1981). For example, immediately following a lecture or assigned textbook reading, the
instructor asks a question related to, describing, or interpreting something. After giving the students a few minutes to
think of an answer, have them turn to a partner and share, i.e. pair and share their response. Then ask the entire class
for volunteers who might want to share an answer.
There are many variations of this active learning technique. A favorite of many educators is Think-Write-
Pair-Share. In this scenario, students listen while the teacher poses a question, problem, concept or a task. As
indicated above, the students are given quiet time to respond to the question in writing. Students are then cued to
pair with a neighbor and discuss their responses, noting similarities and differences. It is important to give students
enough time to share their answers and how they arrived at the answers with their classmates. After rehearsing
responses with a partner, students are invited to share publicly using language for reported speech (e.g. My partner
pointed out…; My partner mentioned that…; We agreed that; We decided that…). There are many advantages to
Lyman’s technique. The personal interaction motivates students and engages the entire class. Quiet or shy students
are more likely to answer the questions or complete the task with a partner instead of having to stand in front of the
entire class. The instructor can easily assess student understanding by listening in on several groups during the
activity, and by collecting responses at the end. Fisher, Brozo, Frey and Ivey (2007) offer another variation, the
Read-Write-Pair-Share. They indicate that the strategy provides students with a scaffold experience. The student
reads a passage independently, and then composes his/her reactions in writing. These ideas are shared with a
partner. The scaffold is enhanced by the discussion and expansion of the thoughts with another classmate and they
indicate that some may feel confident once they have rehearsed it by sharing with a peer and may volunteer to share
with the entire class. They note that use of this strategy assures the instructor that everyone is engaged and using
academic vocabulary in both written and verbal form.
Tell-Help-Check (Archer & Gleason, 1994) is an excellent strategy that provides adult students
opportunities to review and confirm their understanding of critical information. Through interaction with partners,
students are able to participate, either orally or in writing, in an activity that will assist in filling in knowledge gaps
of information. First, the instructor numbers the students as 1’s and 2’s. The instructor poses a question to which
the 1’s respond. This may be done either in writing or orally. The amount of time allotted to answer the question
depends on the depth of the question. Generally one or two minutes are sufficient. Once the question has been
answered, 2’s provide help with the answer by adding information or editing existing information. Once both team
members have given input on the answer, they check the text to determine accuracy. The interactive nature of this
activity helps adult students maintain interest in the topics covered. It also offers an avenue for students to tap into
related background knowledge. This strategy provides an excellent opportunity for the instructor to assess student
knowledge of the given topic. While the teams are working on the questions, the instructor can circulate the room to
determine the level of understanding of individuals and the group as a whole. This time also provides an opportunity
for the instructor to provide feedback to individual students.
Problem-Based Learning(PBL) (Barrows &Tamblyn, 1980) presents an avenue for students to actively
engage in learning communities by solving complex, challenging problems/scenarios.By following the prescribed
steps, students collectively and creatively reach problem resolution. The PBL process utilizes the students’ prior
knowledge and experience as well as curriculum and research abilities to address problems/scenarios.
Problem Based Learning requires the instructor to facilitate rather than direct and the students to take a lead
in developing solutions to real world problems. It is a curricular approach to learning where students are encouraged
to take on the responsibility for their learning; even directing that learning process by utilizing their experience, their
research, and their collaboration. Students are provided with an “ill-structured” real life situation or problem. They
are given guidelines as to how to solve the problem while working collaboratively with peers.
The specific steps to PBL begin with the instructor introducing a problem or scenario to the class. It is
important that the instructor create the problem carefully so that students have a concept of the problem solution but
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© 2011 The Clute Institute 55
cannot simply solve the problem using only prior knowledge. The situation should be pertinent and should
challenge traditional knowledge. Using experiential knowledge along with provided factual information, students
write what they know about the problem. Once the students have all of the factual information compiled, they create
a statement of the problem. This can be refined as more details are revealed. The students then collectively decide
what further information they need in order to fully understand the problem and to begin to devise a solution. At
this point, the students should become acutely aware of the importance of the curricular information and research
potential for resolving the problem. Students engage in the necessary inquiry required to supplement the information
they already have and record any possible recommendations, solutions, actions, or hypotheses. Finally they
formulate a solution. Once the group has a consensus on a suitable solution, the students present their findings and
recommendations.
PBL engages students in active learning. They become involved in the critical analysis of a problem and
collaboratively research possible solutions while also providing input from relevant past experience and knowledge.
As the students gather the necessary factual knowledge that is required, research skills are developed and students
become self-directed learners. These skills can then be applied to other contexts and students become motivated by
seeing the relevance and applicability of what they have learned (Savory, 2006).
Think-Pair-Share, Tell-Help-Check, and Problem Based Learning are all engagement strategies designed to
ultimately expand learning. The term engagement signifies that the student is sufficiently active. Engle & Conant
(2002) remind us that evidence of productive engagement requires that the activities lead somewhere and that the
instructor document student learning. One way to do this is to give a test on the information most recently taught.
A good test should be more than just an assessment of knowledge. It should offer a meaningful learning experience.
The Immediate Feedback Assessment Test (IFAT) (Epstein, Lazarus, Calvano, Matthews, Hendel, Epstein, &
Brosvic, 2002) provides just such an experience by allowing students to immediately view the accuracy of their
responses and participate in a collective dialogue regarding the content. The IFAT protocol is simple to use for both
the instructor and the students. First, the instructor creates multiple choice questions relating to the content
knowledge the students should have acquired. Each student independently takes the multiple choice test in the
traditional manner. Once the individual has completed the test, he or she is placed into a group. The group is given
one IFAT answer sheet.
The IFAT form is similar to a Scantron form that is used with many multiple choice tests. For each
question, the students compare their answers and collectively agree on the correct choice. One student scratches off
the opaque coating corresponding to the chosen answer; if the choice is correct, a star appears in the box and the
group goes on to the next item. If the choice is incorrect, a blank space appears. The blank space signals the group
to discuss the rationale for a better answer. In this way, students engage in meaningful discussions and develop a
deeper understanding of the content. The group’s final choice is always the correct answer ensuring that each
student leaves the testing session with knowledge of the correct information.
Pedagogically, the IFAT has several advantages over traditional multiple-choice test procedures. First,
traditional multiple tests are generally graded after the student leaves, thus delaying feedback for the test items. The
IFAT is graded by the students immediately after each answer is given. Since the feedback is corrective, the student
leaves the testing situation knowing the correct answer rather wondering if s/he was right or wrong. IFAT provides
a simple and fair way for the instructor to give partial credit. Because of this, students can still earn points even if
their first choice is not accurate. Finally, students leave the testing situation already aware of their overall test score.
Epstein (2002) demonstrates that the experience of using the IFAT system increases the students’ level of
content knowledge. DeBattista, Mitterer, and Gross (2004) found that university students strongly prefer the IFAT
to the more commonly used Scantron form, with 83 per cent saying that they would like to be able to use the IFAT
in all of their courses. The likeability of IFAT was not related to student characteristics or test performance
variables. Students learn more with the system and actually prefer it to more traditional multiple choice tests.
Instructing adult learners is invigorating and challenging. The use of these strategies to enhance
engagement will support any teaching environment and encourage inquiry among learners.
Journal of College Teaching & Learning – December 2011 Volume 8, Number 12
56 © 2011 The Clute Institute
AUTHOR INFORMATION
Belinda Dunnick Karge, Ph.D. is a professor at California State University, Fullerton.
E-mail: bkarge@fullerton.edu
Kathleen Phillips, Ph.D. is a lecturer at California State University, San Bernardino.
E-mail: kathiep@csusb.edu
Tammy Jessee is a middle school teacher at Dodson Middle School in Ranchos Palos Verdes, Ca.
E-mail: tammy_jessee@yahoo.com
Marjorie McCabe, Ph.D. is a professor at California State University, SanBernardino.
E-mail: mmcabe@csusb.edu
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permission.