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Help with Board Question (No Word Count), Unit Assessment, and Unit Assignment. APA Format Throughout to Include Reference Page.

Board Question

Research the internet for information on a recent (within last five years) crane accident. What possible violations of OSHA construction standards can you identify that might have contributed to the accident? Share your information with the class. Include a link to the accident information.

***Do not use an accident already discussed by a classmate. Unfortunately, there are plenty of crane accidents that you should each be able to discuss a unique accident. ***

Unit Assignment

The instructions will appear on the first slide of the presentation. Be sure to save the presentation to your computer first in order to be able to edit the presentation and add your responses in the notes section for each slide. Once you have completed the assignment, save your changes.

Unit Assessment

QUESTION 1

In evaluating soil, if the thumb penetrates no further than the length of the thumbnail, it is probably __________.

	1.	type A soil
type B soil
type C soil
layered geological strata

QUESTION

Which of the following is NOT a specification for a limited access zone during masonry wall construction?

On the unscaffolded side of the wall

Established prior to the start of construction

Equal in width to one-half the height of the wall

Run the entire length of the wall

QUESTION 3

What is the minimum required clearance when a crane is operating in the vicinity of a 1

0-kV power line?

	10 feet
	15 feet
	20 feet
	25 feet

QUESTION

For excavations that are more than 4 feet in depth, what is maximum allowable travel distance to the nearest safe means of egress?

10 feet

15 feet

20 feet

25 feet

QUESTION 5

Hardware used in the lifting precast concrete must capable of supporting __________ times the intended load applied or transmitted.

QUESTION 6

Discuss the site evaluation steps that should be taken before starting an excavation project. Which step(s) are likely to contribute the most in preventing excavation injuries? Why?
Your response should be at least 200 words in length.

QUESTION 7

What is the purpose of conducting an engineering survey prior to a demolition project? Describe and discuss the major components of an engineering survey for the demolition of a two-story wood structure.
Your response should be at least 200 words in length.

QUESTION 8

Explain how the different types of trenching and excavation protective systems (shielding, shoring, and sloping) are selected based on construction site conditions. Also, please provide a brief description of each type of protective system in your discussion.
Your response should be at least 75 words in length.

QUESTION 9

Discuss hazards and precautions to be taken when operating a crane near power lines.
Your response should be at least 75 words in length.

3/17/20, 4:20 PMOSHA Technical Manual (OTM) | Section V: Chapter 1 – Demolition | Occupational Safety and Health Administration

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UNITED STATES
DEPARTMENT OF LABOR

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Section V: Chapter 1

Demolition

Table of Contents:

I. Preparatory Operations

II. Special Structures Demolition

III. Safe Blasting Procedures

IV. Bibliography

I. Preparatory Operations

Before the start of every demolition job, the demolition contractor should take a number of steps to safeguard the health and safety of workers at the job site.
These preparatory operations involve the overall planning of the demolition job, including the methods to be used to bring the structure down, the equipment
necessary to do the job, and the measures to be taken to perform the work safely. Planning for a demolition job is as important as actually doing the work.
Therefore, all planning work should be performed by a competent person experienced in all phases of the demolition work to be performed.

The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) in its ANSI A10.6-1983 – Safety Requirements For Demolition Operations states:

“No employee shall be permitted in any area that can be adversely affected when demolition operations are being performed. Only those employees necessary for
the performance of the operations shall be permitted in these areas.”

A. Engineering Survey

1. Prior to starting all demolition operations, OSHA Standard 29 CFR 1926.850(a) requires that an engineering survey of the structure must be conducted by a
competent person. The purpose of this survey is to determine the condition of the framing, floors, and walls so that measures can be taken, if necessary, to
prevent the premature collapse of any portion of the structure. When indicated as advisable, any adjacent structure(s) or improvements should also be
similarly checked. The demolition contractor must maintain a written copy of this survey. Photographing existing damage in neighboring structures is also
advisable.

2. The engineering survey provides the demolition contractor with the opportunity to evaluate the job in its entirety. The contractor should plan for the wrecking
of the structure, the equipment to do the work, manpower requirements, and the protection of the public. The safety of all workers on the job site should be a
prime consideration. During the preparation of the engineering survey, the contractor should plan for potential hazards such as fires, cave-ins, and injuries.

3. If the structure to be demolished has been damaged by fire, flood, explosion, or some other cause, appropriate measures, including bracing and shoring of
walls and floors, shall be taken to protect workers and any adjacent structures. It shall also be determined if any type of hazardous chemicals, gases,
explosives, flammable material, or similar dangerous substances have been used or stored on the site. If the nature of a substance cannot be easily
determined, samples should be taken and analyzed by a qualified person prior to demolition.

4. During the planning stage of the job, all safety equipment needs should be determined. The required number and type of respirators, lifelines, warning signs,
safety nets, special face and eye protection, hearing protection, and other worker protection devices outlined in this manual should be determined during the
preparation of the engineering survey. A comprehensive plan is necessary for any confined space entry.

B. Utility Location

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1. One of the most important elements of the pre-job planning is the location of all utility services. All electric, gas, water, steam, sewer, and other services lines
should be shut off, capped, or otherwise controlled, at or outside the building before demolition work is started. In each case, any utility company that is
involved should be notified in advance, and its approval or services, if necessary, shall be obtained.

2. If it is necessary to maintain any power, water, or other utilities during demolition, such lines shall be temporarily relocated as necessary and/or protected. The
location of all overhead power sources should also be determined, as they can prove especially hazardous during any machine demolition. All workers should
be informed of the location of any existing or relocated utility service.

C. Medical Services and First Aid

1. Prior to starting work, provisions should be made for prompt medical attention in case of serious injury. The nearest hospital, infirmary, clinic, or physician shall
be located as part of the engineering survey. The job supervisor should be provided with instructions for the most direct route to these facilities. Proper
equipment for prompt transportation of an injured worker, as well as a communication system to contact any necessary ambulance service, must be available
at the job site. The telephone numbers of the hospitals, physicians, or ambulances shall be conspicuously posted.

2. In the absence of an infirmary, clinic, hospital, or physician that is reasonably accessible in terms of time and distance to the work site, a person who has a
valid certificate in first aid training from the U.S. Bureau of Mines, the American Red Cross, or equivalent training should be available at the work site to render
first aid.

3. A properly stocked first aid kit as determined by an occupational physician, must be available at the job site. The first aid kit should contain approved supplies
in a weatherproof container with individual sealed packages for each type of item. It should also include rubber gloves to prevent the transfer of infectious
diseases. Provisions should also be made to provide for quick drenching or flushing of the eyes should any person be working around corrosive materials. Eye
flushing must be done with water containing no additives. The contents of the kit shall be checked before being sent out on each job and at least weekly to
ensure the expended items are replaced.

4. Police and Fire Contact. The telephone numbers of the local police, ambulance, and fire departments should be available at each job site. This information
can prove useful to the job supervisor in the event of any traffic problems, such as the movement of equipment to the job, uncontrolled fires, or other
police/fire matters. The police number may also be used to report any vandalism, unlawful entry to the job site, or accidents requiring police assistance.

D. Fire Prevention and Protection

1. A “fire plan” should be set up prior to beginning a demolition job. This plan should outline the assignments of key personnel in the event of a fire and provide
an evacuation plan for workers on the site. Common sense should be the general rule in all fire prevention planning, as follows:

All potential sources of ignition should be evaluated and the necessary corrective measures taken.
Electrical wiring and equipment for providing light, heat, or power should be installed by a competent person and inspected regularly.
Equipment powered by an internal combustion engine should be located so that the exhausts discharge well away from combustible materials and away
from workers.
When the exhausts are piped outside the building, a clearance of at least six inches should be maintained between such piping and combustible material.
All internal combustion equipment should be shut down prior to refueling. Fuel for this equipment should be stored in a safe location.
Sufficient firefighting equipment should be located near any flammable or combustible liquid storage area.
Only approved containers and portable tanks should be used for the storage and handling of flammable and combustible liquids.

2. Heating devices should be situated so that they are not likely to overturn and shall be installed in accordance with their listing, including clearance to
combustible material or equipment. Temporary heating equipment, when utilized, should be maintained by competent personnel.

3. Smoking should be prohibited at or in the vicinity of hazardous operations or materials. Where smoking is permitted, safe receptacles shall be provided for
smoking materials.

4. Roadways between and around combustible storage piles should be at least 15 feet wide and maintained free from accumulation of rubbish, equipment, or
other materials. When storing debris or combustible material inside a structure, such storage shall not obstruct or adversely affect the means of exit.

5. A suitable location at the job site should be designated and provided with plans, emergency information, and equipment, as needed. Access for heavy fire-
fighting equipment should be provided on the immediate job site at the start of the job and maintained until the job is completed.

6. Free access from the street to fire hydrants and to outside connections for standpipes, sprinklers, or other fire extinguishing equipment, whether permanent or
temporary, should be provided and maintained at all times, as follows:

Pedestrian walkways should not be so constructed as to impede access to hydrants.
No material or construction should interfere with access to hydrants, Siamese connections, or fire-extinguishing equipment.

7. A temporary or permanent water supply of volume, duration, and pressure sufficient to operate the fire-fighting equipment properly should be made available.
Standpipes with outlets should be provided on large multi story buildings to provide for fire protection on upper levels. If the water pressure is insufficient, a
pump should also be provided.

8. An ample number of fully charged portable fire extinguishers should be provided throughout the operation. All motor-driven mobile equipment should be
equipped with an approved fire extinguisher.

9. An alarm system, e.g., telephone system, siren, two-way radio, etc., shall be established in such a way that employees on the site and the local fire
department can be alerted in case of an emergency. The alarm code and reporting instructions shall be conspicuously posted and the alarm system should be
serviceable at the job site during the demolition. Fire cutoffs shall be retained in the buildings undergoing alterations or demolition until operations necessitate
their removal.

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II. Special Structures Demolition

A. Safe Work Practices When Demolishing a Chimney, Stack, Silo, or Cooling Tower

1. Inspection and Planning. When preparing to demolish any chimney, stack, silo, or cooling tower, the first step must be a careful, detailed inspection of the
structure by an experienced person. If possible, architectural/engineering drawings should be consulted. Particular attention should be paid to the condition of
the chimney or stack. Workers should be on the lookout for any structural defects such as weak or acid-laden mortar joints, and any cracks or openings. The
interior brickwork in some sections of industrial chimney shafts can be extremely weak. If stack has been banded with steel straps, these bands shall be
removed only as the work progresses from the top down. Sectioning of the chimney by water, etc. should be considered.

2. Safe Work Practice
a. When hand demolition is required, it should be carried out from a working platform.

Experienced personnel must install a self-supporting tubular scaffold, suspended platform, or knee-braced scaffolding around the chimney. Particular
attention should be paid to the design, support, and tie-in (braces) of the scaffold.
A competent person should be present at all times during the erection of the scaffold.
It is essential that there be adequate working clearance between the chimney and the work platform.
Access to the top of the scaffold should be provided by means of portable walkways.
The platforms should be decked solid and the area from the work platform to the wall should be bridged with a minimum of two-inch thick lumber.
A back rail 42 inches above the platform, with a midrail covered with canvas or mesh, should be installed around the perimeter of the platform to
prevent injury to workers below. Debris netting may be installed below the platform.
Excess canvas or plywood attachments can form a wind-sail that could collapse the scaffold.
When working on the work platform, all personnel should wear hard hats, long-sleeve shirts, eye and face protection, such as goggles and face
shields, respirators, and safety belts, as required.
Care should be taken to assign the proper number of workers to the task. Too many people on a small work platform can lead to accidents.

b. An alternative to the erection of a self-supporting tubular steel scaffold is to “climb” the structure with a creeping bracket scaffold. Careful inspection of
the masonry and a decision as to the safety of this alternative must be made by a competent person. It is essential that the masonry of the chimney be in
good enough condition to support the bracket scaffold.

c. The area around the chimney should be roped off or barricaded and secured with appropriate warning signs posted. No unauthorized entry should be
permitted to this area. It is also good practice to keep a worker, i.e., a supervisor, operating engineer, another worker, or a “safety person,” on the ground
with a form of communication to the workers above.

d. Special attention should be paid to weather conditions when working on a chimney. No work should be done during inclement weather such as during
lightning or high wind situations. The work site should be wetted down, as needed, to control dust.

3. Debris Clearance. If debris is dropped inside the shaft, it can be removed through an opening in the chimney at grade level.
The opening at grade must be kept relatively small in order not to weaken the structure. If a larger opening is desired, a professional engineer should be
consulted.
When removing debris by hand, an overhead canopy of adequate strength should be provided. If machines are used for removal of debris, proper
overhead protection for the operator should be used.
Excessive debris should not be allowed to accumulate inside or outside the shaft of the chimney as the excess weight of the debris can impose pressure
on the wall of the structure and might cause the shaft to collapse.
The foreman should determine when debris is to be removed, halt all demolition during debris removal, and make sure the area is clear of cleanup
workers before continuing demolition.

4. Demolition by Deliberate Collapse
a. Another method of demolishing a chimney or stack is by deliberate collapse. Deliberate collapse requires extensive planning and experienced personnel,

and should be used only when conditions are favorable. There must be a clear space for the fall of the structure of at least 45 degrees on each side of the
intended fall line and 1½ times the total height of the chimney. Considerable vibration may be set up when the chimney falls, so there should be no
sewers or underground services on the line of the fall. Lookouts must be posted on the site and warning signals must be arranged. The public and other
workers at the job site must be kept well back from the fall area.

b. The use of explosives is one way of setting off deliberate collapse. This type of demolition should be undertaken only by qualified persons. The entire work
area shall be cleared of nonessential personnel before any explosives are placed. Though the use of explosives is a convenient method of bringing down a
chimney or stack, there is a considerable amount of vibration produced, and caution should be taken if there is any likelihood of damage.

B. Demolition of Prestressed Concrete Structures

1. The different forms of construction used in a number of more or less conventional structures built during the last few decades will give rise to a variety of
problems when the time comes for them to be demolished. Prestressed concrete structures fall in this general category. The most important aspect of
demolishing a prestressed concrete structure takes place during the engineering survey. During the survey, a qualified person should determine if the structure
to be demolished contains any prestressed members.

2. It is the responsibility of the demolition contractor to inform all workers on the demolition job site of the presence of prestressed concrete members within the
structure. They should also instruct them in the safe work practice which must be followed to safely perform the demolition. Workers should be informed of
the hazards of deviating from the prescribed procedures and the importance of following their supervisor’s instruction.

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There are four main categories of prestressed members. The category or categories should be
determined before attempting demolition, bearing in mind that any prestressed structure may contain
elements of more than one category.

Category
1

Members are prestressed before the application of the superimposed loads, and all cables
or tendons are fully bonded in the concrete or grouted within ducts.

Category
2

Like Category 1, but the tendons are left ungrouted. This type of construction can
sometimes be recognized from the access points that may have been provided for
inspection of the cables and anchors. More recently, unbonded tendons have been used in
the construction of beams, slabs, and other members; these tendons are protected by
grease and surrounded by plastic sheathing, instead of the usual metal duct.

Category
3

Members are prestressed progressively as building construction proceeds and the dead
load increases, using bonded tendons as in Category 1.

Category
4

Like Category 3, but using unbonded tendons as in Category 2.

Examples of construction using members of Categories 3 or 4 are relatively rare. However, they may
be found, for example in the podium of a tall building or some types of bridges. They require particular
care in demolition.

3. Pretensioned members usually do not have any end anchors, the wires being embedded or bonded within the length of the member. Simple Pretensioned
beams and slabs of spans up to about 7 meters (23 feet) can be demolished in a manner similar to ordinary reinforced concrete. Pretensioned beams and
slabs may be lifted and lowered to the ground as complete units after the removal of any composite concrete covering to tops and ends of the units. To
facilitate breaking up, the members should be turned on their sides. Lifting from the structure should generally be done from points near the ends of the units
or from lifting point positions. Reuse of lifting eyes, if in good condition, is recommended whenever possible. When units are too large to be removed,
consideration should be given to temporary supporting arrangements.

Figure V:1-1. Categories of Prestressed Construction

C. Precast Units Stressed Separately from the Main Frames of the Structure, With End Anchors and Grouted and Ungrouted Ducts

Before breaking up, units of this type should be lowered to the ground, if possible. It is advisable to seek the counsel of a professional engineer before carrying out
this work, especially where there are ungrouted tendons. In general, this is true because grouting is not always 100% efficient. After lowering the units can be
turned on their side with the ends up on blocks after any composite concrete is removed. This may suffice to break the unit and release the prestress; if not, a
sand bag screen, timbers, or a blast mat as a screen should be erected around the ends and demolition commenced, taking care to clear the area of any
personnel. It should be borne in mind that the end blocks may be heavily reinforced and difficult to break up.

D. Monolithic Structures

The advice of the professional engineer experienced in prestressed work should be sought before any attempt is made to expose the tendons or anchorages of
structures in which two or more members have been stressed together. It will usually be necessary for temporary supports to be provided so that the tendons and
the anchorage can be cautiously exposed. In these circumstances it is essential that indiscriminate attempts to expose and destress the tendons and anchorages
not be made.

E. Progressively Prestressed Structures

In the case of progressively prestressed structures, it is essential to obtain the advice of a professional engineer, and to demolish the structure in strict accordance
with the engineer’s method of demolition. The stored energy in this type of structure is large. In some cases, the inherent properties of the stressed section may
delay failure for some time, but the presence of these large prestressing forces may cause sudden and complete collapse with little warning.

F. Safe Work Practices When Working in Confined Spaces

1. Demolition contractors often come in contact with confined spaces when demolishing structure at industrial sites. These confined spaces can be generally
categorized in two major groups: those with open tops and a depth that restricts the natural movement of air, and enclosed spaces with very limited openings
for entry. Examples of these spaces include storage tanks, vessels, degreasers, pits vaults, casing, and silos.

2. The hazards encountered when entering and working in confined spaces are capable of causing bodily injury, illness, and death. Accidents occur among
workers because of failure to recognize that a confined space is a potential hazard. It should therefore be considered that the most unfavorable situation exists
in every case and that the danger of explosion, poisoning, and asphyxiation will be present at the onset of entry.

III. Safe Blasting Procedures

A. General Safe Work Practices

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1. Blasting Survey and Site Preparation
a. Prior to the blasting of any structure or portion thereof, a complete written survey must be made by a qualified person of all adjacent improvements and

underground utilities. When there is a possibility of excessive vibration due to blasting operations, seismic or vibration tests should be taken to determine
proper safety limits to prevent damage to adjacent or nearby buildings, utilities, or other property.

b. The preparation of a structure for demolition by explosives may require the removal of structural columns, beams or other building components. This work
should be directed by a structural engineer or a competent person qualified to direct the removal of these structural elements. Extreme caution must be
taken during this preparatory work to prevent the weakening and premature collapse of the structure.

c. The use of explosives to demolish smokestacks, silos, cooling towers, or similar structures should be permitted only if there is a minimum of 90 of open
space extended for at least 150% of the height of the structure or if the explosives specialist can demonstrate consistent previous performance with
tighter constraints at the site.

2. Fire Precautions
a. The presence of fire near explosives presents a severe danger. Every effort should be made to ensure that fires or sparks do not occur near explosive

materials. Smoking, matches, firearms, open flame lamps, and other fires, flame, or heat-producing devices must be prohibited in or near explosive
magazines or in areas where explosives are being handled, transported, or used. In fact, persons working near explosives should not even carry matches,
lighters, or other sources of sparks or flame. Open fires or flames should be prohibited within 100 feet of any explosive materials. In the event of a fire
which is in imminent danger of contact with explosives, all employees must be removed to a safe area.

b. Electrical detonators can be inadvertently triggered by stray RF (radio frequency) signals from two-way radios. RF signal sources should be restricted from
or near to the demolition site, if electrical detonators are used.

3. Personnel Selection
a. A blaster is a competent person who uses explosives. A blaster must be qualified by reason of training, knowledge, or experience in the field of

transporting, storing, handling, and using explosives. In addition, the blaster should have a working knowledge of state and local regulations which pertain
to explosives. Training courses are often available from manufacturers of explosives and blasting safety manuals are offered by the Institute of Makers of
Explosives (IME) as well as other organizations.

b. Blasters shall be required to furnish satisfactory evidence of competency in handling explosives and in safely performing the type of blasting required. A
competent person should always be in charge of explosives and should be held responsible for enforcing all recommended safety precautions in
connection with them.

B. Transportation of Explosives

1. Vehicle Safety
a. Vehicles used for transporting explosives shall be strong enough to carry the load without difficulty, and shall be in good mechanical condition. All vehicles

used for the transportation of explosives shall have tight floors, and any exposed spark-producing metal on the inside of the body shall be covered with
wood or some other nonsparking material. Vehicles or conveyances transporting explosives shall only be driven by, and shall be under the supervision of, a
licensed driver familiar with the local, state, and Federal regulations governing the transportation of explosives. No passengers should be allowed in any
vehicle transporting explosives.

b. Explosives, blasting agents, and blasting supplies shall not be transported with other materials or cargoes. Blasting caps shall not be transported in the
same vehicle with other explosives. If an open-bodied truck is used, the entire load should be completely covered with a fire and water-resistant tarpaulin
to protect it from the elements. Vehicles carrying explosives should not be loaded beyond the manufacturer’s safe capacity rating, and in no case should
the explosives be piled higher than the closed sides and ends of the body.

c. Every motor vehicle or conveyance used for transporting explosives shall be marked or placarded with warning signs required by OSHA and the DOT. Each
vehicle used for transportation of explosives shall be equipped minimally with at least a ten-pound rated, serviceable ABC fire extinguisher. All drivers
should be trained in the use of the extinguishers on their vehicle.

d. In transporting explosives, congested traffic and high density population areas should be avoided, where possible, and no unnecessary stops should be
made. Vehicles carrying explosives, blasting agents, or blasting supplies shall not be taken inside a garage or shop for repairs or servicing. No motor
vehicle transporting explosives shall be left unattended.

C. Storage of Explosives

1. Inventory Handling and Safe Handling
a. All explosives must be accounted for at all times and all not being used must be kept in a locked magazine. A complete detailed inventory of all explosives

received and placed in, removed from, and returned to the magazine should be maintained at all times. Appropriate authorities must be notified of any
loss, theft, or unauthorized entry into a magazine.

b. Manufacturers’ instructions for the safe handling and storage of explosives are ordinarily enclosed in each case of explosives. The specifics of storage and
handling are best referred to these instructions and the aforementioned IME manuals. They should be carefully followed. Packages of explosives should
not be handled roughly. Sparking metal tools should not be used to open wooden cases. Metallic slitters may be used for opening fiberboard cases,
provided the metallic slitter does not come in contact with the metallic fasteners of the case.

c. The oldest stock should always be used first to minimize the chance of deterioration from long storage. Loose explosives or broken, defective, or leaking
packages can be hazardous and should be segregated and properly disposed of in accordance with the specific instructions of the manufacturer. If the
explosives are in good condition it may be advisable to repack them. In this case, the explosives supplier should be contacted. Explosives cases should not

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be opened or explosives packed or repacked while in a magazine.
2. Storage Conditions

a. Providing a dry, well-ventilated place for the storage of explosives is one of the most important and effective safety measures. Exposure to weather
damages most kinds of explosives, especially dynamite and caps. Every precaution should be taken to keep them dry and relatively cool. Dampness or
excess humidity may be the cause of misfires resulting in injury or loss of life. Explosives should be stored in properly constructed fire and bullet-resistant
structures, located according to the IME American Table of Distances and kept locked at all times except when opened for use by an authorized person.
Explosives should not be left, kept, or stored where children, unauthorized persons, or animals have access to them, nor should they be stored in or near
a residence.

b. Detonators should be stored in a separate magazine located according to the IME American Table of Distances. DETONATORS SHOULD NEVER BE STORED
IN THE SAME MAGAZINE WITH ANY OTHER KIND OF EXPLOSIVES.

c. Ideally, arrangements should be made whereby the supplier delivers the explosives to the job site in quantities which will be used up during the work day.
An alternative would be for the supplier to return to pick up unused quantities of explosives. If it is necessary for the contractor to store his explosives, he
should be familiar with all local requirements for such storage.

D. Proper Use of Explosives

1. Blasting operations shall be conducted between sunup and sundown, whenever possible. Adequate signs should be sounded to alert to the hazard presented
by blasting. Blasting mats or other containment should be used where there is danger of rocks or other debris being thrown into the air or where there are
buildings or transportation systems nearby. Care should be taken to make sure mats and other protection do not disturb the connections to electrical blasting
caps.

2. Radio, television, and radar transmitters create fields of electrical energy that can, under exceptional circumstances, detonate electric blasting caps. Certain
precautions must be taken to prevent accidental discharge of electric blasting caps from current induced by radar, radio transmitters, lightning, adjacent power
lines, dust storms, or other sources of extraneous or static electricity. These precautions shall include:

Ensuring that mobile radio transmitters on the job site that are less than 100 feet away from electric blasting caps, in other than original containers, shall
be de-energized and effectively locked.
The prominent display of adequate signs, warning against the use of mobile radio transmitters, on all roads within 1,000 feet of the blasting operations.
Maintaining the minimum distances recommended by the IME between the nearest transmitter and electric blasting caps.
The suspension of all blasting operations and removal of persons from the blasting area during the approach and progress of an electric storm.
After loading is completed, there should be as little delay as possible before firing. Each blast should be fired under the direct supervision of the blaster,
who should inspect all connections before firing and who should personally see that all persons are in the clear before giving the order to fire. Standard
signals, which indicate that a blast is about to be fired and a later all-clear signal shall have been adopted. It is important that everyone working in the
area be familiar with these signals and that they be strictly obeyed.

3. Procedures After Blasting
1. Inspection After the Blast. Immediately after the blast has been fired, the firing line shall be disconnected from the blasting machine and short-

circuited. Where power switches are used, they shall be locked open or in the off position. Sufficient time shall be allowed for dust, smoke, and fumes to
leave the blasted area before returning to the spot. An inspection of the area and the surrounding rubble shall be made by the blaster to determine if all
charges have been exploded before employees are allowed to return to the operation. All wires should be traced and the search for unexploded cartridges
made by the blaster.

2. Disposal of Explosives
a. Explosives, blasting agents, and blasting supplies that are obviously deteriorated or damaged should not be used, they should be properly disposed of.

Explosives distributors will usually take back old stock. Local fire marshals or representatives of the United States Bureau of Mines may also arrange
for its disposal. Under no circumstances should any explosives be abandoned.

b. Wood, paper, fiber, or other materials that have contained high explosives should not be used again for any purpose, but should be destroyed by
burning. These materials should not be burned in a stove, fireplace, or other confined space. Rather, they should be burned at an isolated outdoor
location, at a safe distance from thoroughfares, magazines, and other structures. It is important to check that the containers are entirely empty before
burning. During burning, the area should be adequately protected from intruders and all persons kept at least 100 feet from the fire.

IV. Bibliography

Malmberg, K.B. 1975. EPA Demolition and Renovation Inspection Procedures. U.S.E.P.A.: Washington, D.C.

National Association of Demolition Contractors (NADC). 1981. Demolition Safety Manual. NADC: Hillside, IL.

Occupational Safety and Health Administration. OSHA Safety and Health Standards, Construction, (29 CFR 1926). 1989. U.S. Government Printing Office:
Washington DC.

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UNITED STATES
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Section V: Chapter 2

Excavations: Hazard Recognition in Trenching and Shoring

Table of Contents:

I. Introduction

II. Definitions

III. Overview: Soil Mechanics

IV. Determination of Soil Type

V. Test Equipment and Methods for Evaluating Soil Type

VI. Shoring Types

VII. Shielding Types

VIII. Sloping and Benching

IX. Spoil

X. Special Health and Safety Considerations

XI. Bibliography

List of Appendices:

Appendix V:2-1. Site Assessment Questions

For problems with accessibility in using figures and illustrations in this document, please contact the Office of Science and Technology Assessment at (202)
693-2095.

I. Introduction

Excavating is recognized as one of the most hazardous construction operations. OSHA recently revised Subpart P, Excavations, of 29 CFR 1926.650, 29 CFR
1926.651, and 29 CFR 1926.652 to make the standard easier to understand, permit the use of performance criteria where possible, and provide construction
employers with options when classifying soil and selecting employee protection methods.

This chapter is intended to assist OSHA Technical Manual users, safety and health consultants, OSHA field staff, and others in the recognition of trenching and
shoring hazards and their prevention.

II. Definitions

Accepted Engineering Practices are procedures compatible with the standards of practice required of a registered professional engineer.

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Adjacent Structures Stability refers to the stability of the foundation(s) of adjacent structures whose location may create surcharges, changes in soil
conditions, or other disruptions that have the potential to extend into the failure zone of the excavation or trench.

Competent Person is an individual who is capable of identifying existing and predictable hazards or working conditions that are hazardous, unsanitary, or
dangerous to employees, and who has authorization to take prompt corrective measures to eliminate or control these hazards and conditions.

Confined Space is a space that, by design and/or configuration, has limited openings for entry and exit, unfavorable natural ventilation, may contain or produce
hazardous substances, and is not intended for continuous employee occupancy.

Excavation. An Excavation is any man-made cut, cavity, trench, or depression in an earth surface that is formed by earth removal. A Trench is a narrow
excavation (in relation to its length) made below the surface of the ground. In general, the depth of a trench is greater than its width, and the width (measured at
the bottom) is not greater than 15 ft (4.6 m). If a form or other structure installed or constructed in an excavation reduces the distance between the form and the
side of the excavation to 15 ft (4.6 m) or less (measured at the bottom of the excavation), the excavation is also considered to be a trench.

Hazardous Atmosphere is an atmosphere that by reason of being explosive, flammable, poisonous, corrosive, oxidizing, irritating, oxygen-deficient, toxic, or
otherwise harmful may cause death, illness, or injury to persons exposed to it.

Ingress and Egress mean “entry” and “exit,” respectively. In trenching and excavation operations, they refer to the provision of safe means for employees to
enter or exit an excavation or trench.

Protective System refers to a method of protecting employees from cave-ins, from material that could fall or roll from an excavation face or into an excavation,
and from the collapse of adjacent structures. Protective systems include support systems, sloping and benching systems, shield systems, and other systems that
provide the necessary protection.

Registered Professional Engineer is a person who is registered as a professional engineer in the state where the work is to be performed. However, a
professional engineer who is registered in any state is deemed to be a “registered professional engineer” within the meaning of Subpart P when approving designs
for “manufactured protective systems” or “tabulated data” to be used in interstate commerce.

Support System refers to structures such as underpinning, bracing, and shoring that provide support to an adjacent structure or underground installation or to
the sides of an excavation or trench.

Subsurface Encumbrances include underground utilities, foundations, streams, water tables, transformer vaults, and geological anomalies.

Surcharge means an excessive vertical load or weight caused by spoil, overburden, vehicles, equipment, or activities that may affect trench stability.

Tabulated Data are tables and charts approved by a registered professional engineer and used to design and construct a protective system.

Underground Installations include, but are not limited to, utilities (sewer, telephone, fuel, electric, water, and other product lines), tunnels, shafts, vaults,
foundations, and other underground fixtures or equipment that may be encountered during excavation or trenching work.

Unconfined Compressive Strength is the load per unit area at which soil will fail in compression. This measure can be determined by laboratory testing, or it
can be estimated in the field using a pocket penetrometer, by thumb penetration tests, or by other methods.

Definitions That Are No Longer Applicable. For a variety of reasons, several terms commonly used in the past are no longer used in revised Subpart P. These
include the following:

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Tension Cracks. Tension cracks usually form at a horizontal distance of 0.5 to 0.75 times the depth of the trench,
measured from the top of the vertical face of the trench. See the accompanying drawing for additional details.

Figure V:2-1. Tension Crack

Sliding or sluffing may occur as a result of tension cracks, as illustrated below.

Figure V:2-2. Sliding

Toppling. In addition to sliding, tension cracks can cause toppling. Toppling occurs when the trench’s vertical face
shears along the tension crack line and topples into the excavation.

Figure V:2-3. Toppling

Subsidence and Bulging. An unsupported excavation can create an unbalanced stress in the soil, which, in turn,
causes subsidence at the surface and bulging of the vertical face of the trench. If uncorrected, this condition can cause
face failure and entrapment of workers in the trench.

Figure V:2-4. Subsidence and Bulging

1. Angle of Repose. Conflicting and inconsistent definitions have led to confusion as to the meaning of this phrase. This term has been replaced by Maximum
Allowable Slope.

2. Bank, Sheet Pile, and Walls. Previous definitions were unclear or were used inconsistently in the former standard.
3. Hard Compact Soil and Unstable Soil. The new soil classification system in revised Subpart P uses different terms for these soil types.

III. Overview: Soil Mechanics

A number of stresses and deformations can occur in an open cut or trench. For example, increases or decreases in moisture content can adversely affect the
stability of a trench or excavation. The following diagrams show some of the more frequently identified causes of trench failure.

Figure V:2-1. Ethanol Characteristics

Text version of Figure V:2-1.

This figure illustrates how a tension cracks usually form at a horizontal distance of 0.5 to 0.75 times the depth of the trench, measured from the top of the
vertical face of the trench.

Figure V:2-2. Sliding

Text version of Figure V:2-2.

This figure illustrates how sliding or sluffing may occur as a result of tension cracks.

Figure V:2-3. Toppling

Text version of Figure V:2-3.

This figure illustrates how toppling occurs when the trench’s vertical face shears along the tension crack line and topples into the excavation.

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Heaving or Squeezing. Bottom heaving or squeezing is caused by the downward pressure created by the weight of
adjoining soil. This pressure causes a bulge in the bottom of the cut, as illustrated in the drawing above. Heaving and
squeezing can occur even when shoring or shielding has been properly installed.

Figure V:2-5. Heaving or Squeezing

Boiling is evidenced by an upward water flow into the bottom of the cut. A high water table is one of the causes of
boiling. Boiling produces a “quick” condition in the bottom of the cut, and can occur even when shoring or trench boxes
are used.

Figure V:2-6. Boiling

Unit Weight of Soils refers to the weight of one unit of a particular soil. The weight of soil varies with type and
moisture content. One cubic foot of soil can weigh from 110 pounds to 140 pounds or more, and one cubic meter (35.3
cubic feet) of soil can weigh more than 3,000 pounds.

Figure V:2-4. Subsidence and Bulging

Text version of Figure V:2-4.

This figure illustrates how an unsupported excavation can create an unbalanced stress in the soil, which, in turn, causes subsidence at the surface and
bulging of the vertical face of the trench.

Figure V:2-5. Heaving or Squeezing

Text version of Figure V:2-5.

This figure illustrates how downward pressure created by the weight of adjoining soil causes a bulge in the bottom of the cut.

Figure V:2-6. Boiling

Text version of Figure V:2-6.

This figure illustrates an upward water flow into the bottom of the cut. Boiling produces a “quick” condition in the bottom of the cut, and can occur even
when shoring or trench boxes are used.

IV. Determination of Soil Type

OSHA categorizes soil and rock deposits into four types, A through D, as follows:

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Stable Rock is natural solid mineral matter that can be excavated with vertical sides and remain intact while exposed. It is usually identified by a rock name such
as granite or sandstone. Determining whether a deposit is of this type may be difficult unless it is known whether cracks exist and whether or not the cracks run
into or away from the excavation.

Type A Soils are cohesive soils with an unconfined compressive strength of 1.5 tons per square foot (tsf) (144 kPa) or greater. Examples of Type A cohesive soils
are often: clay, silty clay, sandy clay, clay loam and, in some cases, silty clay loam and sandy clay loam. (No soil is Type A if it is fissured, is subject to vibration of
any type, has previously been disturbed, is part of a sloped, layered system where the layers dip into the excavation on a slope of 4 horizontal to 1 vertical (4H:1V)
or greater, or has seeping water.

Type B Soils are cohesive soils with an unconfined compressive strength greater than 0.5 tsf (48 kPa) but less than 1.5 tsf (144 kPa). Examples of other Type B
soils are: angular gravel; silt; silt loam; previously disturbed soils unless otherwise classified as Type C; soils that meet the unconfined compressive strength or
cementation requirements of Type A soils but are fissured or subject to vibration; dry unstable rock; and layered systems sloping into the trench at a slope less
than 4H:1V (only if the material would be classified as a Type B soil).

Type C Soils are cohesive soils with an unconfined compressive strength of 0.5 tsf (48 kPa) or less. Other Type C soils include granular soils such as gravel, sand
and loamy sand, submerged soil, soil from which water is freely seeping, and submerged rock that is not stable. Also included in this classification is material in a
sloped, layered system where the layers dip into the excavation or have a slope of four horizontal to one vertical (4H:1V) or greater.

Layered Geological Strata. Where soils are configured in layers, i.e., where a layered geologic structure exists, the soil must be classified on the basis of the soil
classification of the weakest soil layer. Each layer may be classified individually if a more stable layer lies below a less stable layer, i.e., where a Type C soil rests on
top of stable rock.

V. Test Equipment and Methods for Evaluating Soil Type

Many kinds of equipment and methods are used to determine the type of soil prevailing in an area, as described below.

A. Pocket Penetrometer

Penetrometers are direct-reading, spring-operated instruments used to determine the unconfined compressive strength of saturated cohesive soils. Once pushed
into the soil, an indicator sleeve displays the reading. The instrument is calibrated in either tons per square foot (tsf) or kilograms per square centimeter (kPa).
However, Penetrometers have error rates in the range of ± 20-40%.

1. Shearvane (Torvane). To determine the unconfined compressive strength of the soil with a shearvane, the blades of the vane are pressed into a level
section of undisturbed soil, and the torsional knob is slowly turned until soil failure occurs. The direct instrument reading must be multiplied by 2 to provide
results in tons per square foot (tsf) or kilograms per square centimeter (kPa).

2. Thumb Penetration Test. The thumb penetration procedure involves an attempt to press the thumb firmly into the soil in question. If the thumb makes an
indentation in the soil only with great difficulty, the soil is probably Type A. If the thumb penetrates no further than the length of the thumb nail, it is probably
Type B soil, and if the thumb penetrates the full length of the thumb, it is Type C soil. The thumb test is subjective and is therefore the least accurate of the
three methods.

3. Dry Strength Test. Dry soil that crumbles freely or with moderate pressure into individual grains is granular. Dry soil that falls into clumps that subsequently
break into smaller clumps (and the smaller clumps can be broken only with difficulty) is probably clay in combination with gravel, sand, or silt. If the soil
breaks into clumps that do not break into smaller clumps (and the soil can be broken only with difficulty), the soil is considered unfissured unless there is
visual indication of fissuring.

B. Plasticity or Wet Thread Test

This test is conducted by molding a moist sample of the soil into a ball and attempting to roll it into a thin thread approximately 1/8 inch (3 mm) in diameter
(thick) by 2 inches (50 mm) in length. The soil sample is held by one end. If the sample does not break or tear, the soil is considered cohesive.

C. Visual Test

A visual test is a qualitative evaluation of conditions around the site. In a visual test, the entire excavation site is observed, including the soil adjacent to the site
and the soil being excavated. If the soil remains in clumps, it is cohesive; if it appears to be coarse-grained sand or gravel, it is considered granular. The evaluator
also checks for any signs of vibration.

During a visual test, the evaluator should check for crack-line openings along the failure zone that would indicate tension cracks, look for existing utilities that
indicate that the soil has previously been disturbed, and observe the open side of the excavation for indications of layered geologic structuring.

The evaluator should also look for signs of bulging, boiling, or sluffing, as well as for signs of surface water seeping from the sides of the excavation or from the
water table. If there is standing water in the cut, the evaluator should check for “quick” conditions (see Paragraph III. F in this chapter). In addition, the area
adjacent to the excavation should be checked for signs of foundations or other intrusions into the failure zone, and the evaluator should check for surcharging and

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Figure V:2-7. Timber Shoring

Figure V:2-8. Shoring Variations: Typical Aluminum Hydraulic Shoring Installations

the spoil distance from the edge of the excavation.

VI. Shoring Types

Shoring is the provision of a support system for trench faces used to prevent movement of soil, underground utilities, roadways, and foundations. Shoring or
shielding is used when the location or depth of the cut makes sloping back to the maximum allowable slope impractical. Shoring systems consist of posts, wales,
struts, and sheeting. There are two basic types of shoring, timber and aluminum hydraulic.

Figure V:2-7. Timber Shoring

Text version of Figure V:2-7.

This figure illustrates an example of timber shoring, including various parts such as sheeting, crossbrace struts, uprights, and wales. The crossbrace struts
connect to the wales, which provide support to the sheeting and uprights.

A. Hydraulic Shoring

The trend today is toward the use of hydraulic shoring, a prefabricated strut and/or wale system manufactured of aluminum or steel. Hydraulic shoring provides a
critical safety advantage over timber shoring because workers do not have to enter the trench to install or remove hydraulic shoring. Other advantages of most
hydraulic systems are that they:

Are light enough to be installed by one worker;
Are gauge-regulated to ensure even distribution of pressure along the trench line;
Can have their trench faces “preloaded” to use the soil’s natural cohesion to prevent movement; and
Can be adapted easily to various trench depths and widths.

All shoring should be installed from the top down and removed from the bottom up. Hydraulic shoring should be checked at least once per shift for leaking hoses
and/or cylinders, broken connections, cracked nipples, bent bases, and any other damaged or defective parts.

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Figure V:2-9. Shoring Variations

Figure V:2-8. Shoring Variations: Typical Aluminum Hydraulic Shoring Installations

Text version of Figure V:2-8.

This figure illustrates four vertical aluminum hydraulic shoring variations: Vertical Aluminum Hydraulic Shoring with Spot Bracing, Vertical Aluminum
Hydraulic Shoring with Plywood, Vertical Aluminum Hydraulic Shoring (Stacked), and Aluminum Hydraulic Shoring Water System (Typical). The first variation
uses a hydraulic cylinder to exert force against a vertical roll, which transfers the force the the wale. The second variety adds plywood between the vertical
roll and wale. The third variety stacks multiple arrangements of the first type vertically. The fourth variety uses a hydraulic cylinder exerting force on a
horizontal walethat presses against upright sheeting.

Pneumatic Shoring

works in a manner similar to hydraulic shoring. The primary difference is that pneumatic shoring uses air pressure in place of hydraulic pressure. A disadvantage to
the use of pneumatic shoring is that an air compressor must be on site.
1. Screw Jacks. Screw jack systems differ from hydraulic and pneumatic systems in that the struts of a screw jack system must be adjusted manually. This

creates a hazard because the worker is required to be in the trench in order to adjust the strut. In addition, uniform “preloading” cannot be achieved with
screw jacks, and their weight creates handling difficulties.

2. Single-Cylinder Hydraulic Shores. Shores of this type are generally used in a water system, as an assist to timber shoring systems, and in shallow trenches
where face stability is required.

3. Underpinning. This process involves stabilizing adjacent structures, foundations, and other intrusions that may have an impact on the excavation. As the
term indicates, underpinning is a procedure in which the foundation is physically reinforced. Underpinning should be conducted only under the direction and
with the approval of a registered professional engineer.

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Figure V:2-10. Trench Shield

Figure V:2-11. Trench Shield, Stacked

Figure V:2-9. Shoring Variations

Text version of Figure V:2-9.

This figure has a diagram showing the various components of upright sheeting, along with pneumatic/hydraulic jacks and a screw jack. The various jacks
press up against the wale, which in turn keep the shoring in position.

VII. Shielding Types
A.

Trench Boxes are different from shoring because, instead of shoring up or otherwise supporting the trench face, they are intended primarily to protect workers
from cave-ins and similar incidents. The excavated area between the outside of the trench box and the face of the trench should be as small as possible. The space
between the trench boxes and the excavation side are backfilled to prevent lateral movement of the box. Shields may not be subjected to loads exceeding those
which the system was designed to withstand.

Figure V:2-10. Trench Shield

Text version of Figure V:2-10.

This figure illustrates a trench shield, consisting of a knife edge, sidewall, and struts. The knife edge is at the bottom edge of the sides of the trench shield,
and struts are going between both sides of the shield, providing support.

Figure V:2-11. Trench Shield, Stacked

Text version of Figure V:2-11.

This figure illustrates two trench shields, stacked upon each other.

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Combined Use. Trench boxes are generally used in open areas, but they also may be used in combination with sloping and benching. The box should extend at
least 18 in (0.45 m) above the surrounding area if there is sloping toward excavation. This can be accomplished by providing a benched area adjacent to the box.

Earth excavation to a depth of 2 ft (0.61 m) below the shield is permitted, but only if the shield is designed to resist the forces calculated for the full depth of the
trench and there are no indications while the trench is open of possible loss of soil from behind or below the bottom of the support system. Conditions of this type
require observation on the effects of bulging, heaving, and boiling as well as surcharging, vibration, adjacent structures, etc., on excavating below the bottom of a
shield. Careful visual inspection of the conditions mentioned above is the primary and most prudent approach to hazard identification and control.

Figure V:2-12. Slope and Shield Configurations

Figure V:2-12a. Slope and Shield Configurations

Text version of Figure V:2-12a.

This figure illustrates how a support or shield system can be used in Type A soil. The slope alongside it is 18″ minimum, 20′ maximum, with a 1/0.75 slope.

Figure V:2-12. Slope and Shield Configurations

Text version of Figure V:2-12.

This figure illustrates how a support or shield system can be used in Type B soil. The slope alongside it is 18″ minimum, 20′ maximum, with a 1/1 slope.

Figure V:2-12c. Slope and Shield Configurations

Text version of Figure V:2-12c.

This figure illustrates how a support or shield system can be used in Type C soil. The slope alongside it is 18″ minimum, 20′ maximum, with a 1/1.5 slope.

VIII. Sloping and Benching

A. Sloping

Maximum allowable slopes for excavations less than 20 ft (6.09 m) based on soil type and angle to the horizontal are as follows:

Table V:2-1. Allowable Slopes

Soil type Height:Depth ratio Slope angle

Stable Rock Vertical 90°

Type A ¾:1 53°

Type B 1:1 45°

Type C 1½:1 34°

Type A(short-term) ½:1 63°

(For a maximum excavation depth of 12 ft)

Figure V:2-13. Slope Configurations: Excavations in Layered Soils

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Figure V:2-13. Slope Configurations: Excavations in Layered Soils

Text version of Figure V:2-13.

This figure illustrates the different types of slope excavations in layered soils. This includes Type A, B, and C soils in single slope excavations, and different
permutations such as: Type A soil over both Types B and C individually, Type B soil over Types A and C individually, and Type C soil over Types A and B
individually.

Figure V:2-14. Excavations Made in Type A Soil

Text version of Figure V:2-14.

This figure illustrates the types of excavations made in Type A soil: Two types use an unsupported vertically sided lower portion (with maximum depths of 8
Feet and 12 Feet), and the three remaining types include single bench excavation, simple slope – short term, and multiple bench excavation.

B. Benching

There are two basic types of benching, simple and multiple. The type of soil determines the horizontal to vertical ratio of the benched side.

As a general rule, the bottom vertical height of the trench must not exceed 4 ft (1.2 m) for the first bench. Subsequent benches may be up to a maximum of 5 ft
(1.5 m) vertical in Type A soil and 4 ft (1.2 m) in Type B soil to a total trench depth of 20 ft (6.0 m). All subsequent benches must be below the maximum
allowable slope for that soil type. For Type B soil the trench excavation is permitted in cohesive soil only.

Figure V:2-15. Excavations Made in Type B Soil

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Figure V:2-16. Temporary Spoil

Figure V:2-15. Excavations Made in Type B Soil

Text version of Figure V:2-15.

This figure illustrates two types of excavations made in Type B soil that are permitted in cohesive soil only: Single Bench Excavation, and Multiple Bench
Excavation.

IX. Spoil
Figure V:2-16. Temporary Spoil

Text version of Figure V:2-16.

This figure illustrates temporary spoil being placed at a minimum of two feet from the surface edge of the excavation.

A. Temporary Spoil

Temporary spoil must be placed no closer than 2 ft (0.61 m) from the surface edge of the excavation, measured from the nearest base of the spoil to the cut. This
distance should not be measured from the crown of the spoil deposit. This distance requirement ensures that loose rock or soil from the temporary spoil will not
fall on employees in the trench.

Spoil should be placed so that it channels rainwater and other run-off water away from the excavation. Spoil should be placed so that it cannot accidentally run,
slide, or fall back into the excavation.

B. Permanent Spoil

Permanent spoil should be placed at some distance from the excavation. Permanent spoil is often created where underpasses are built or utilities are buried. The
improper placement of permanent spoil, i.e. insufficient distance from the working excavation, can cause an excavation to be out of compliance with the horizontal-
to-vertical ratio requirement for a particular excavation. This can usually be determined through visual observation. Permanent spoil can change undisturbed soil to
disturbed soil and dramatically alter slope requirements.

X. Special Health and Safety Considerations

A. Competent Person

The designated competent person should have and be able to demonstrate the following:

Training, experience, and knowledge of:
soil analysis;
use of protective systems; and
requirements of 29 CFR Part 1926 Subpart P

Ability to detect:
conditions that could result in cave-ins;
failures in protective systems;
hazardous atmospheres; and
other hazards including those associated with confined spaces.

Authority to take prompt corrective measures to eliminate existing and predictable hazards and to stop work when required.

B. Surface Crossing of Trenches

Surface crossing of trenches should be discouraged; however, if trenches must be crossed, such crossings are permitted only under the following conditions:

Vehicle crossings must be designed by and installed under the supervision of a registered professional engineer.
Walkways or bridges must be provided for foot traffic. These structures shall:

have a safety factor of 4;
have a minimum clear width of 20 in (0.51 m);
be fitted with standard rails; and
extend a minimum of 24 in (.61 m) past the surface edge of the trench.

C. Ingress and Egress

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Access to and exit from the trench require the following conditions:

Trenches 4 ft or more in depth should be provided with a fixed means of egress.
Spacing between ladders or other means of egress must be such that a worker will not have to travel more than 25 ft laterally to the nearest means of egress.
Ladders must be secured and extend a minimum of 36 in (0.9 m) above the landing.
Metal ladders should be used with caution, particularly when electric utilities are present.

D. Exposure to Vehicles

Procedures to protect employees from being injured or killed by vehicle traffic include:

Providing employees with and requiring them to wear warning vests or other suitable garments marked with or made of reflectorized or high-visibility
materials.
Requiring a designated, trained flagperson along with signs, signals, and barricades when necessary.

E. Exposure to Falling Loads

Employees must be protected from loads or objects falling from lifting or digging equipment. Procedures designed to ensure their protection include:

Employees are not permitted to work under raised loads.
Employees are required to stand away from equipment that is being loaded or unloaded.
Equipment operators or truck drivers may stay in their equipment during loading and unloading if the equipment is properly equipped with a cab shield or
adequate canopy.

F. Warning Systems for Mobile Equipment

The following steps should be taken to prevent vehicles from accidentally falling into the trench:

Barricades must be installed where necessary.
Hand or mechanical signals must be used as required.
Stop logs must be installed if there is a danger of vehicles falling into the trench.
Soil should be graded away from the excavation; this will assist in vehicle control and channeling of run-off water.

G. Hazardous Atmospheres and Confined Spaces

Employees shall not be permitted to work in hazardous and/or toxic atmospheres. Such atmospheres include those with:

Less than 19.5% or more than 23.5% oxygen;
A combustible gas concentration greater than 20% of the lower flammable limit; and
Concentrations of hazardous substances that exceed those specified in the Threshold Limit Values for Airborne Contaminants established by the ACGIH
(American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists).

All operations involving such atmospheres must be conducted in accordance with OSHA requirements for occupational health and environmental controls (see 29
CFR Part 1926 Subpart D) for personal protective equipment and for lifesaving equipment (see 29 CFR Part 1926 Subpart E). Engineering controls (e.g., ventilation)
and respiratory protection may be required.

When testing for atmospheric contaminants, the following should be considered:

Testing should be conducted before employees enter the trench and should be done regularly to ensure that the trench remains safe.
The frequency of testing should be increased if equipment is operating in the trench.
Testing frequency should also be increased if welding, cutting, or burning is done in the trench.

Employees required to wear respiratory protection must be trained, fit-tested, and enrolled in a respiratory protection program. Some trenches qualify as confined
spaces. When this occurs, compliance with the Confined Space Standard is also required.

H. Emergency Rescue Equipment

Emergency rescue equipment is required when a hazardous atmosphere exists or can reasonably be expected to exist. Requirements are as follows:

Respirators must be of the type suitable for the exposure. Employees must be trained in their use and a respirator program must be instituted.
Attended (at all times) lifelines must be provided when employees enter bell-bottom pier holes, deep confined spaces, or other similar hazards.
Employees who enter confined spaces must be trained.

I. Standing Water and Water Accumulation

Methods for controlling standing water and water accumulation must be provided and should consist of the following if employees are permitted to work in the
excavation:

Use of special support or shield systems approved by a registered professional engineer.
Water removal equipment, i.e. well pointing, used and monitored by a competent person.

https://www.osha.gov/pls/oshaweb/owastand.display_standard_group?p_toc_level=1&p_part_number=1926%231926_Subpart_D

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Safety harnesses and lifelines used in conformance with 29 CFR 1926.104.
Surface water diverted away from the trench.
Employees removed from the trench during rainstorms.
Trenches carefully inspected by a competent person after each rain and before employees are permitted to re-enter the trench.

J. Inspections

Inspections shall be made by a competent person and should be documented. The following guide specifies the frequency and conditions requiring inspections:

Daily and before the start of each shift;
As dictated by the work being done in the trench;
After every rainstorm;
After other events that could increase hazards, e.g. snowstorm, windstorm, thaw, earthquake, etc.;
When fissures, tension cracks, sloughing, undercutting, water seepage, bulging at the bottom, or other similar conditions occur;
When there is a change in the size, location, or placement of the spoil pile; and
When there is any indication of change or movement in adjacent structures.

XI. Bibliography

29 CFR 1926, Subpart P. Excavations.

Construction Safety Association of Ontario. Trenching Safety. 74 Victoria St., Toronto, Ontario, Canada M5C2A5.

International Labour Office (ILO). Building Work: A Compendium of Occupational Safety and Health Practice. International Occupational Safety and Health
Information Centre (CIS): ILO, Geneva, Switzerland.

National Safety Council. Accident Prevention Manual for Industrial Operations, Engineering and Technology, 9th ed., Chicago, IL: National Safety Council.

National Safety Council. Protecting Worker’s Lives: A Safety and Health Guide for Unions. Chicago, IL: National Safety Council.

National Safety Council. Industrial Data Sheets: I-482, General Excavation, and I-254, Trench Excavation, Chicago, IL: National Safety Council.

National Utility Contractors Association, Competent Person Manual-1991.

NBS/NIOSH, Development of Draft Construction Safety Standards for Excavations. Volume I, April 1983. NIOSH 83-103, Pub. No. 84-100-569. Volume II, April
1983. NIOSH 83-2693, Pub. No. 83-233-353.

Scardino, A.J., Jr. 1993. Hazard Identification and Control–Trench Excavation. Lagrange, TX: Carlton Press.

Appendix V:2-1. Site Assessment Questions

During first and subsequent visits to a construction or facility maintenance location, the compliance officer (or the site’s safety officer or other competent person)
may find the following questions useful.

1. Is the cut, cavity, or depression a trench or an excavation?
2. Is the cut, cavity, or depression more than 4 ft (1.2 m) in depth?
3. Is there water in the cut, cavity, or depression?
4. Are there adequate means of access and egress?
5. Are there any surface encumbrances?
6. Is there exposure to vehicular traffic?
7. Are adjacent structures stabilized?
8. Does mobile equipment have a warning system?
9. Is a competent person in charge of the operation?

10. Is equipment operating in or around the cut, cavity, or depression?
11. Are procedures required to monitor, test, and control hazardous atmospheres?
12. Does a competent person determine soil type?
13. Was a soil testing device used to determine soil type?
14. Is the spoil placed 2 ft (0.6 m) or more from the edge of the cut, cavity, or depression?
15. Is the depth 20 ft (6.1 m) or more for the cut, cavity, or depression?
16. Has a registered professional engineer approved the procedure if the depth is more than 20 ft (6.1 m)?
17. Does the procedure require benching or multiple benching? Shoring? Shielding?
18. If provided, do shields extend at least 18 in (0.5 m) above the surrounding area if it is sloped toward the excavation?
19. If shields are used, is the depth of the cut more than 2 ft (0.6 m) below the bottom of the shield?
20. Are any required surface crossings of the cut, cavity, or depression the proper width and fitted with hand rails?
21. Are means of egress from the cut, cavity, or depression no more than 25 ft (7.6m) from the work?
22. Is emergency rescue equipment required?

https://www.osha.gov/pls/oshaweb/owadisp.show_document?p_table=STANDARDS&p_id=10667

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Construction

Industry Digest

OSHA 2202-09R 2015

Occupational Safety and Health Act of 19

“To assure safe and healthful working
conditions for working men and women; by
authorizing enforcement of the
standards developed under the Act; by
assisting and encouraging the States in their
efforts to assure safe and healthful working
conditions; by providing for research,
information, education, and training in the
field of occupational safety and health…”

This informational booklet is intended to
provide an overview of frequently used
OSHA standards in the Construction
industry. This publication does not itself alter
or determine compliance responsibilities,
which are set forth in OSHA standards
themselves and the Occupational Safety and
Health Act.

Employers and employees in the 28 states
and territories that operate their own OSHA-
approved workplace safety and health plans
should check with their state safety and
health agency. Their state may be enforcing
standards and other procedures that, while “at
least as effective as” federal standards, are not
always identical to the federal requirements.
For more information on states with OSHA-
approved state plans, please visit: www.osha.
gov/dcsp/osp.

Material contained in this publication is in the
public domain and may be reproduced, fully
or partially, without permission. Source credit
is requested but not required.

This information will be made available
to sensory-impaired individuals upon
request. Voice phone: (202) 693-1999;
teletypewriter (TTY) number: 1-877-889-5627.

Construction
Industry Digest

U.S. Department of Labor

Occupational Safety and Health Administration

OSHA 2202-09R
201

U.S. Department of Labor

CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY DIGEST

Contents

Foreword

General

OSHA Worksite Investigations

Frequently Used Standards in
Construction

Access to Medical and Exposure Records 9
Aerial Lifts 9

Air Tools

Asbestos 10

Belt Sanding Machines

Chains (See Wire Ropes, Chains, and
Ropes) 12

Chemicals (See Gases, Vapors, Fumes,
Dusts, and Mists; Asbestos; Lead; Silica;
and Hazard Communication) 12

Compressed Air, Use of 12

Compressed Gas Cylinders 12

Concrete and Masonry Construction

Confined Spaces 1

Cranes and Derricks

Demolition 1

Disposal Chutes

Diving

Drinking Water

Electrical Installations 18

Electrical Work Practices

Excavating and Trenching

Exits 22

Explosives and Blasting

Eye and Face Protection 23

Fall Protection

Fall Protection, Falling Objects

Fall Protection, Wall Openings 26

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION

Fire Protection 26

Flaggers

Flammable and Combustible Liquids

Forklifts (See Powered Industrial Trucks)

Gases, Vapors, Fumes, Dusts, and Mists 29

General Duty Clause

Grinding 30

Hand Tools

Hazard Communication 31

Hazardous Waste Operations

Head Protection 33

Hearing Protection

Heating Devices, Temporary

Highway Work Zones (See Flaggers;
Signs, Signals, and Barricades) 35

Hoists, Material and Personnel 35

Hooks (See Wire Ropes, Chains, and
Ropes)

Housekeeping 36

Illumination 36

Jointers

Ladders

Lasers

Lead

Lift Slab

Liquefied Petroleum Gas

Medical Services and First Aid 42

Motor Vehicles and Mechanized
Equipment

Noise (See Hearing Protection) 43

Personal Protective Equipment 43

Powder-Actuated Tools

Power Transmission and Distribution 44

Powered Industrial Trucks (Forklifts) 45

CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY DIGEST
5

Power Transmission, Mechanical 45

Process Safety Management of Highly
Hazardous Chemicals

Radiation, Ionizing 46

Railings

Recordkeeping: Recording and Reporting
Requirements 47

Reinforced Steel

Respiratory Protection 48

Rollover Protective Structures (ROPS)

Safety Nets 49

Saws

Band 50
Portable Circular 50
Radial 50
Swing or Sliding Cut-Off 51
Table 51

Scaffolds, General Requirements

Bricklaying

Erectors and Dismantlers 53
Fall Arrest Systems

Guardrails 54
Mobile

Planking 55
Supported

Suspension (Swing) 56

Signs, Signals, and Barricades
(See Flaggers)

Silica 58

Stairs 58

Steel Erection

Storage

Tire Cages 62

Toeboards 62

Toilets 62

Training and Inspections 63

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
6

Underground Construction 63

Washing Facilities

Water, Working Over or Near 64

Welding, Cutting, and Heating

Wire Ropes, Chains, and Ropes

Woodworking Machinery

Workplace Complaints:
Workers’ Rights 67

OSHA Assistance, Services
and Programs

NIOSH Health Hazard
Evaluation Program

How to Contact OSHA

OSHA Regional Offices

OSHA-Approved State Plans

CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY DIGEST
7

Foreword

The Construction Industry Digest contains
summaries of the most frequently used standards
in the construction industry. The standards are
presented alphabetically followed by the reference
to the appropriate regulation. With few exceptions,
standards in this digest are from Title 29 of the
Code of Federal Regulations (CFR), Part 1926.

Remember, this booklet is only a digest of basic
applicable standards and should not be
considered as a complete substitute for any
provisions of the Occupational Safety and Health
Act of 1970 (OSH Act), or for any standards issued
under the OSH Act. The requirements discussed in
this publication are summarized and abbreviated.
The actual source standards are referenced at
the end of each topic discussed; consult the CFR
for a more complete explanation of the specific
standards listed.

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
8

General

Employers have the responsibility to provide a
safe workplace. Employers MUST provide their
employees with a workplace that does not have
serious hazards and follow all relevant OSHA
safety and health standards.

Employers must comply with specific standards.
All employers in the construction industry must
also have injury and illness prevention programs.
Contractors and employers who do construction
work must comply with standards in 29 CFR
1926. Subpart C, General Safety and Health
Provisions, as well as other specific sections of
these standards, include the responsibilities for
each contractor/employer to initiate and maintain
injury and illness prevention programs, provide
for a competent person to conduct frequent and
regular inspections, and instruct each employee
to recognize and avoid unsafe conditions and
know what regulations are applicable to the work
environment. Employees must be provided
training in a language and vocabulary they can
understand.

OSHA Worksite Investigations

OSHA conducts on-site inspections of worksites
to enforce the OSHA law that protects workers
and their rights. Inspections are initiated without
advance notice, conducted using on-site or
telephone and facsimile investigations, and
performed by highly trained compliance officers.
Worksite inspections are conducted based on the
following priorities:

� Imminent danger;

� A fatality or hospitalizations;
� Worker complaints and referrals;
� Targeted inspections – particular hazards, high
injury rates; and

� Follow-up inspections.

CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY DIGEST
9

Inspections are conducted without employers
knowing when or where they will occur. The
employer is not informed in advance that there
will be an inspection, regardless of whether it is
in response to a complaint or is a programmed
inspection.

Frequently Used Standards in
Construction

Access to Medical and Exposure Records

Each employer shall permit employees, their
designated representatives, and OSHA direct
access to employer-maintained exposure and
medical records. The standard limits access only
to those employees who are, have been (including
former employees), or will be exposed to toxic
substances or harmful physical agents. 1910.1020
made applicable to construction by 1926.33

Each employer must preserve and maintain
accurate medical and exposure records for each
employee. Exposure records and data analyses
based on them are to be kept for 30 years. Medical
records are to be kept for at least the duration
of employment plus 30 years. Background data
for exposure records such as laboratory reports
and work sheets need to be kept for only 1 year.
1910.1020(b)(3), .1020(d)(1)(i), and .1020(d)(1)(ii)

Records of employees who have worked for
less than 1 year need not be retained after
employment if they are provided to the employee
upon the termination of employment. First-
aid records of one-time treatment need not be
retained for any specified period. 1910.1020(d)(1)(i)
(B) and (C)

Aerial Lifts

Aerial lifts, powered or manual, include, but are
not limited to, the following types of vehicle-
mounted aerial devices used to elevate personnel
to jobsites above ground: extensible boom
platforms, aerial ladders, articulating boom
platforms, and vertical towers. 1926.453(a)(1)

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
10

When operating aerial lifts, employers must
ensure that employees are

� Trained,
� Authorized,
� Setting brakes,
� Positioning outriggers on pads or a solid surface,
� Not exceeding boom and basket load limits,
� Attached to the boom or basket with a restraint
device or personal fall arrest system,

� Standing firmly on the floor of the basket,
� Not climbing on the edge of the basket or using
ladders, planks, or other devices for a work
position. 1926.453(b) and 1926.454

In addition, manufacturers (or the equivalent, such
as a nationally recognized testing laboratory) must
certify in writing that all modifications to aerial lifts
conform to applicable OSHA and ANSI A92.2-1969
provisions, and are at least as safe as the
equipment was before modification. 1926.453(a)(2)

Air Tools

Pneumatic power tools shall be secured to the
hose in a positive manner to prevent accidental
disconnection. 1926.302(b)(1)

Safety clips or retainers shall be securely installed
and maintained on pneumatic impact tools to
prevent attachments from being accidentally
expelled. 1926.302(b)(2)

The manufacturer’s safe operating pressure for all
fittings shall not be exceeded. 1926.302(b)(5)

All hoses exceeding 1/2-inch (1.3-centimeters)
inside diameter shall have a safety device at the
source of supply or branch line to reduce pressure
in case of hose failure. 1926.302(b)(7)

Asbestos

Each employer who has a workplace or work
operation where exposure monitoring is required
must perform monitoring to determine accurately
the airborne concentrations of asbestos to which
employees may be exposed. 1926.1101(f)(1)(i)

CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY DIGEST

Employers also must ensure that no employee is
exposed to an airborne concentration of asbestos
in excess of 0.1 fiber per cubic centimeter of air (f/
cc) as an 8-hour time-weighted average (TWA).
1926.1101(c)(1)

In addition, employers must ensure that no
employee is exposed to an airborne concentration
of asbestos in excess of 1 f/cc as averaged over a
sampling period of 30 minutes. 1926.1101(c)(2)

Respirators must be used during (1) all Class I
asbestos jobs; (2) all Class II work where an
asbestos-containing material is not removed
substantially intact; (3) all Class II and III work
not using wet methods, except on sloped roofs;
(4) all Class II and III work without a negative
exposure assessment; (5) all Class III jobs where
thermal system insulation or surfacing asbestos-
containing or presumed asbestos-containing
material is cut, abraded, or broken; (6) all Class
IV work within a regulated area where respirators
are required; (7) all work where employees
are exposed above the PEL or STEL; and (8) in
emergencies. 1926.1101(h)(1)(i) through (viii)

The employer must provide and require the use of
protective clothing – such as coveralls or similar
whole-body clothing, head coverings, gloves, and
foot coverings – for:

� Any employee exposed to airborne asbestos
exceeding the PEL or STEL,

� Work without a negative exposure assessment, or

� Any employee performing Class I work involving
the removal of over 25 linear or 10 square feet
(10 square meters) of thermal system insulation
or surfacing asbestos containing or presumed
asbestos-containing materials. 1926.1101(i)(1)

The employer must provide a medical surveillance
program for all employees who – for a combined
total of 30 or more days per year – engage in
Class I, II, or III work or are exposed at or above
the PEL or STEL; or who wear negative-pressure
respirators. 1926.1101(m)(1)(i)

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
12

Belt Sanding Machines

Belt sanding machines shall be provided with
guards at each nip point where the sanding belt
runs onto a pulley. 1926.304(f), incorporated from
ANSI 01.1-1961, Section 4.9.4

The unused run of the sanding belt shall be
guarded against accidental contact. 1926.304(f),
incorporated from ANSI 01.1-1961, Section 4.9.4

Chains (See Wire Ropes, Chains, and Ropes)

Chemicals (See Gases, Vapors, Fumes,
Dusts, and Mists; Asbestos; Lead; Silica;
and Hazard Communication)

Compressed Air, Use of

Compressed air used for cleaning purposes shall
be reduced to less than 30 pounds per square
inch (psi) and then only with effective chip
guarding and personal protective equipment. This
requirement does not apply to concrete form,
mill scale, and similar cleaning operations.
1926.302(b)(4)

Compressed Gas Cylinders

Valve protection caps shall be in place and
secured when compressed gas cylinders are
transported, moved, or stored. 1926.350(a)(1)

Cylinder valves shall be closed when work is
finished and when cylinders are empty or are
moved. 1926.350(a)(8)

Compressed gas cylinders shall be secured in an
upright position at all times, except if necessary
for short periods of time when cylinders are
actually being hoisted or carried. 1926.350(a)(9)

Cylinders shall be kept far enough away from the
actual welding or cutting operations so that
sparks, hot slag, or flame will not reach them.

CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY DIGEST
13

When this is impractical, fire-resistant shields
shall be provided. Cylinders shall be placed where
they cannot become part of an electrical circuit.
1926.350(b)(1) through (2)

Oxygen and fuel gas pressure regulators,
including their related gauges, shall be in proper
working order while in use. 1926.350(h)

Concrete and Masonry Construction

No construction loads shall be placed on a
concrete structure or portion of a concrete
structure unless the employer determines, based
on information received from a person who is
qualified in structural design, that the structure or
portion of the structure is capable of supporting
the loads. 1926.701(a)

No employee shall be permitted to work under
concrete buckets while buckets are being elevated
or lowered into position. 1926.701(e)(1)

To the extent practical, elevated concrete buckets
shall be routed so that no employee or the fewest
number of employees is exposed to the hazards
associated with falling concrete buckets.
1926.701(e)(2)

Formwork shall be designed, fabricated, erected,
supported, braced, and maintained so that it is
capable of supporting – without failure – all vertical
and lateral loads that may reasonably be anticipated
to be applied to the formwork. 1926.703(a)(1)

Forms and shores (except those used for slabs on
grade and slip forms) shall not be removed until
the employer determines that the concrete has
gained sufficient strength to support its weight and
superimposed loads. Such determination shall be
based on compliance with one of the following:

� The plans and specifications stipulate conditions
for removal of forms and shores, and such
conditions have been followed, or

� The concrete has been properly tested with an
appropriate American Society for Testing
Materials (ASTM) standard test method designed

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION

to indicate the concrete compressive strength,
and the test results indicate that the concrete has
gained sufficient strength to support its weight
and superimposed loads. (ASTM, 100 Barr
Harbor Drive, West Conshohocken, PA 19428;
(610) 832-9585). 1926.703(e)(1)(i) through (ii)

A limited access zone shall be established
whenever a masonry wall is being constructed.
The limited access zone shall conform to the
following:

� Established prior to the start of construction of
the wall,

� Equal to the height of the wall to be constructed
plus 4 feet (1.2 meters), and shall run the entire
length of the wall,

� Established on the side of the wall that will be
unscaffolded,

� Restricted to entry by employees actively
engaged in constructing the wall. No other
employees shall be permitted to enter the zone,

� Remain in place until the wall is adequately
supported to prevent overturning and to prevent
collapse; where the height of a wall is more than
8 feet (2.4 meters), the limited access zone shall
remain in place until the requirements of
paragraph (b) of this section have been met.
1926.706(a)(1) through (5)

All masonry walls more than 8 feet (2.4384
meters) in height shall be adequately braced
to prevent overturning and to prevent collapse
unless the wall is adequately supported so that
it will not overturn or collapse. The bracing shall
remain in place until permanent supporting
elements of the structure are in place. 1926.706(b)

Confined Spaces

All employees required to enter into confined or
enclosed spaces must be instructed as to the
nature of the hazards involved, the necessary
precautions to be taken, and in the use of
required protective and emergency equipment.

CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY DIGEST
15

The employer shall comply with any specific
regulations that apply to work in dangerous or
potentially dangerous areas. Confined or enclosed
spaces include, but are not limited to, storage
tanks, process vessels, bins, boilers, ventilation or
exhaust ducts, sewers, underground utility vaults,
tunnels, pipelines, and open top spaces more than
4 feet deep (1.2 meters) such as pits, tubs, vaults,
and vessels. 1926.21(b)(6)(i) through (ii)

Cranes and Derricks

Before assembly or use of a crane, ground
conditions must be firm, drained, and graded so
that the equipment manufacturer’s specifications
for adequate support and degree of level are met.
1926.1402(b)

A competent person must begin a visual inspection
prior to each shift during which the equipment will
be used, which must be completed before or during
the shift. The inspection must consist of observation
for apparent deficiencies. 1926.1412(d)(1)

A qualified person must conduct a comprehensive
inspection at least every 12 months. 1926.1412(f)(1)

The employer must comply with all manufacturer
procedures applicable to the operational functions
of equipment, including its use with attachments.
1926.1417(a)

Hand signal charts must be either posted on the
equipment or conspicuously posted in the vicinity
of the hoisting operations. 1926.1422

A personal fall arrest system is permitted to be
anchored to the crane/derrick’s hook (or other part
of the load line) where a qualified person has
determined the set-up and rated capacity of the
crane/derrick (including the hook, load line, and
rigging) meets or exceeds the requirements in
§1926.502(d)(15) and no load is suspended from
the load line when the personal fall arrest system
is anchored to the crane/derrick’s hook (or other
part of the load line). The equipment operator
must be at the work site and know the equipment
is being used for this purpose. 1926.1423(j)

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
16

Where available, hoisting routes that minimize the
exposure of employees to hoisted loads must be
used, to the extent consistent with public safety.
1926.1425(a)

The employer must ensure that, prior to operating
any equipment covered under Subpart CC, the
person operating the equipment is qualified or
certified to operate the equipment. Exceptions:
operation of derricks, sideboom cranes, and
equipment with a rated hoisting/lifting capacity of
2,000 pounds or less. 1926.1427(a)(1) through (3)

On equipment with a rated hoisting/lifting capacity
of 2,000 pounds or less the employer must train
each operator, prior to operating the equipment,
on the safe operation of the type of equipment the
operator will be using. 1926.1441(e)

Demolition

Prior to permitting employees to start demolition
operations, a competent person shall make an
engineering survey of the structure to determine
the condition of the framing, floors, and walls, and
possibility of unplanned collapse of any portion
of the structure. A similar survey of any adjacent
structure where employees may be exposed shall
be completed. The employer shall have in writing
evidence that such a survey has been performed.
1926.850(a)

During balling or claiming operations, employers
shall not permit any workers in any area that can
be adversely affected by demolition operations.
Only those workers necessary for the performance
of the operations shall be permitted in this area at
any other time. 1926.859(a)

Disposal Chutes

Whenever materials are dropped more than 20
feet (6 meters) to any exterior point of a building,
an enclosed chute shall be used. 1926.252(a)

CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY DIGEST
17

When debris is dropped through holes in the floor
without the use of chutes, the area where the
material is dropped shall be enclosed with
barricades not less than 42 inches high (106.7
centimeters) and not less than 6 feet (1.8 meters)
back from the projected edges of the opening
above. Warning signs of the hazard of falling
material shall be posted at each level. 1926.252(b)

Note: During demolition, 1926.852 applies to
chutes and 1926.853 applies to the removal of
materials through floor openings.

Diving

The employer shall develop and maintain a safe
practice manual, and make it available at the dive
location for each dive team member. 1910.420(a)
made applicable to construction by 1926.1080

The employer shall keep a record of each dive.
The record shall contain the diver’s name, his
or her supervisor’s name, date, time, location,
type of dive (scuba, mixed gas, surface supply),
underwater and surface conditions, and maximum
depth and bottom time. 1910.423(d)(1)(i) through
(vi) made applicable to construction by 1926.1083

Each dive team member shall have the experience
or training necessary to perform assigned
tasks safely. 1910.410(a)(1) made applicable to
construction by 1926.10

Each dive team member shall be briefed on the
tasks, safety procedures, unusual hazards or
environmental conditions, and modifications
made to the operating procedures. 1910.421(f)
made applicable to construction by 1926.1081

The dive shall be terminated when a diver
requests it, the diver fails to respond correctly,
communication is lost, or when the diver begins
to use the reserve breathing gas. 1910.422(i)(1)
through (4) made applicable to construction by
1926.1082.

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
18

Drinking Water

An adequate supply of potable water shall be
provided in all places of employment. 1926.51(a)(1)

Portable drinking water containers shall be
capable of being tightly closed and equipped with
a tap. 1926.51(a)(2)

Using a common drinking cup is prohibited.
1926.51(a)(4)

Where single service cups (to be used but once)
are supplied, both a sanitary container for unused
cups and a receptacle for used cups shall be
provided. 1926.51(a)(5)

Electrical Installations

Employers must provide either ground-fault circuit
interrupters (GFCIs) or an assured equipment
grounding conductor program to protect employees
from ground-fault hazards at construction sites.
The two options are detailed below.

� All 120-volt, single-phase, 15- and 20-ampere
receptacles that are not part of the permanent
wiring must be protected by GFCIs. Receptacles
on smaller generators are exempt under certain
conditions, or

� An assured equipment grounding conductor
program covering extension cords, receptacles,
and cord- and plug-connected equipment must
be implemented. The program must include the
following:

� A written description of the program,

� At least one competent person to implement the
program,

� Daily visual inspections of extension cords and
cord- and plug-connected equipment for defects.
Equipment found damaged or defective shall not
be used until repaired,

� Continuity tests of the equipment grounding
conductors or receptacles, extension cords, and
cord- and plug-connected equipment. These
tests must generally be made every 3 months,

CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY DIGEST
19

� Equipment that does not meet the above
requirements may not be used,

� Required tests shall be recorded. 1926.404(b)(1)
(i) through (iii)(e)

Light bulbs for general illumination must be
protected from breakage, and metal shell sockets
must be grounded. 1926.405(a)(2)(ii)(E)

Temporary lights must not be suspended by their
cords, unless they are so designed. 1926.405(a)(2)
(ii)(F)

Portable lighting used in wet or conductive
locations, such as drums, tanks, and vessels, must
be operated at no more than 12 volts or must be
protected by a ground-fault circuit interrupter
(GFCI). 1926.405(a)(2)(ii)(G)

Extension cords must be of the three-wire type.
Extension cords and flexible cords used with
temporary and portable lights must be designed
for hard or extra hard usage (for example, types S,
ST, and SO). 1926.405(a)(2)(ii)(J)

Flexible cords must be connected to devices and
fittings so that strain relief is provided which will
prevent pull from being directly transmitted to
joints or terminal screws. 1926.405(g)(2)(iv)

Listed, labeled, or certified equipment shall be
installed and used in accordance with instructions
included in the listing, labeling, or certification.
1926.403(b)(2)

Electrical Work Practices

Employers must not allow employees to work
near live parts of electrical circuits, unless the
employees are protected by one of the following
means:

� Deenergizing and grounding the parts,

� Guarding the part by insulation,

� Any other effective means. 1926.416(a)(1)

In work areas where the exact location of
underground electrical power lines is unknown,
employees using jack hammers, bars, or other

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
20

hand tools that may contact the lines must be
protected by insulating gloves. 1926.416(a)(2)

Barriers or other means of guarding must be used
to ensure that workspace for electrical equipment
will not be used as a passageway during periods
when energized parts of equipment are exposed.
1926.416(b)(1)

Work spaces, walkways, and similar locations
shall be kept clear of cords. 1926.416(b)(2)

Worn or frayed electric cords or cables shall not
be used. 1926.416(e)(1)

Extension cords shall not be fastened with
staples, hung from nails, or suspended by wire.
1926.416(e)(2)

Equipment or circuits that are deenergized must
be rendered inoperative and must have tags
attached at all points where the equipment or
circuits could be energized. 1926.417(b)

Excavating and Trenching

The estimated location of utility installations –
such as sewer, telephone, fuel, electric, water
lines, or any other underground installations that
reasonably may be expected to be encountered
during excavation work – shall be determined
prior to opening an excavation. 1926.651(b)(1)

Utility companies or owners shall be contacted
within established or customary local response
times, advised of the proposed work, and asked
to establish the location of the utility underground
installations prior to the start of actual excavation.
When utility companies or owners cannot
respond to a request to locate underground utility
installations within 24 hours (unless a longer
period is required by state or local law), or cannot
establish the exact location of these installations,
the employer may proceed, provided the employer
does so with caution, and provided detection
equipment or other acceptable means to locate
utility installations are used. 1926.651(b)(2)

CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY DIGEST

When excavation operations approach the
estimated location of underground installations,
the exact location of the installations shall be
determined by safe and acceptable means. While
the excavation is open, underground installations
shall be protected, supported, or removed, as
necessary, to safeguard employees. 1926.651(b)(3)
through (4)

Each employee in an excavation shall be
protected from cave-ins by an adequate protective
system except when excavations are made
entirely in stable rock, or excavations are less than
5 feet (1.5 meters) in depth and examination of
the ground by a competent person provides no
indication of a potential cave-in. 1926.652(a)(1)(i)
through (ii)

Protective systems shall have the capacity to
resist, without failure, all loads that are intended
or could reasonably be expected to be applied or
transmitted to the system. 1926.652(a)(2)

Employees shall be protected from excavated or
other materials or equipment that could pose a
hazard by falling or rolling into excavations.
Protection shall be provided by placing and
keeping such materials or equipment at least 2
feet (0.6 meters) from the edge of excavations, or
by the use of retaining devices that are sufficient
to prevent materials or equipment from falling or
rolling into excavations, or by a combination of
both if necessary. 1926.651(j)(2)

Daily inspections of excavations, the adjacent
areas, and protective systems shall be made by a
competent person for evidence of a situation
that could result in possible cave-ins, indications
of failure of protective systems, hazardous
atmospheres, or other hazardous conditions. An
inspection shall be conducted by the competent
person prior to the start of work and as needed
throughout the shift. Inspections shall also be
made after every rainstorm or other hazard-
increasing occurrence. These inspections are
only required when employee exposure can be
reasonably anticipated. 1926.651(k)(1)

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
22

Where a competent person finds evidence of a
situation that could result in a possible cave-in,
indications of failure of protective systems,
hazardous atmospheres, or other hazardous
conditions, exposed employees shall be removed
from the hazardous area until the necessary
precautions have been taken to ensure their
safety. 1926.651(k)(2)

A stairway, ladder, ramp, or other safe means of
egress shall be located in trench excavations that
are 4 feet (1.2 meters) or more in depth so as to
require no more than 25 feet (7.6 meters) of lateral
travel for employees. 1926.651(c)(2)

Each employee at the edge of an excavation 6
feet deep (1.8 meters) or more in depth shall
be protected from falling by guardrail systems,
fences, barricades when the excavations are not
readily seen because of plant growth or other
visual barrier. 1926.501(b)(7)(i)

Exits

Exits must be free of all obstructions so they can
be used immediately in case of fire or emergency.
1926.34(c)

Explosives and Blasting

Only authorized and qualified persons shall be
permitted to handle and use explosives.
1926.900(a)

Explosives and related materials shall be stored in
approved facilities required under the applicable
provisions of the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and
Firearms regulations contained in 27 CFR Part
55, Commerce in Explosives. (See Subpart K.)
1926.904(a)

Smoking and open flames shall not be permitted
within 50 feet (15.2 meters) of explosives and
detonator storage magazines. 1926.904(c)
Procedures that permit safe and efficient loading
shall be established before loading is started.
1926.905(a)

CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY DIGEST

Eye and Face Protection

Eye and face protection shall be provided when
machines or operations present potential for eye
or face injury. 1926.102(a)(1)

Eye and face protective equipment shall meet the
requirements of ANSI Z87.1-1968, Practice for
Occupational and Educational Eye and Face
Protection. 1926.102(a)(2)

Employees involved in welding operations shall
be furnished with filter lenses or plates of at least
the proper shade number as indicated in Table
E-2. 1926.102(b)(1)

Table E-2 – Filter Lens Shade Numbers for
Protection Against Radiant Energy – 1926.102(b)(1)

Welding operation Shade Number

Shielded metal-arc welding 1/16-, 3/32-, 1/8-,
5/32-inch diameter electrodes

Gas-shielded arc welding (nonferrous) 1/16-,
3/32-, 1/8-, 5/32-inch diameter electrodes

11
Gas-shielded arc welding (nonferrous) 1/16-,
3/32-, 1/8-, 5/32-inch diameter electrodes
12

Shielded metal-arc welding 3/16-, 7/32-,
1/4-inch diameter electrodes

5/16-, 3/8-inch diameter electrodes 14

Atomic hydrogen welding 10-14

Carbon-arc welding 14

Soldering 2

Torch brazing 3 or 4

Medium cutting, 1 inch to 6 inches 4 or 5

Heavy cutting, over 6 inches 5 or 6

Gas welding (light), up to 1/8-inch 4 or 5

Gas welding (medium), 1/8- to 1/2-inch 5 or 6

Gas welding (heavy), over 1/2-inch 6 or 8

Employees exposed to laser beams shall be
furnished suitable laser safety goggles that will
protect for the specific wave length of the laser
and the optical density adequate for the energy
involved. 1926.102(b)(2)(i)

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
24

Fall Protection

Employers are required to assess the workplace to
determine if the walking/working surface on which
employees are to work have the strength and
structural integrity to safely support workers.
Employees are not permitted to work on those
surfaces until it has been determined that the
surfaces have the requisite strength and structural
integrity to support the workers. 1926.501(a)(2)

Where employees are exposed to falling 6 feet
(1.8 meters) or more from an unprotected side or
edge, the employer must select either a guardrail
system, safety net system, or personal fall arrest
system to protect the worker. 1926.501(b)(1)

A personal fall arrest system consists of an
anchorage, connectors, body harness and may
include a lanyard, deceleration device, lifeline, or
a suitable combination of these. Body belts used
for fall arrests are prohibited. 1926.500(b) and
1926.502(d)

Each employee in a hoist area shall be protected
from falling 6 feet (1.8 meters) or more by
guardrail systems or personal fall arrest systems.
If guardrail systems (or chain gate or guardrail)
or portions thereof must be removed to facilitate
hoisting operations, as during the landing of
materials, and a worker must lean through the
access opening or out over the edge of the access
opening to receive or guide equipment and
materials, that employee must be protected by a
personal fall arrest system. 1926.501(b)(3)

Each employee on walking/working surfaces shall
be protected from falling through holes (including
skylights) more than 6 feet (1.8 m) above lower
levels, by personal fall arrest systems, covers,
or guardrail systems erected around such holes.
1926.501(b)(4)(i)

Each employee on ramps, runways, and other
walkways shall be protected from falling 6 feet
or more to lower levels by guardrail systems.
1926.501(b)(6)

CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY DIGEST

Each employee at the edge of an excavation 6
feet deep (1.8 meters) or more in depth shall be
protected from falling by guardrail systems, fences,
barricades when the excavations are not readily
seen because of a visual barrier. 1926.501(b)(7)(i)

Each employee at the edge of a well, pit, shaft,
and similar excavation 6 feet (1.8 meters) or
more in depth shall be protected from falling by
guardrail systems, fences, barricades, or covers.
1926.501(b)(7)(ii)

Each employee performing overhand bricklaying
and related work 6 feet (1.8 meters) or more above
lower levels, on surfaces other than scaffolds,
shall be protected by guardrail systems, safety net
systems, or personal fall arrest systems, or shall
work in a controlled access zone. All employees
reaching more than 10 inches (25.4 centimeters)
below the level of a walking/working surface on
which they are working shall be protected by a
guardrail system, safety net system, or personal
fall arrest systems. 1926.501(b)(9)

Each employee engaged in roofing activities on
low-slope roofs with unprotected sides and
edges 6 feet (1.8 meters) or more above lower
levels shall be protected from falling by guardrail,
safety net, or personal fall arrest systems or a
combination of a:

� Warning line system and guardrail system,

� Warning line system and safety net system,

� Warning line system and personal fall arrest
system, or

� Warning line system and safety monitoring
system.

On low-slope roofs 50 feet (15.2 meters) or less
in width, the use of a safety monitoring system
without a warning line system is permitted.
1926.501(b)(10)

Each employee on a steep roof with unprotected
sides and edges 6 feet (1.8 meters) or more
above lower levels shall be protected by guardrail
systems with toeboards, safety net systems, or
personal fall arrest systems. 1926.501(b)(11)

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
26

Fall Protection, Falling Objects

When an employee is exposed to falling objects,
the employer must ensure that each employee
wear a hard hat and erect toeboards, screens, or
guardrail systems; or erect a canopy structure and
keep potential fall objects far enough from the
edge of the higher level; or barricade the area to
which objects could fall. 1926.501(c)(1) and (2)

Fall Protection, Wall Openings

Each employee working on, at, above, or near wall
openings (including those with chutes attached)
where the outside bottom edge of the wall opening
is 6 feet (1.8 meters) or more above lower levels
and the inside bottom edge of the wall opening is
less than 39 inches (1 meter) above the walking/
working surface must be protected from falling by
the use of a guardrail system, a safety net system,
or a personal fall arrest system. 1926.501(b)(14)

Fire Protection

A fire protection program is to be followed
throughout all phases of the construction and
demolition work involved. It shall provide for
effective firefighting equipment to be available
without delay, and designed to effectively meet all
fire hazards as they occur. 1926.150(a)(1)

Firefighting equipment shall be conspicuously
located and readily accessible at all times, be
periodically inspected, and be maintained in
operating condition. 1926.150(a)(2) to (4)

A fire extinguisher, rated not less than 2A
(acceptable substitutes are a 1/2-inch diameter
garden-type hose not to exceed 100 feet capable
of discharging a minimum of 5 gallons per minute
or a 55-gallon drum of water with two fire pails),
shall be provided for each 3,000 square feet (270
square meters) of the protected building area,
or major fraction thereof. Travel distance from
any point of the protected area to the nearest
fire extinguisher shall not exceed 100 feet (30.5
meters). 1926.150(c)(1)(i) to (iii)

CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY DIGEST
27

The employer shall establish an alarm system at
the worksite so that employees and the local fire
department can be alerted for an emergency.
1926.150(e)(1)

Flaggers

High-visibility clothing

For daytime work, the flagger’s vest, shirt, or
jacket shall be orange, yellow, strong yellow-
green or fluorescent versions of these colors. For
nighttime work, similar outside garments shall be
retroreflective. The retroreflective material shall
be orange, yellow, white, silver, strong yellow-
green, or a fluorescent version of one of these
colors and shall be visible at a minimum distance
of 1,000 feet. The retroreflective clothing shall be
designed to identify clearly the wearer as a person
and be visible through the full range of body
motions. Part VI of the Manual on Uniform Traffic
Control Devices made applicable to construction
by 1926.201(a) and 1926.200(g)(2)

Hand-signaling procedures

The STOP/SLOW paddle, which gives drivers
more positive guidance than red flags, should
be the primary hand-signaling device. Flag use
should be limited to emergencies and at low-
speed and/or low-volume locations that can best
be controlled by a single flagger.

The following methods of signaling with STOP/
SLOW paddles should be used:

� To Stop Traffic – The flagger shall face traffic and
extend the STOP sign paddle in a stationary
position with the arm extended horizontally
away from the body. The free arm should be
raised with the palm toward approaching traffic.

� To Direct Stopped Traffic to Proceed – The
flagger shall face traffic with the SLOW paddle
held in a stationary position with the arm
extended horizontally away from the body. The
flagger should motion with the free hand for
traffic to proceed.

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
28

� To Alert or Slow Traffic – The flagger shall face
traffic with the SLOW sign paddle held in a
stationary position with the arm extended
horizontally away from the body. The flagger
may motion up and down with the free hand,
palm down, indicating that the vehicle should
slow down.

The following methods of signaling with a flag
should be used:

� To Stop Traffic – The flagger shall face traffic
and extend the flag staff horizontally across the
traffic lane in a stationary position, so that the
full area of the flag is visible hanging below the
staff. The free arm should be raised with the
palm toward approaching traffic.

� To Direct Stopped Traffic to Proceed – The
flagger shall face traffic with the flag and arm
lowered from view of the driver. With the
free hand, the flagger should motion traffic to
proceed. Flags shall not be used to signal traffic
to proceed.

� To Alert or Slow Traffic – The flagger shall face
traffic and slowly wave the flag in a sweeping
motion of the extended arm from shoulder level
to straight down, without raising the arm above
a horizontal position.

Flammable and Combustible Liquids

Only approved containers and portable tanks shall
be used for storing and handling flammable and
combustible liquids. 1926.152(a)(1)

No more than 25 gallons (94.7 liters) of flammable
or combustible liquids shall be stored in a room
outside of an approved storage cabinet. No more
than three storage cabinets may be located in a
single storage area. 1926.152(b)(1) and (3)

Inside storage rooms for flammable and
combustible liquids shall be of fire-resistant
construction, have self-closing fire doors at all
openings, 4-inch (10 centimeter) sills or depressed
floors, a ventilation system that provides at least

CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY DIGEST
29

six air changes within the room per hour, and
electrical wiring and equipment approved for
Class 1, Division 1 locations. 1926.152(b)(4)

Storage in containers outside buildings shall not
exceed 1,100 gallons (4,169 liters) in any one pile
or area. The storage area shall be graded to divert
possible spills away from buildings or other
exposures, or shall be surrounded by a curb or
dike. 1926.152(c)(1) and (3)

Outdoor portable tanks shall be located at least 20
feet (6 meters) from any building. 1926.152(c)(4)(i)

Storage areas shall be free from weeds, debris,
and other combustible materials not necessary to
the storage. 1926.152(c)(5)

Flammable liquids shall be kept in closed
containers when not actually in use. 1926.152(f)(1)

Conspicuous and legible signs prohibiting
smoking shall be posted in service and refueling
areas. 1926.152(g)(9)

Forklifts (See Powered Industrial Trucks)

Gases, Vapors, Fumes, Dusts, and Mists

Exposure to toxic gases, vapors, fumes, dusts,
and mists at a concentration above those
specified in Appendix A, shall be avoided.
1926.55(a) and 1926.55 Appendix A

Administrative or engineering controls must be
implemented whenever feasible to comply with
Threshold Limit Values. When engineering and
administrative controls are not feasible to achieve
full compliance, protective equipment or other
protective measures shall be used to keep the
exposure of employees to air contaminants
within the limits prescribed. Any equipment and
technical measures used for this purpose must
first be approved for each particular use by a
competent industrial hygienist or other technically
qualified person. Whenever respirators are used,
their use shall comply with 1910.134, made
applicable to construction by 1926.103. 1926.55(b)

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
30

General Duty Clause

Hazardous conditions or practices not covered in
an OSHA standard may be covered under Section
5(a)(1) of the Occupational Safety and Health
Act of 1970, which states: “Each employer shall
furnish to each of his employees employment
and a place of employment which are free from
recognized hazards that are causing or are likely
to cause death or serious physical harm to his
employees.”

Grinding

All abrasive wheel bench and stand grinders
shall be equipped with safety guards that cover
the spindle ends, nut and flange projections, and
are strong enough to withstand the effects of a
bursting wheel. 1926.303(b)(1), (2), and (c)(1)

An adjustable work rest of rigid construction shall
be used on floor and bench-mounted grinders,
with the work rest kept adjusted to a clearance not
to exceed 1/8-inch (0.3 centimeters) between the
work rest and the surface of the wheel.
1926.303(c)(2)

All abrasive wheels shall be closely inspected and
ring-tested before mounting to ensure that they
are free from cracks or other defects. 1926.303(c)(7)

Portable abrasive wheel tools used for external
grinding shall be provided with safety guards,
except when the wheels are 2 inches (5
centimeters) or less in diameter or the work
location makes it impossible (then a wheel
equipped with safety flanges shall be used).
1926.303(c)(3)

Portable abrasive wheel tools used for internal
grinding shall be provided with safety flanges,
except when the wheels are 2 inches (5
centimeters) or less in diameter or the wheel is
entirely inside the work. 1926.303(c)(4)

CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY DIGEST
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Hand Tools

All hand and power tools and similar equipment,
whether furnished by the employer or employee,
shall be maintained in a safe condition. Employers
shall not issue or permit the use of unsafe hand
tools. 1926.300(a) and 1926.301(a)

Wrenches shall not be used when jaws are sprung
to the point that slippage occurs. Impact tools
shall be kept free of mushroomed heads. The
wooden handles of tools shall be kept free of
splinters or cracks and shall be kept tight in the
tool. 1926.301(b) through (d)

Electric power operated tools shall either be
approved double-insulated, or be properly
grounded in accordance with Subpart K of the
standard. 1926.302(a)(1)

Hazard Communication

Employers shall develop, implement, and
maintain at the workplace a written hazard
communication program for their workplaces.
Employers must inform their employees of the
availability of the program, including the required
list(s) of hazardous chemicals, and material safety
data sheets required. 1910.1200(e)(1) and (e)(4)
made applicable to construction by 1926.

The chemical manufacturer, importer, or
distributor shall ensure that each container of
hazardous chemicals leaving the workplace is
labeled, tagged, or marked with the identity
of the hazardous chemical(s), the appropriate
hazard warnings, and the name and address of
the chemical manufacturer, importer, or other
responsible party. 1910.1200(f)(1) made applicable
to construction by 1926.59

The employer shall ensure that each container of
hazardous chemicals in the workplace is labeled,
tagged or marked with the following information:

� Identity of the hazardous chemical(s) contained
therein, and

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION

� Appropriate hazard warnings, or alternatively,
words, pictures, symbols, or combination
thereof, which provide at least general
information regarding the hazards of the
chemicals, and which, in conjunction with the
other information immediately available to
employees under the hazard communication
program, will provide employees with specific
information regarding the physical and health
hazards of the hazardous chemical. 1910.1200(f)
(5) made applicable to construction by 1926.59

Chemical manufacturers and importers shall
obtain or develop a material safety data sheet for
each hazardous chemical they produce or import.
Employers shall have a material safety data
sheet for each hazardous chemical they use.
1910.1200(g)(1) made applicable to construction
by 1926.59

Employers shall provide employees with
information and training on hazardous chemicals
in their work area at the time of their initial
assignment, and whenever a new hazard is
introduced into their work area. Employers shall
also provide employees with information on any
operations in their work area where hazardous
chemicals are present, and the location and
availability of the written hazard communication
program, including the required list(s) of
hazardous chemicals, and material safety data
sheets required by the standard. 1910.1200(h)
(1) and (2)(i) through (iii) made applicable to
construction by 1926.59

Employers who produce, use, or store hazardous
chemicals at multi-employer workplaces shall
additionally ensure that their hazard communication
program includes the methods the employer will
use to provide other employer(s) with a copy
of the material safety data sheet for hazardous
chemicals which employees of other employer(s)
may be exposed to while working; the methods
the employer will use to inform other employer(s)

CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY DIGEST
33

of any precautionary measures for the protection
of employees; and the methods the employer will
use to inform the other employer(s) of the labeling
system used in the workplace. 1910.1200(e)(2)
made applicable to construction by 1926.59

Hazardous Waste Operations

Employers must develop and implement a written
safety and health program for employees involved
in hazardous waste operations. At a minimum, the
program shall have an organizational structure, a
comprehensive workplan, standard operating
procedures, a site specific safety and health plan
(which need not repeat the standard operating
procedures), the training program, and medical
surveillance program. 1926.65(b)(1)

A site control program also shall be developed and
shall include, at a minimum, a map, work zones,
buddy systems, site communications – including
alerting means for emergencies – standard
operating procedures or safe work practices, and
identification of the nearest medical assistance.
1926.65(d)(3)

Training must be provided for all site employees,
their supervisors, and management who are
exposed to health or safety hazards before they
are permitted to engage in hazardous waste
operations. 1926.65(e)(1)(i)

Head Protection

Head protective equipment (helmets) shall be
worn in areas where there is a possible danger of
head injuries from impact, flying or falling objects,
or electrical shock and burns. 1926.100(a)

Helmets for protection against impact and
penetration of falling and flying objects shall meet
the requirements of ANSI Z89.1-1969. Helmets for
protection against electrical shock and burns
shall meet the requirements of ANSI Z89.2-1971.
1926.100(b) and (c)

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
34

Hearing Protection

Feasible engineering or administrative controls
shall be utilized to protect employees against
sound levels in excess of those shown in Table D-2.

When engineering or administrative controls fail
to reduce sound levels within the limits of Table
D-2, ear protective devices shall be provided and
used. 1926.52(b) and .101(a)

Plain cotton is not an acceptable protective device.
1926.101(c)

In all cases where the sound levels exceed
the values shown in Table D-2, a continuing,
effective hearing conservation program shall be
administered. 1926.52(d)(1)

OSHA considers the following topics to be
valuable in a hearing conservation program:

� Monitoring employee noise exposures (to
determine if sound levels exceed those shown in
1926.52 Table D-2 at the right),

� Using engineering, work practice and
administrative controls, and personal protective
equipment measures (see “Training and Hazard
Control” 1926.21(b)(2)),

� Fitting each overexposed employee with
appropriate hearing protectors 1926.101(b),

� Training employees in the effects of noise and
protection measures (see “Training and Hazard
Control” 1926.21(b)(2),

� Explaining procedures for preventing further
hearing loss, and recordkeeping and reporting.

For more information: OSHA describes hearing
conservation program requirements for general
industry in the General Industry Occupational
Noise Exposure standard 1910.95(c) – (o).

CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY DIGEST
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Table D-2 – Permissible Noise Exposures –
1926.52(d)(1)

Duration per day, hours: Sound Level/dBA slow response

8 90

6 92

4 95

3 97

2 100

1 1/2 102

1 105

1/2 110

1/4 or less 115

Exposure to impulsive or impact noise should not
exceed 140 dB peak sound pressure level.
1926.52(e)

Heating Devices, Temporary

When heating devices are used, fresh air shall be
supplied in sufficient quantities to maintain the
health and safety of workers. 1926.154(a)(1)

Solid fuel salamanders are prohibited in buildings
and on scaffolds. 1926.154(d)

Highway Work Zones (See Flaggers and
Signs, Signals, and Barricades)

Hoists, Material and Personnel

The employer shall comply with the
manufacturer’s specifications and limitations.
1926.552(a)(1)

Rated load capacities, recommended operating
speeds, and special hazard warnings or
instructions shall be posted on cars and platforms.
1926.552(a)(2)

Hoistway entrances of material hoists shall be
protected by substantial full width gates or bars
that are painted with diagonal contrasting colors
such as black and yellow stripes. 1926.552(b)(2)

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
36

Hoistway doors or gates of personnel hoists shall
be not less than 6 feet 6 inches (198.1 meters)
high and shall be protected with mechanical locks
that cannot be operated from the landing side
and that are accessible only to persons on the car.
1926.552(c)(4)

Overhead protective coverings shall be provided
on the top of the hoist cage or platform.
1926.552(b)(3) and (c)(7)

All material hoists shall conform to the
requirements of ANSI A10.5-1969, Safety
Requirements for Material Hoists. 1926.552(b)(8)

The requirements of 1926.1431 apply when one
or more employees are hoisted using equipment
covered by Subpart CC, Cranes and Derricks in
Construction.

Hooks (See Wire Ropes, Chains, and Ropes)

Housekeeping

Form and scrap lumber with protruding nails and
all other debris shall be kept clear from all work
areas. 1926.25(a)

Combustible scrap and debris shall be removed at
regular intervals. 1926.25(b)

Containers shall be provided for collection and
separation of all refuse. Covers shall be provided
on containers used for flammable or harmful
substances. Waste shall be disposed of at
frequent intervals. 1926.25(c)

Illumination

Construction areas, aisles, stairs, ramps, runways,
corridors, offices, shops, and storage areas
shall be lighted to not less than the minimum
illumination intensities listed in Table D-3 while
any work is in progress. 1926.26

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Table D-3 – Minimum Illumination Intensities
in Footcandles

Footcandles: Area of Operation

5……..General construction area lighting

3……..General construction areas, concrete
placement, excavation, waste areas,
accessways, active storage areas, loading
platforms, refueling, and field maintenance
areas

5……..Indoor warehouses, corridors, hallways,
and exitways

5……..Tunnels, shafts, and general underground
work areas (Exception: minimum of 10
footcandles is required at tunnel and shaft
heading during drilling, mucking, and scaling.
Bureau of Mines- approved cap lights shall be
acceptable for use in the tunnel heading)

10…….General construction plant and
shops (e.g., batch plants, screening plants,
mechanical and electrical equipment rooms,
carpenters shops, rigging lofts and active store
rooms, barracks or living quarters, locker or
dressing rooms, mess halls, indoor toilets, and
workrooms)

30…….First-aid stations, infirmaries, and offices

1926.56(a)

Jointers

A jointer guard shall automatically adjust itself
to cover the unused portion of the head and the
section of the head on the working side and the
back side of the fence or cage. The jointer guard
shall remain in contact with the material at all
times. ANSI 01.1-1961, section 4.3.2, incorporated
by reference to construction by 1926.304(f)

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
38

Ladders

A ladder (or stairway) must be provided at all
work points of access where there is a break in
elevation of 19 inches (48.2 centimeters) or more
except if a suitable ramp, runway, embankment,
or personnel hoist is provided to give safe access
to all elevations. 1926.1051(a)

Portable and fixed ladders with structural defects –
such as broken or missing rungs, cleats or steps,
broken or split rails, or corroded components –
shall be withdrawn from service by immediately
tagging “DO NOT USE” or marking in a manner
that identifies them as defective, or shall be
blocked, such as with a plywood attachment that
spans several rungs. Repairs must restore ladder
to its original design criteria. 1926.1053(b)(16), (17)
(i) through (iii) and (18)

Portable non-self-supporting ladders shall have
clear access at top and bottom and be placed at
an angle so the horizontal distance from the top
support to the foot of the ladder is approximately
one-quarter the working length of the ladder.
1926.1053(b)(5)(i) and (b)(9)

Portable ladders used for access to an upper landing
surface must extend a minimum of 3 feet (0.9
meters) above the landing surface, or where not
practical, be provided with grab rails and be secured
against movement while in use. 1926.1053(b)(1)

Ladders must have nonconductive siderails if they
are used where the worker or the ladder could
contact energized electrical conductors or
equipment. 1926.1053(b)(12)

Job-made ladders shall be constructed for their
intended use. Cleats shall be uniformly spaced not
less than 10 inches (25.4 centimeters) apart, nor
more than 14 inches (35.5 centimeters) apart.
1926.1053(a)(3)(i)

Wood job-made ladders with spliced side rails
must be used at an angle where the horizontal
distance is one-eighth the working length of the
ladder. 1926.1053(b)(5)(ii)

CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY DIGEST
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Fixed ladders must be used at a pitch no greater
than 90 degrees from the horizontal, measured
from the back side of the ladder. 1926.1053(b)(5)(iii)

Ladders must be used only on stable and level
surfaces unless secured to prevent accidental
movement. 1926.1053(b)(6)

Ladders must not be used on slippery surfaces
unless secured or provided with slip-resistant feet
to prevent accidental movement. Slip-resistant
feet must not be used as a substitute for the care
in placing, lashing, or holding a ladder upon a
slippery surface. 1926.1053 (b)(7)

Employers must provide a training program for
each employee using ladders and stairways. The
program must enable each employee to recognize
hazards related to ladders and stairways and to
use proper procedures to minimize these hazards.
For example, employers must ensure that each
employee is trained by a competent person in the
following areas, as applicable:

� The nature of fall hazards in the work area,

� The correct procedures for erecting, maintaining,
and disassembling the fall protection systems to
be used,

� The proper construction, use, placement, and
care in handling of all stairways and ladders, and

� The maximum intended load-carrying capacities
of ladders used.

In addition, retraining must be provided for each
employee, as necessary, so that the employee
maintains the understanding and knowledge
acquired through compliance with the standard.
1926.1060(a) and (b)

Lasers

Only qualified and trained employees shall be
assigned to install, adjust, and operate laser
equipment. 1926.54(a)

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
40

Employees shall wear proper (antilaser) eye
protection when working in areas where there is a
potential exposure to direct or reflected laser light
greater than 0.005 watts (5 milliwatts). 1926.54(c)

Beam shutters or caps shall be utilized, or the
laser turned off, when laser transmission is
not actually required. When the laser is left
unattended for a substantial period of time – such
as during lunch hour, overnight, or at change of
shifts – the laser shall be turned off. 1926.54(e)

Employees shall not be exposed to light intensities
in excess of the following: direct staring – 1
microwatt per square centimeter, incidental
observing – 1 milliwatt per square centimeter, and
diffused reflected light – 2 1/2 watts per square
centimeter. 1926.54(j)(1) through (3)

Employees shall not be exposed to microwave
power densities in excess of 10 milliwatts per
square centimeter. 1926.54(1)

Lead

Each employer who has a workplace or operation
covered by this standard shall initially determine if
any employee may be exposed to lead at or above
the action level of 30 micrograms per cubic meter
(30 µg/m3) of air calculated as an 8-hour time-
weighted average. 1926.62(d)(1)(i)

The employer shall assure that no employee is
exposed to lead at concentrations greater than 50
micrograms per cubic meter (50 µg/m3) of air
averaged over an 8-hour period (the permissible
exposure limit PEL). 1926.62(c)(1)

Whenever there has been a change of equipment,
process, control, personnel, or a new task has
been initiated that may result in additional
employees being exposed to lead at or above
the action level or may result in employees
already exposed at or above the action level
being exposed above the PEL, the employer shall
conduct additional monitoring. 1926.62(d)(7)

CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY DIGEST
41

Training shall be provided in accordance with the
Hazard Communication standard and additional
training shall be provided for employees exposed
at or above the action level. 1926.62(1)

Prior to the start of the job, each employer shall
establish and implement a written compliance
program. 1926.62(e)(2)(i)

Where employees are required to use respirators,
the employer must implement a respiratory
protection program. 1910.134(b) through (d)
(except (d)(iii)), and (f) through (m) made
applicable to construction by 1926.62(f)(2)(i)

Where airborne concentrations of lead equal or
exceed the action level at any time, an initial
medical examination consisting of blood sampling
and analysis shall be made available for each
employee prior to initial assignment to the area.
1926.62 Appendix B, viii, paragraph (j)

Lift Slab

Lift-slab operations shall be designed and planned
by a registered professional engineer who has
experience in lift-slab construction. Such plans
and designs shall be implemented by the
employer and shall include detailed instructions
and sketches indicating the prescribed method of
erection. 1926.705(a)

Jacking equipment shall be capable of supporting
at least two and one-half times the load being
lifted during jacking operations. Also, do not
overload the jacking equipment. 1926.705(d)

During erection, no employee, except those
essential to the jacking operation, shall be
permitted in the building or structure while jacking
operations are taking place unless the building
or structure has been reinforced sufficiently to
ensure its integrity. 1926.705(k)(1)

Equipment shall be designed and installed to
prevent slippage; otherwise, the employer shall
institute other measures, such as locking or

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
42

blocking devices, which will provide positive
connection between the lifting rods and
attachments and will prevent components from
disengaging during lifting operations. 1926.705(p)

Liquefied Petroleum Gas

Each system shall have containers, valves,
connectors, manifold valve assemblies, and
regulators of an approved type. 1926.153(a)(1)

Every container and vaporizer shall be provided
with one or more approved safety relief valves or
devices. 1926.153(d)(1)

Containers shall be placed upright on firm
foundations or otherwise firmly secured.
1926.153(g) and (h)(11)

Portable heaters shall be equipped with an
approved automatic device to shut off the flow of
gas in the event of flame failure. 1926.153(h)(8)

All cylinder connectors shall be equipped with
an excess flow valve to minimize the flow of
gas in the event the fuel line becomes ruptured.
1926.153(i)(2)

Storage of liquefied petroleum gas within
buildings is prohibited. 1926.153(j)

Storage locations shall have at least one approved
portable fire extinguisher rated not less than
20-B:C. 1926.153(l)

Medical Services and First Aid

The employer shall ensure the availability of
medical personnel for advice and consultation on
matters of occupational health. 1926.50(a)

When a medical facility is not reasonably
accessible for the treatment of injured employees,
a person qualified to render first aid shall be
available at the worksite. 1926.50(c)

First-aid supplies when required should be readily
available. 1926.50(d)(1)

CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY DIGEST
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In areas where 911 is not available, the telephone
numbers of the physicians, hospitals, or
ambulances shall be conspicuously posted.
1926.50(f)

Motor Vehicles and Mechanized Equipment

All vehicles in use shall be checked at the
beginning of each shift to ensure that all parts,
equipment, and accessories that affect safe
operation are in proper operating condition and
free from defects. All defects shall be corrected
before the vehicle is placed in service. 1926.601
(b)(14)

No employer shall use any motor vehicle,
earthmoving, or compacting equipment having an
obstructed view to the rear unless:

� The vehicle has a reverse signal alarm distin-
guishable from the surrounding noise level, or
the vehicle is backed up only when an observer
signals that it is safe to do so. 1926.601(b)(4)(i)
through (ii) and 602(a)(9)(i) through (ii)

Heavy machinery, equipment, or parts thereof that
are suspended or held aloft shall be substantially
blocked to prevent falling or shifting before
employees are permitted to work under or
between them. 1926.600(a)(3)(i)

Noise (See Hearing Protection)

Personal Protective Equipment

The employer is responsible for requiring the
wearing of appropriate personal protective
equipment in all operations where there is an
exposure to hazardous conditions or where the
need is indicated for using such equipment to
reduce the hazard to the employees. 1926.28(a)
and 1926.95(a) through (c)

Employers must provide most personal protective
equipment at no cost to employees. 1926.95(d)(1),
see 1926.95(d)(2) through (6) for exceptions

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
44

OSHA requires employers to provide and for
employees to use specific types of personal
protective equipment in specific standards
throughout 29 CFR 1926. These standards
include, but are not limited to:

� Foot protection. 1926.96

� Head protection. 1926.100

� Hearing protection. 1926.101

� Eye and face protection. 1926.102

� Respiratory protection. 1910.134 made
applicable to construction by 1926.103

� Safety belts, lifelines, and lanyards. 1926.104

� Safety nets. 1926.105

� Working over or near water (life jackets).
1926.106

� Personal fall arrest system. 1926.502(d)

� Protective equipment for use during electrical
work. 1926.416 and 1926.9

Head, hearing, eye and face, safety nets, fall
protection, and working over or near water are
covered in detail in this digest.

Powder-Actuated Tools

Only trained employees shall be allowed to
operate powder-actuated tools. 1926.302(e)(1)

All powder-actuated tools shall be tested daily
before use and all defects discovered before
or during use shall be corrected. 1926.302(e)(2)
through (3)

Tools shall not be loaded until immediately before
use. Loaded tools shall not be left unattended.
1926.302(e)(5) through (6)

Power Transmission and Distribution

Existing conditions shall be determined before
starting work, by an inspection or a test. Such
conditions shall include, but not be limited to,

CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY DIGEST

energized lines and equipment, condition of
poles, and the location of circuits and equipment
including power and communications, cable
television, and fire-alarm circuits. 1926.950(b)(1)

Electric equipment and lines shall be considered
energized until determined otherwise by testing or
until grounding. 1926.950(b)(2) and .954(a)

Operating voltage of equipment and lines shall be
determined before working on or near energized
parts. 1926.950(b)(3)

Rubber protective equipment shall comply with
the provisions of the ANSI J6 series, and shall be
visually inspected before use. 1926.951(a)(1)(i)
through (ii)

Protective equipment of material other than
rubber shall provide equal or better electrical and
mechanical protection. 1926.951(a)(iv)

Powered Industrial Trucks (Forklifts)

Each powered industrial truck operator must be
competent to operate a powered industrial
truck safely, as demonstrated by the successful
completion of the training and evaluation.
1910.178(l)(1)(i) made applicable to construction
by 1926.602(d)

Training shall consist of a combination of formal
instruction (e.g., lecture, discussion, interactive
computer learning, video tape, written material),
practical training (demonstrations performed by
the trainer and practical exercises performed by
the trainee), and evaluation of the operator’s
performance in the workplace. 1910.178(l)(2)(ii)
made applicable to construction by 1926.602(d)

Power Transmission, Mechanical

Belts, gears, shafts, pulleys, sprockets, spindles,
drums, flywheels, chains, or other reciprocating,
rotating, or moving parts of equipment shall be
guarded if such parts are exposed to contact by

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
46

employees or otherwise constitute a hazard.
Guarding shall meet the requirement of ANSI
B15.1-1953 (R 1958), Safety Code for Mechanical
Power Transmission Apparatus. 1926.300(b)(2)

Process Safety Management of Highly
Hazardous Chemicals

Employers shall develop a written plan of action
regarding employee participation and consult
with employees and their representatives on the
conduct and development of process hazards
analyses and on the development of the other
elements of process safety management.
1926.64(c)(1) through (2)

The employer, when selecting a contractor, shall
obtain and evaluate information regarding the
contract employer’s safety performance and
programs. 1926.64(h)(2)(i)

The contract employer shall assure that each
contract employee is trained in the work practices
necessary to safely perform his/her job. 1926.64(h)
(3)(i)

The employer shall perform a pre-startup safety
review for new facilities and for modified facilities
when the modification is significant enough to
require a change in the process safety
information. 1926.64(i)(1)

The employer shall establish and implement
written procedures to maintain the ongoing
integrity of process equipment. 1926.64(j)(2)

Radiation, Ionizing

Pertinent provisions of the Nuclear Regulatory
Commission (NRC) Standards for Protection
Against Radiation (10 CFR Part 20) relating
to protection against occupational radiation
exposure shall apply. 1926.53(a)

Any activity that involves the use of radioactive
materials or X-rays, whether or not under license
from the Nuclear Regulatory Commission, shall

CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY DIGEST
47

be performed by competent persons specially
trained in the proper and safe operation of such
equipment. 1926.53(b)

Railings

Top edge height of top rails or equivalent guardrail
system members shall have a vertical height of
approximately 42 inches (106.6 centimeters), plus
or minus 3 inches (7.6 centimeters) above the
walking/working level. 1926.502(b)(1)

Guardrail systems shall be surfaced so as to
prevent injury to an employee, with a strength to
withstand at least 200 pounds (90 kilograms), the
minimum requirement applied in any outward or
downward direction, at any point along the top
edge. 1926.502(b)(3) and (6)

A stair railing shall be of construction similar to
a standard railing with a vertical height of not
less than 36 inches (91.5 centimeters) from the
upper surface of top rail to the surface of tread
in line with face of riser at forward edge of tread.
1926.1052(c)(3)(i)

Recordkeeping: Recording and
Reporting Requirements

All employers must report the death of any
employee from a work-related incident within
8 hours of learning about it or report within
24 hours any work-related inpatient hospitalization,
amputation or loss of an eye to the closest OSHA
office, or call 1-800-321-OSHA (6742). 1904.39(a)
and (b)(7)

If your company had more than 10 employees
at any time during the last calendar year, you
must keep the OSHA injury and illness records
using the OSHA Forms 300, 300-A, and 301 or the
equivalent form. 1904.1(a)(2) and 1904.29(a) and (b)(4)

If your company had 10 or fewer employees at
all times during the last calendar year, you do
not need to keep OSHA injury and illness records

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
48

unless OSHA or the Bureau of Labor Statistics
informs you in writing that you must keep these
records. 1904.1(a)(1)

Each recordable injury or illness must be entered
on the OSHA Forms 300 and 301 within 7 days of
receiving the information. 1904.29(b)(3)

OSHA injury and illness records must be kept
for all projects. If the project is 1 year or longer
a separate OSHA 300 log must be kept. If the
projects are less than 1 year, these projects may
be placed on one OSHA 300 log that covers all
short-term projects. These records may be kept
at a central location as long as the information is
transferred within 7 days. 1904.30(a), (b)(1) and (2)

The OSHA 300 log must be verified, certified by a
company executive, and posted at the end of each
calendar year. The log must be posted no later
than February 1 of the following year and remain
posted until April 30. 1904.32 (a) and (b)

The OSHA 300 and 301 logs must be kept for 5
years following the year to which they relate.
1904.33(a) and 1904.44

Reinforced Steel

All protruding reinforced steel, onto and into
which employees could fall, shall be guarded to
eliminate the hazard of impalement. 1926.701(b)

No employee (except those essential to the post-
tensioning operations) shall be permitted to be
behind the jack during tensioning operations.
1926.701(c)(1)

Reinforcing steel for walls, piers, columns, and
similar vertical structures shall be adequately
supported to prevent overturning and to prevent
collapse. 1926.703(d)(1)

Employers shall take measures to prevent
unrolled wire mesh from recoiling. Such
measures may include, but are not limited to,
securing each end of the roll or turning over the
roll. 1926.703(d)(2)

CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY DIGEST
49

Respiratory Protection

In emergencies, or when feasible engineering or
administrative controls are not effective in
controlling toxic substances, appropriate
respiratory protective equipment shall be provided
by the employer and shall be used. 1910.134(a)(1)
made applicable to construction by 1926.103

Employers must select a NIOSH-certified respirator.
The respirator must be used in compliance with
the conditions of its certification. 1910.134(d)(1)(ii)
made applicable to construction by 1926.103

Respiratory protective devices shall be
appropriate for the hazardous material
involved and the extent and nature of the work
requirements and conditions. 1910.134(d)(1)(i)
made applicable to construction by 1926.103

Employees required to use respiratory protective
devices shall be thoroughly trained in their use.
1910.134(k) made applicable to construction by
1926.103

Respiratory protective equipment shall be inspected
regularly and maintained in good condition.
1910.134(h) made applicable to construction by
1926.103

Rollover Protective Structures (ROPS)

Rollover protective structures (ROPS) apply to the
following types of materials handling equipment:
all rubber-tired, self-propelled scrapers, rubber-tired
frontend loaders, rubber-tired dozers, wheel-type
agricultural and industrial tractors, crawler tractors,
crawler-type loaders, and motor graders, with or
without attachments, that are used in construction
work. This requirement does not apply to sideboom
pipelaying tractors. 1926.1000(a)(1)

Safety Nets

Safety nets must be installed as close as
practicable under the walking/working surface
on which employees are working, but in no case

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
50

more than 30 feet (9.14 meters) below such level.
When nets are used on bridges, the potential fall
area from the walking/working surface to the net
shall be unobstructed. 1926.502(c)(1)

Safety nets and their installations must be
capable of absorbing an impact force equal to that
produced by the drop test. 1926.502(c)(4)

Saws

Band Saws

All portions of band saw blades shall be enclosed
or guarded, except for the working portion of
the blade between the bottom of the guide rolls
and the table. ANSI 01.1-1961, incorporated by
reference to construction by 1926.304(f)

Band saw wheels shall be fully encased.
ANSI 01.1-1961, incorporated by reference to
construction by 1926.304(f)

Portable Circular Saws

Portable, power-driven circular saws shall be
equipped with guards above and below the base
plate or shoe. The lower guard shall cover the saw
to the depth of the teeth, except for the minimum
arc required to allow proper retraction and contact
with the work, and shall automatically return to
the covering position when the blade is removed
from the work. 1926.304(d)

Circular saws shall have a constant pressure
switch that will shut off the power when the
pressure is released. 1926.300(d)(3)

Radial Saws

Radial saws shall have an upper guard that
completely encloses the upper half of the saw
blade. The sides of the lower exposed portion
of the blade shall be guarded by a device that
will automatically adjust to the thickness of and
remain in contact with the material being cut.
1926.304(g)(1)

CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY DIGEST
51

Radial saws used for ripping shall have nonkickback
fingers or dogs. ANSI 01.1-1961, incorporated by
reference to construction by 1926.304(f)

Radial saws shall be installed so that the cutting
head will return to the starting position when
released by the operator. ANSI 01.1-1961,
incorporated by reference to construction by
1926.304(f)

Swing or Sliding Cut-Off Saws

All swing or sliding cut-off saws shall be provided
with a hood that will completely enclose the upper
half of the saw. ANSI 01.1-1961, incorporated by
reference to construction by 1926.304(f)

Limit stops shall be provided to prevent swing or
sliding type cut-off saws from extending beyond
the front or back edges of the table. ANSI 01.1-
1961, incorporated by reference to construction by
1926.304(f)

Each swing or sliding cut-off saw shall be
provided with an effective device to return the
saw automatically to the back of the table when
released at any point of its travel. ANSI 01.1-1961,
incorporated by reference to construction by
1926.304(f)

Inverted sawing of sliding cut-off saws shall be
provided with a hood that will cover the part of the
saw that protrudes above the top of the table or
material being cut. ANSI 01.1-1961, incorporated by
reference to construction by 1926.304(f)

Table Saws

Circular table saws shall have a hood over the
portion of the saw above the table, so mounted
that the hood will automatically adjust itself to
the thickness of and remain in contact with the
material being cut. 1926.304(h)(1)

Circular table saws shall have a spreader aligned
with the blade, spaced no more than 1/2-inch
(1.27-centimeters) behind the largest blade
mounted in the saw. This provision does not

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
52

apply when grooving, dadoing, or rabbiting.
ANSI 01.1-1961, incorporated by reference to
construction by 1926.304(f)

Circular table saws used for ripping shall have
nonkickback fingers or dogs. ANSI 01.1-1961,
incorporated by reference to construction by
1926.304(f)

Feeder attachments shall have the feed rolls or
other moving parts covered or guarded so as
to protect the operator from hazardous points.
1926.304(c)

Scaffolds, General Requirements

Scaffolds shall be erected, moved, dismantled, or
altered only under the supervision and direction
of a competent person. 1926.451(f)(7)

Scaffolds are any temporary elevated platform
(supported or suspended) and its supporting
structure (including points of anchorage), used for
supporting employees or materials or both.
1926.450(b)

Each employee who performs work on a scaffold
shall be trained by a person qualified to recognize
the hazards associated with the type of scaffold
used and to understand the procedures to
control or minimize those hazards. The training
shall include such topics as the nature of any
electrical hazards, fall hazards, falling object
hazards, the maintenance and disassembly of the
fall protection systems, the use of the scaffold,
handling of materials, the capacity and the
maximum intended load. 1926.454(a)

Fall protection (guardrail systems and personal
fall arrest systems) must be provided for each
employee on a scaffold more than 10 feet (3.1
meters) above a lower level. 1926.451(g)(1)

Each scaffold and scaffold component shall
support without failure its own weight and at
least 4 times the maximum intended load applied
or transmitted to it. Suspension ropes and
connecting hardware must support 6 times the

CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY DIGEST
53

intended load. Scaffolds and scaffold components
shall not be loaded in excess of their maximum
intended loads or rated capacities, whichever is
less. 1926.451(a)(1), (a)(4), (f)(1)

The scaffold platform shall be planked or decked
as fully as possible. 1926.451(b)(1)

The platform shall not deflect more than 1/60 of
the span when loaded. 1926.451(f)(16)

The work area for each scaffold platform
and walkway shall be at least 18 inches (46
centimeters) wide. When the work area must
be less than 18 inches (46 centimeters) wide,
guardrails and/or personal fall arrest systems shall
still be used. 1926.451(b)(2)(ii)

Access must be provided when the scaffold
platforms are more than 2 feet (0.6 m) above
or below a point of access. Direct access is
acceptable when the scaffold is not more than 14
inches (36 centimeters) horizontally and not more
than 24 inches (61 centimeters) vertically from the
other surfaces. Crossbraces shall not be used as a
means of access. 1926.451(e)(1) and (e)(8)

A competent person shall inspect the scaffold,
scaffold components, and ropes on suspended
scaffolds before each work shift and after any
occurrence which could affect the structural
integrity and authorize prompt corrective action.
1926.450 (b), 451(f)(3)

Scaffold, Bricklaying

Employees doing overhand bricklaying from a
supported scaffold shall be protected by a
guardrail or personal fall arrest system on all
sides except the side where the work is being
done. 1926.451(g)(1)(vi)

Scaffold, Erectors and Dismantlers

A competent person shall determine the feasibility
for safe access and fall protection for employees
erecting and dismantling supported scaffolds.
1926.451(e)(9) and (g)(2)

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
54

Scaffold, Fall Arrest Systems

A personal fall arrest system consists of an
anchorage, connectors, a body harness, a
lanyard, and may include a deceleration device.
Anchorages used for attachment shall be capable
of supporting at least 5,000 pounds (22.2 kN) per
employee attached or shall be designed, installed,
and used under the supervision of a qualified
person as part of a complete personal fall arrest
system which maintains a safety factor of at least
two. Personal fall arrest systems used on scaffolds
must be attached by lanyard to a vertical lifeline,
horizontal lifeline, or scaffold structural member.
1926.502(d)(15) and 1926.451(g)(3)

Vertical or horizontal lifelines may be used.
1926.451(g)(3)(ii) through (iv)

Lifelines shall be independent of support lines and
suspension ropes and not attached to the same
anchorage point as the support or suspension
ropes. 1926.451(g)(3)(iii) and (iv)

Employees must be tied off when working from
an aerial lift. Fall restraint systems or personal fall
arrest systems may be used. The use of personal
fall arrest systems must comply with Subpart M.
1926.453(b)(2)(v) and 1926.502(d)

Scaffold, Guardrails

Guardrails shall be installed along all open sides
and ends of platforms before the scaffold is
released for use by employees other than the
erection and dismantling crews. Guardrails are
not required on the front edge of a platform if the
front edge of the platform is less than 14 inches
(36 centimeters) from the face of the work. For
plastering and lathing, the distance is 18 inches
(46 centimeters) or less from the front edge. When
outrigger scaffolds are attached to supported
scaffolds the distance is 3 inches (8 centimeters)
or less from the front edge of the outrigger.
1926.451(b)(3) and (g)(4)

CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY DIGEST
55

The toprail for scaffolds must be 38 inches (0.97
meters) to 45 inches (1.2 meters) from the
platform. Midrails are to be installed approxi-
mately halfway between the toprail and the
platform surface. 1926.451(g)(4)(ii) and (iii)

Toeboards or other barriers are to be used to
protect employees working below. 1926.451(h)

When screens and mesh are used for guardrails,
they shall extend from the top edge of the
guardrail system to the scaffold platform, and
along the entire opening between the supports.
1926.451(g)(4)(v)

Crossbracing is not acceptable as an entire
guardrail system but is acceptable for a toprail
when the crossing point of the two braces is
between 38 inches (0.9 meters) and 48 inches
(1.3 meters) above the work platform and for
midrails when between 20 inches (0.5 meters) and
30 inches (0.8 meters) above the work platform.
The end points of the crossbracing shall be no
more than 48 inches (1.3 meters) apart vertically.
1926.451(g)(4)(xv)

Scaffolds, Mobile

Scaffolds shall be braced by cross, horizontal, or
diagonal braces, or a combination thereof.
Scaffolds must be plumb, level, and squared. All
brace connections must be secured. 1926.452(w)(1)

Each employee on a scaffold more than 10 feet
above a lower level shall be protected from falling
to that lower level by use of guardrail systems or
personal fall arrest systems. 1926.451(g)(1), (g)(1)
(vii), and (g)(4)

Scaffold, Planking

Scaffold planking shall be capable of supporting
without failure its own weight and at least 4 times
the intended load. Solid sawn wood, fabricated
planks, and fabricated platforms may be used as
scaffold planks, following the recommendations

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
56

by the manufacturer or a lumber grading
association or inspection agency. Tables showing
maximum permissible spans, rated load capacity,
nominal thickness, etc., are in Appendix A of
Subpart L (1)(b) and (c). 1926.451(a)(1)

Scaffolds, Supported

Supported scaffolds are platforms supported by
legs, outrigger beams, brackets, poles, uprights,
posts, frames, or similar rigid support. The
structural members, poles, legs, posts, frames, and
uprights, shall be plumb and braced to prevent
swaying and displacement. 1926.451(b) and (c)(3)

Supported scaffolds poles, legs, posts, frames,
and uprights shall bear on base plates and mud
sills, or on another adequate firm foundation.
1926.451(c)(2)

Either the manufacturer’s recommendation or the
following placements shall be used for guys, ties,
and braces: install guys, ties, and braces at the
closest horizontal member to the 4:1 height and
repeat vertically with the top restraint no further
than the 4:1 height from the top:

Vertically

Every 20 feet (6.1 meters) or less for scaffolds less
than 3 feet (0.9 meters) wide;

Every 26 feet (7.9 meters) or less for scaffolds
more than 3 feet (0.9 meters) wide;

Horizontally

At each end;

At intervals not to exceed 30 feet (9.1 meters)
from one end. 1926.451(c)(1)(ii)

Scaffolds, Suspension (Swing)

Each employee more than 10 feet (3.1 meters)
above a lower level shall be protected from falling
by guardrails and a personal fall arrest system
when working from single or two-point suspended
scaffolds and self-contained adjustable scaffolds that
are supported by ropes. 1926.451(g)(1)(ii) and (iv)

CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY DIGEST

Each employee 10 feet (3.1 meters) above a
lower level shall be protected from falling by a
personal fall arrest system when working from a
boatswain’s chair, ladder jack, needle beam, float,
or catenary scaffolds. 1926.451(g)(1)(i)

Lifelines shall be independent of support lines and
suspension ropes and not attached to the same
anchorage point as the support or suspension
ropes. 1926.451(g)(3)(iii) and (iv)

A competent person shall inspect the ropes for
defects prior to each workshift and after every
occurrence which could affect a rope’s integrity,
evaluate the direct connections that support the
load, and determine if two-point and multi-point
scaffolds are secured from swaying. 1926.451(d)
(3)(i), (d)(10), (d)(18), (f)(3)

The use of repaired wire rope is prohibited.
1926.451(d)(7)

Tiebacks shall be secured to a structurally sound
anchorage on the building or structure.
1926.451(d)(3)(ix)

Tiebacks shall not be secured to standpipes,
vents, other piping systems, or electrical conduit.
1926.451(d)(3)(ix) and (d)(5)

A single tieback shall be installed perpendicular to
the face of the building or structure. Two tiebacks
installed at opposing angles are required when a
perpendicular tieback cannot be installed.
1926.451(d)(3)(x)

Only those items specifically designed as
counterweights shall be used. Sand, gravel,
masonry units, rolls of roofing felt, and other such
materials shall not be used as counterweights.
1926.451(d)(3)(ii) and (iii)

Counterweights used for suspended scaffolds
shall be made of materials that can not be easily
dislocated. 1926.451(d)(3)(ii)

Counterweights shall be secured by mechanical
means to the outrigger beams. 1926.451(d)(3)(iv)

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
58

Signs, Signals, and Barricades (See
Flaggers)

Construction areas shall be posted with legible
traffic signs at points of hazard. 1926.200 (g)(1)

Barricades for protection of employees shall
conform to Part 6 of the Manual on Uniform
Traffic Control Devices. 1926.202

Silica

Appropriate engineering controls, personal
protective equipment, respirators, and work
practices shall be used to protect employees from
crystalline silica. 1926.55(a) and (b) and OSHA
National Emphasis Program on Crystalline Silica
1/24/2008

Stairs

A stairway or ladder must be provided at all
worker points of access where there is a break in
elevation of 19 inches (48.3 centimeters) or more
and no ramp, runway, sloped embankment, or
personnel hoist is provided. 1926.1051(a)

Except during construction of the actual stairway,
skeleton metal frame structures and steps must
not be used (where treads and/or landings are to
be installed at a later date), unless the stairs are
fitted with secured temporary treads and landings.
1926.1052(b)(2)

When there is only one point of access between
levels, it must be kept clear to permit free passage
by workers. If free passage becomes restricted,
a second point of access must be provided and
used. 1926.1051(a)(3)

When there are more than two points of access
between levels, at least one point of access must
be kept clear. 1926.1051(a)(4)

All stairway and ladder fall protection systems
must be provided and installed as required by
the stairway and ladder rules before employees

CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY DIGEST
59

begin work that requires them to use stairways
or ladders and their respective fall protection
systems. 1926.1051(b)

Stairways that will not be a permanent part
of the structure on which construction work is
performed must have landings at least 30 inches
deep and 22 inches wide (76.2 x 55.9 centimeters)
at every 12 feet (3.6 meters) or less of vertical rise.
1926.1052(a)(1)

Stairways must be installed at least 30 degrees,
and no more than 50 degrees, from the horizontal.
1926.1052(a)(2)

Where doors or gates open directly onto a
stairway, a platform must be provided, and the
swing of the door shall not reduce the effective
width of the platform to less than 20 inches (50.8
centimeters). 1926.1052(a)(4)

Except during construction of the actual stairway,
stairways with metal pan landings and treads
must not be used where the treads and/or
landings have not been filled in with concrete or
other material, unless the pans of the stairs and/
or landings are temporarily filled in with wood or
other material. All treads and landings must be
replaced when worn below the top edge of the
pan. 1926.1052(b)(1)

Stairways having four or more risers, or rising
more than 30 inches in height (76.2 centimeters),
whichever is less, must have at least one handrail.
A stairrail also must be installed along each
unprotected side or edge. 1926.1052(c)(1)(i)
through (ii)

Midrails, screens, mesh, intermediate vertical
members, or equivalent intermediate structural
members must be provided between the top
rail and stairway steps of the stairrail system.
1926.1052(c)(4)

Midrails, when used, must be located midway
between the top of the stairrail system and the
stairway steps. 1926.1052(c)(4)(i)

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
60

The height of handrails must not be more than 37
inches (93.9 centimeters) nor less than 30 inches
(76.2 centimeters) from the upper surface of the
handrail to the surface of the tread in line with face
of riser at forward edge of tread. 1926.1052(c)(6)

When the top edge of a stairrail system also
serves as a handrail, the height of the top edge
must not be more than 37 inches (94 cm) nor less
than 36 inches (91.5 cm) from the upper surface of
the stairrail system to the surface of the tread, in
line with face of riser at forward edge of the tread.
1926.1052(c)(7)

Temporary handrails must have a minimum
clearance of 3 inches (7.6 centimeters) between
the handrail and walls, stairrail systems, and other
objects. 1926.1052(c)(11)

Unprotected sides and edges of stairway landings
must be provided with guardrail systems.
1926.1052(c)(12)

Steel Erection

Each employee engaged in a steel erection activity
who is on a walking/working surface with an
unprotected side or edge more than 15 feet (4.6
meters) above a lower level shall be protected
from fall hazards by guardrail systems, safety net
systems, personal fall arrest systems, positioning
device systems or fall restraint systems.
1926.760(a)(1)

Connectors more than two stories or 30 feet (9.1
meters) above a lower level, whichever is less,
shall be protected by guardrail systems, safety net
systems, personal fall arrest systems, positioning
devices systems, or fall restraint systems.
1926.760(b)(1)

Connectors at heights over 15 feet and up to 30
feet above a lower level shall be provided with
a personal fall arrest system, positioning device
system, or fall restraint system and wear the
equipment necessary to be tied off; or be provided
with other means of protection from fall hazards in
accordance with 1926.760(a)(1) and 1926.760(b)(3)

CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY DIGEST

Training shall be provided for all employees
exposed to fall hazards. Special training shall be
provided to connectors, workers in controlled
decking zones, and those rigging for multiple lifts.
1926.761(c)

Steel erection begins when written notification
that the concrete in the footings, piers, and walls
or the mortar in the masonry piers and walls
has attained the strength to support the loads
imposed during steel erection. 1926.752(b)

Shear connectors (such as headed steel studs,
steel bars or steel lugs), reinforcing bars,
deformed anchors or threaded studs shall not
be attached to the top flanges of beams, joists or
beam attachments so that they project vertically
from or horizontally across the top flange of the
member until after the metal decking, or other
walking/working surface, has been installed.
1926.754(c)(1)

Columns shall be anchored by a minimum of four
anchor rods (anchor bolts). 1926.755(a)(1)

Solid web structural members shall be secured
with at least two bolts per connection before being
released from the hoisting line. 1926.756(a)(1)

Open web joists must be field bolted at each end
of the bottom chord before being released from
the hoisting line. 1926.757(a)(1)(iii)

Decking shall be laid tightly and secured.
1926.754(e)(5)

Controlled decking zones shall be clearly marked
and access limited to only those employees
engaged in leading edge work. 1926.760(c)(2) and (3)

Cranes used in steel erection shall be inspected
prior to each shift by a competent person. Routes
for suspended loads shall be planned to ensure no
employee is required to work directly under
the load except for connecting or hooking or
unhooking. Hooks with self-closing latches shall
be used. All loads shall be rigged by a qualified
rigger. Multiple lifts shall hoist a maximum of five
members. 1926.753(c)(1)(i), (d)(1) and (e)(1)(ii)

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Storage

All materials stored in tiers shall be secured to
prevent sliding, falling, or collapsing. 1926.250(a)(1)

Aisles and passageways shall be kept clear and in
good repair. 1926.250(a)(3)

Storage of materials shall not obstruct exits.
1926.151(d)(1)

Materials shall be stored with due regard to their
fire characteristics. 1926.151(d)(2)

Tire Cages

A safety tire rack, cage, or equivalent protection
shall be provided and used when inflating,
mounting, or dismounting tires installed on split
rims, or rims equipped with locking rings or
similar devices. 1926.600(a)(2)

Toeboards

Toeboards, when used to protect workers from
falling objects, shall be erected along the edge of the
overhead walking/working surface. 1926.502(j)(1)

Toeboards shall be capable of withstanding,
without failure, a force of at least 50 pounds (222
N) applied in any downward or outward direction
at any point along the toeboard. 1926.502(j)(2)

A standard toeboard shall be at least 3 1/2 inches
(9 centimeters) in height and may be of any
substantial material either solid or open, with
openings not to exceed 1 inch (2.54 centimeters)
in greatest dimension. 1926.502(j)(3)

Toilets

Toilets shall be provided according to the
following: 20 or fewer persons – one facility; 20 or
more persons – one toilet seat and one urinal per
40 persons; 200 or more persons – one toilet seat
and one urinal per 50 workers. 1926.51(c)(1)

CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY DIGEST

This requirement does not apply to mobile crews
having transportation readily available to nearby
toilet facilities. 1926.51(c)(4)

Training and Inspections

The employer shall initiate and maintain such
programs as may be necessary to provide for
frequent and regular inspections of the job
site, materials, and equipment by designated
competent persons. 1926.20(b)(1) through (2)

The employer should avail himself of the safety
and health training programs the Secretary
provides. 1926.21(b)(1)

The employer shall instruct each employee in the
recognition and avoidance of unsafe conditions
and in the regulations applicable to his work
environment to control or eliminate any hazards
or other exposure to illness or injury. 1926.21(b)(2)

The use of any machinery, tool, material, or
equipment that is not in compliance with any
applicable requirement of Part 1926 is prohibited.
1926.20(b)(3)

The employer shall permit only those employees
qualified by training or experience to operate
equipment and machinery. 1926.20(b)(4)

Underground Construction

The employer shall provide and maintain safe
means of access and egress to all work stations.
1926.800(b)(1)

The employer shall control access to all openings
to prevent unauthorized entry underground.
Unused chutes, manways, or other openings shall
be tightly covered, bulkheaded, or fenced off, and
shall be posted with signs indicating “Keep Out”
or similar language. Complete or unused sections
of the underground facility shall be barricaded.
1926.800(b)(3)

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64

Unless underground facilities are sufficiently
completed so that the permanent environmental
controls are effective and the remaining
construction activity will not cause any
environmental hazard or structural failure within
the facilities, the employer shall maintain a
check-in/check-out procedure that will ensure
that aboveground designated personnel can
determine an accurate count of the number
of persons underground in the event of an
emergency. 1926.800(c)

All employees shall be instructed to recognize
and avoid hazards associated with underground
construction activities. 1926.800(d)

Hazardous classifications are for “potentially
gassy” and “gassy” operations. 1926.800(h) The
employer shall assign a competent person to
perform all air monitoring to determine proper
ventilation and quantitative measurements of
potentially hazardous gases. 1926.800(j)(1)(i)(A)

Fresh air shall be supplied to all underground
work areas in sufficient quantities to prevent
dangerous or harmful accumulation of dust,
fumes, mists, vapors, or gases. 1926.800(k)(1)(i)

Washing Facilities

The employer shall provide adequate washing
facilities for employees engaged in operations
involving harmful substances. Washing facilities
shall be near the worksite and shall be so
equipped as to enable employees to remove all
harmful substances. 1926.51(f)

Water, Working Over or Near

Employees working over or near water, where the
danger of drowning exists, shall be provided with
U.S. Coast Guard-approved life jackets or buoyant
work vests. 1926.106(a)

CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY DIGEST
65

Welding, Cutting, and Heating

Employers shall instruct employees in the safe use
of welding equipment. 1926.350(d) and 1926.351(d)

Proper precautions (isolating welding and cutting,
removing fire hazards from the vicinity, providing
a fire watch) for fire prevention shall be taken in
areas where welding or other “hot work” is being
done. No welding, cutting, or heating shall be
done where the application of flammable paints,
or the presence of other flammable compounds
or heavy dust concentrations creates a fire hazard.
1926.352(a) through (c) and (f)

Arc welding and cutting operations shall be
shielded by noncombustible or flameproof
screens to protect employees and other persons
in the vicinity from direct arc rays. 1926.351(e)

When electrode holders are to be left unattended,
the electrodes shall be removed and the holder
shall be placed or protected so that they cannot
make electrical contact with employees or
conducting objects. 1926.351(d)(1)

All arc welding and cutting cables shall be
completely insulated and be capable of handling
the maximum current requirements for the job.
There shall be no repairs or splices within 10 feet
(3 meters) of the electrode holder, except where
splices are insulated equal to the insulation of
the cable. Defective cable shall be repaired or
replaced. 1926.351(b)(1) through (2) and (4)

Employees performing such operations in
the open air shall be protected by filter-type
respirators in accordance with the requirements of
1910.134, except that employees performing such
operations on beryllium-containing base or filler
metals shall be protected with air line respirators in
accordance with 1910.134. 1926.353(c)(3)

Fuel gas and oxygen hose shall be easily
distinguishable and shall not be interchangeable.
Hoses shall be inspected at the beginning of each
shift and shall be repaired or replaced if defective.
1926.350(f)(1) and (3)

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
66

General mechanical ventilation, local exhaust
ventilation, air line respirators, and other
protection shall be provided, as required, when
welding, cutting or heating:

� Zinc, lead, cadmium, chromium, mercury,
or materials bearing, based, or coated with
beryllium in enclosed spaces,

� Stainless steel with inert-gas equipment,

� In confined spaces, and

� Where an unusual condition can cause an unsafe
accumulation of contaminants. 1926.353(b)(1),
(c)(1)(i) through (iv), (c)(2)(i) through (iv), (d)(1)
(iv), and (e)(1)

Proper eye protective equipment to prevent
exposure of personnel shall be provided.
1926.353(e)(2)

Wire Ropes, Chains, and Ropes

Wire ropes, chains, ropes, and other rigging
equipment shall be inspected prior to use and as
necessary during use to ensure their safety.
Defective gear shall be removed from service.
1926.251(a)(1)

Job or shop hooks and links or makeshift
fasteners formed from bolts, rods, or other such
attachments shall not be used. 1926.251(b)(3)

When U-bolts are used for eye splices, the U-bolt
shall be applied so that the “U” section is in
contact with the dead end of the rope. 1926.251(c)
(5)(i)

When U-bolt wire rope clips are used to form
eyes, the following table shall be used to
determine the number and spacing of clips.
1926.251(c)(5)

CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY DIGEST
67

Table H-2 – Number and Spacing of U-Bolt Wire
Rope Clips – 1926.251(c)(5)

Improved plow
steel, rope diameter

(inches)

Number of clips
Drop Other

forged material

Minimum spacing
(inches)

1/2 (1.27 cm) 3 4 3 (7.62 cm)

5/8 (.625 cm) 3 4 3-3/4 (8.37 cm)

3/4 (.75 cm) 4 5 4-1/2 (11.43 cm)

7/8 (.875 cm) 4 5 5-1/4 (12.95 cm)

1 (2.54 cm) 5 6 6 (15.24 cm)

1-1/8 (2.665 cm) 6 6 6-3/4 (15.99 cm)

1-1/4 (2.79 cm) 6 7 7-1/2 (19.05 cm)

1-3/8 (2.915 cm) 7 7 8-1/4 (20.57 cm)

1-1/2 (3.81 cm) 7 8 9 (22.86 cm)

Woodworking Machinery

All fixed power-driven woodworking tools shall
be provided with a disconnect switch that can
be either locked or tagged in the off position.
1926.304(a)

All woodworking tools and machinery shall meet
applicable requirements of ANSI 01.1-1961, Safety
Code for Woodworking Machinery. 1926.304(f)

Workplace Complaints:
Workers’ Rights

Workers have the right to a safe workplace. The
Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970 (OSH
Act) was passed to prevent workers from being
killed or seriously harmed at work. The law
requires employers to provide their employees
with working conditions that are free of known
dangers. Workers may file a complaint to have
OSHA inspect their workplace if they believe that
their employer is not following OSHA standards or
that there are serious hazards. Further, the OSH Act
gives complainants the right to request that their

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
68

names not be revealed to their employers. It is also
against the law for an employer to fire, demote,
transfer, or retaliate in any way against a worker for
filing a complaint or using other OSHA rights.

If a workplace has unsafe or unhealthful working
conditions, workers may want to file a complaint.
Often the best and fastest way to get a hazard
corrected is to notify a supervisor or employer.
Workers or their representatives may file a
complaint online or by phone, mail, email or fax
with the nearest OSHA office and request an
inspection. A worker may also ask OSHA not to
reveal his or her name. To file a complaint, call
1-800-321-OSHA (6742) or contact the nearest
OSHA regional, area, state plan, or consultation
office listed at www.osha.gov. The teletypewriter
(TTY) number is (877) 889-5627. Written, signed
complaints submitted to OSHA area offices
are more likely to result in an on-site OSHA
inspection. Most online or unsigned complaints
are resolved informally over the phone with the
employer. Complaints from workers in states with
an OSHA approved state plan will be forwarded to
the appropriate state plan for response. Workers
can call 1-800-321-OSHA (6742) to request a
complaint form from their local OSHA office or
visit www.osha.gov/pls/osha7/eComplaintForm.
html to submit the form online. Completed forms
can be faxed or mailed to the local OSHA office
(provided at the end of this guide). Include your
name, address and telephone number so that
OSHA can contact you.

OSHA Assistance, Services and
Programs

OSHA has a great deal of information to assist
employers in complying with their responsibilities
under OSHA law. Several OSHA programs and
services can help employers identify and correct
job hazards, as well as improve their injury and
illness prevention program.

http://www.osha.gov

http://www.osha.gov/pls/osha7/eComplaintForm.html

CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY DIGEST

Establishing an Injury and Illness
Prevention Program
The key to a safe and healthful work environment
is a comprehensive injury and illness prevention
program.

Injury and illness prevention programs are
systems that can substantially reduce the number
and severity of workplace injuries and illnesses,
while reducing costs to employers. Thousands
of employers across the United States already
manage safety using injury and illness prevention
programs, and OSHA believes that all employers
can and should do the same. Thirty-four states
have requirements or voluntary guidelines for
workplace injury and illness prevention programs.
Most successful injury and illness prevention
programs are based on a common set of key
elements. These include management leadership,
worker participation, hazard identification, hazard
prevention and control, education and training,
and program evaluation and improvement. Visit
OSHA’s Injury and Illness Prevention Programs
web page at www.osha.gov/dsg/topics/
safetyhealth for more information.

Compliance Assistance Specialists
OSHA has compliance assistance specialists
throughout the nation located in most OSHA
offices. Compliance assistance specialists can
provide information to employers and workers
about OSHA standards, short educational
programs on specific hazards or OSHA rights and
responsibilities, and information on additional
compliance assistance resources. For more
details, visit www.osha.gov/dcsp/compliance_
assistance/cas.html or call 1-800-321-OSHA (6742)
to contact your local OSHA office.

Free On-site Safety and Health
Consultation Services for Small Business
OSHA’s On-site Consultation Program offers free
and confidential advice to small and medium-
sized businesses in all states across the country,

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
70

with priority given to high-hazard worksites.
Each year, responding to requests from small
employers looking to create or improve their
safety and health management programs, OSHA’s
On-site Consultation Program conducts over
29,000 visits to small business worksites covering
over 1.5 million workers across the nation.

On-site consultation services are separate from
enforcement and do not result in penalties or
citations. Consultants from state agencies or
universities work with employers to identify
workplace hazards, provide advice on compliance
with OSHA standards, and assist in establishing
safety and health management programs.

For more information, to find the local On-site
Consultation office in your state, or to request
a brochure on consultation services, visit
www. osha.gov/consultation, or call 1-800-321-
OSHA (6742).

Under the consultation program, certain
exemplary employers may request participation
in OSHA’s Safety and Health Achievement
Recognition Program (SHARP). Eligibility
for participation includes, but is not limited
to, receiving a full-service, comprehensive
consultation visit, correcting all identified hazards
and developing an effective safety and health
management program. Worksites that receive
SHARP recognition are exempt from programmed
inspections during the period that the SHARP
certification is valid.

Cooperative Programs
OSHA offers cooperative programs under which
businesses, labor groups and other organizations
can work cooperatively with OSHA. To find out
more about any of the following programs, visit
www.osha.gov/cooperativeprograms.

www.osha.gov/cooperativeprograms

CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY DIGEST

Strategic Partnerships and Alliances

The OSHA Strategic Partnerships (OSP)
provide the opportunity for OSHA to partner
with employers, workers, professional or trade
associations, labor organizations, and/or other
interested stakeholders. OSHA Partnerships are
formalized through unique agreements designed
to encourage, assist, and recognize partner efforts
to eliminate serious hazards and achieve model
workplace safety and health practices. Through
the Alliance Program, OSHA works with groups
committed to worker safety and health to prevent
workplace fatalities, injuries and illnesses by
developing compliance assistance tools and
resources to share with workers and employers,
and educate workers and employers about their
rights and responsibilities.

Voluntary Protection Programs (VPP)

The VPP recognize employers and workers
in private industry and federal agencies who
have implemented effective safety and health
management programs and maintain injury and
illness rates below the national average for their
respective industries. In VPP, management, labor,
and OSHA work cooperatively and proactively to
prevent fatalities, injuries, and illnesses through a
system focused on: hazard prevention and control,
worksite analysis, training, and management
commitment and worker involvement.

Occupational Safety and Health Training
The OSHA Training Institute partners with 27 OSHA
Training Institute Education Centers at 42 locations
throughout the United States to deliver courses
on OSHA standards and occupational safety and
health topics to thousands of students a year.
For more information on training courses, visit
www.osha.gov/otiec.

http://www.osha.gov/otiec

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION

OSHA Educational Materials
OSHA has many types of educational materials
in English, Spanish, Vietnamese and other
languages available in print or online. These
include:

� Brochures;

� Fact Sheets;

� Guidance documents that provide detailed
examinations of specific safety and health issues;

� Online Safety and Health Topics pages;

� Posters;

� Small, laminated QuickCards™ that provide brief
safety and health information; and

� QuickTakes, OSHA’s free, twice-monthly online
newsletter with the latest news about OSHA
initiatives and products to assist employers and
workers in finding and preventing workplace
hazards. To sign up for QuickTakes visit www.
osha.gov/quicktakes.

To view materials available online or for a
listing of free publications, visit www.osha.gov/
publications. You can also call 1-800-321-OSHA
(6742) to order publications.

Select OSHA publications are available in e-Book
format. OSHA e-Books are designed to increase
readability on smartphones, tablets and other mobile
devices. For access, go to www.osha.gov/ebooks.

OSHA’s web site also has information on job
hazards and injury and illness prevention for
employers and workers. To learn more about
OSHA’s safety and health resources online,
visit www.osha.gov or www.osha.gov/html/
a-z-index.html.

http://www.osha.gov/publications

http://www.osha.gov/ebooks

http://www.osha.gov

http://www.osha.gov/html/a-z-index.html

CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY DIGEST
73

NIOSH Health Hazard Evaluation
Program

Getting Help with Health Hazards
The National Institute for Occupational Safety and
Health (NIOSH) is a federal agency that conducts
scientific and medical research on workers’
safety and health. At no cost to employers or
workers, NIOSH can help identify health hazards
and recommend ways to reduce or eliminate
those hazards in the workplace through its Health
Hazard Evaluation (HHE) Program.

Workers, union representatives and employers
can request a NIOSH HHE. An HHE is often
requested when there is a higher than expected
rate of a disease or injury in a group of workers.
These situations may be the result of an unknown
cause, a new hazard, or a mixture of sources. To
request a NIOSH Health Hazard Evaluation go
to www.cdc.gov/niosh/hhe/request.html. To find
out more, in English or Spanish, about the Health
Hazard Evaluation Program:

E-mail HHERequestHelp@cdc.gov or
call 800-CDC-INFO (800-232-4636).

How to Contact OSHA

For questions or to get information or advice,
to report an emergency, fatality, inpatient
hospitalization, amputation, or loss of an eye, or to
file a confidential complaint, contact your nearest
OSHA office, visit www.osha.gov or call OSHA
at 1-800-321-OSHA (6742), TTY 1-877-889-5627.

For assistance, contact us.
We are OSHA. We can help.

It’s confidential.

http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/hhe/request.html

mailto:HHERequestHelp@cdc.gov

http://www.osha.gov

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
74

OSHA Regional Offices

Region I
Boston Regional Office
(CT*, ME*, MA, NH, RI, VT*)
JFK Federal Building, Room E340
Boston, MA 02203
(617) 565-9860 (617) 565-9827 Fax

Region II
New York Regional Office
(NJ*, NY*, PR*, VI*)
201 Varick Street, Room 670
New York, NY 10014
(212) 337-2378 (212) 337-2371 Fax

Region III
Philadelphia Regional Office
(DE, DC, MD*, PA, VA*, WV)
The Curtis Center
170 S. Independence Mall West
Suite 740 West
Philadelphia, PA 19106-3309
(215) 861-4900 (215) 861-4904 Fax

Region IV
Atlanta Regional Office
(AL, FL, GA, KY*, MS, NC*, SC*, TN*)
61 Forsyth Street, SW, Room 6T50
Atlanta, GA 30303
(678) 237-0400 (678) 237-0447 Fax

Region V
Chicago Regional Office
(IL*, IN*, MI*, MN*, OH, WI)
230 South Dearborn Street
Room 3244
Chicago, IL 60604
(312) 353-2220 (312) 353-7774 Fax

Region

Dallas Regional Office
(AR, LA, NM*, OK, TX)
525 Griffin Street, Room 602

CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY DIGEST

Dallas, TX 75202
(972) 850-4145 (972) 850-4149 Fax
(972) 850-4150 FSO Fax

Region VII
Kansas City Regional Office
(IA*, KS, MO, NE)
Two Pershing Square Building
2300 Main Street, Suite 1010
Kansas City, MO 64108-2416
(816) 283-8745 (816) 283-0547 Fax

Region VIII
Denver Regional Office
(CO, MT, ND, SD, UT*, WY*)
Cesar Chavez Memorial Building
1244 Speer Boulevard, Suite 551
Denver, CO 80204
(720) 264-6550 (720) 264-6585 Fax

Region IX
San Francisco Regional Office
(AZ*, CA*, HI*, NV*, and American Samoa,
Guam and the Northern Mariana Islands)
90 7th Street, Suite 18100
San Francisco, CA 94103
(415) 625-2547 (415) 625-2534 Fax

Region X
Seattle Regional Office
(AK*, ID, OR*, WA*)
300 Fifth Avenue, Suite 1280
Seattle, WA 98104
(206) 757-6700 (206) 757-6705 Fax

* These states and territories operate their own
OSHA-approved job safety and health plans and
cover state and local government employees as well
as private sector employees. The Connecticut, Illinois,
Maine, New Jersey, New York and Virgin Islands
programs cover public employees only. (Private
sector workers in these states are covered by Federal
OSHA). States with approved programs must have
standards that are identical to, or at least as effective
as, the Federal OSHA standards.

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
76

Note: To get contact information for OSHA area
offices, OSHA-approved state plans and OSHA
consultation projects, please visit us online at
www.osha.gov or call us at 1-800-321-OSHA (6742).

NVCA

WA
AK

ND
MN

IN
IL

MS
AL GA

NH
VT

RICT

VA DC

TN
NC

OSHA-approved state plans (private sector and
public employees)

Federal OSHA (private sector and most federal employees)

OSHA-approved state plans (for public employees only;
private sector employees are covered by Federal OSHA)

OSHA-Approved State Plans

http://www.osha.gov

(800) 321-OSHA (6742)

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION

U.S. Department of Labor

For more information:

Occupational
Safety and Health
Administration

www.osha.gov (800) 321-OSHA (6742)

Frequently Used Standards in
Construction

Access to Medical and Exposure Records
Aerial Lifts
Air Tools
Asbestos
Belt Sanding Machines
Chains (See Wire Ropes, Chains, and Ropes)
Chemicals (See Gases, Vapors, Fumes, Dusts, and Mists; Asbestos; Lead; Silica; and Hazard Communication)
Compressed Air, Use of
Compressed Gas Cylinders
Concrete and Masonry Construction
Confined Spaces
Cranes and Derricks
Demolition
Disposal Chutes
Diving
Drinking Water
Electrical Installations
Electrical Work Practices
Excavating and Trenching
Exits
Explosives and Blasting
Eye and Face Protection
Fall Protection
Fall Protection, Falling Objects
Fall Protection, Wall Openings
Fire Protection
Flaggers
Flammable and Combustible Liquids
Forklifts (See Powered Industrial Trucks)
Gases, Vapors, Fumes, Dusts, and Mists
General Duty Clause
Grinding
Hand Tools
Hazard Communication
Hazardous Waste Operations
Head Protection
Hearing Protection
Heating Devices, Temporary
Highway Work Zones (See Flaggers and Signs, Signals, and Barricades)
Hoists, Material and Personnel
Hooks (See Wire Ropes, Chains, and Ropes)
Housekeeping
Illumination
Jointers
Ladders
Lasers
Lead
Lift Slab
Liquefied Petroleum Gas
Medical Services and First Aid
Motor Vehicles and Mechanized Equipment
Noise (See Hearing Protection)
Personal Protective Equipment
Powder-Actuated Tools
Power Transmission and Distribution
Powered Industrial Trucks (Forklifts)
Power Transmission, Mechanical
Process Safety Management of Highly
Hazardous Chemicals
Radiation, Ionizing
Railings
Recordkeeping: Recording and
Reporting Requirements
Reinforced Steel
Respiratory Protection
Rollover Protective Structures (ROPS)
Safety Nets
Saws
Band Saws
Portable Circular Saws
Radial Saws
Swing or Sliding Cut-Off Saws
Table Saws

Scaffolds, General Requirements
Scaffold, Bricklaying
Scaffold, Erectors and Dismantlers
Scaffold, Fall Arrest Systems
Scaffold, Guardrails
Scaffolds, Mobile
Scaffold, Planking
Scaffolds, Supported
Scaffolds, Suspension (Swing)

Signs, Signals, and Barricades (See Flaggers)
Silica
Stairs
Steel Erection
Storage
Tire Cages
Toeboards
Toilets
Training and Inspections
Underground Construction
Washing Facilities
Water, Working Over or Near
Welding, Cutting, and Heating
Wire Ropes, Chains, and Ropes
Woodworking Machinery

Workplace Complaints:
Workers’ Rights
OSHA Assistance, Services and Programs

Establishing an Injury and Illness
Prevention Program
Compliance Assistance Specialists
Free On-site Safety and Health Consultation Services for Small Business
Cooperative Programs
Strategic Partnerships and Alliances
Voluntary Protection Programs (VPP)
Occupational Safety and Health Training
OSHA Educational Materials

NIOSH Health Hazard Evaluation Program

Getting Help with Health Hazards
How to Contact OSHA
OSHA Regional Offices
OSHA-Approved State Plans

Course Learning Outcomes for Unit VI

Upon completion of this unit, students should be able to:

2. Apply Occupational Safety and Health Administration standards and related practices to construction.
2.1 Apply standards related to crane safety and practices necessary for construction site safety.
2.2 Discuss the requirements for safe demolition of buildings and structures.
2.3 Apply standards related to trenching and excavation safety and practices necessary for

construction site safety.
2.4 Identify hazards and standards related to concrete construction.

4. Examine methods used to control common construction hazards.
4.1 Analyze hazards that contribute to construction accidents.

Course/Unit
Learning Outcomes

Learning Activity

2.1
Unit VI Lesson
Required Readings
Unit VI Assessment

Unit VI Lesson
Required Readings
Unit VI Assessment

2.3
Unit VI Lesson
Required Readings
Unit VI Assessment

2.4
Unit VI Lesson
Required Readings
Unit VI Assessment

4.1
Unit VI Lesson
Required Readings
Unit VI Assessment

Reading Assignment

Click here to access the OSHA Construction Industry Digest and read the sections indicated below.

Occupational Safety & Health Administration. (2014). Construction industry digest [Brochure]. Retrieved from
https://www.osha.gov/Publications/osha2202

– Concrete and Masonry Construction, pp. 13-14
– Cranes and Derricks, pp. 15-16
– Demolition, p. 16
– Excavating and Trenching, pp. 20-22

Occupational Safety & Health Administration. (2010). Cranes and derricks, subpart CC [PowerPoint
presentation]. Retrieved from https://www.osha.gov/cranes-derricks/presentation/index.html

UNIT VI STUDY GUIDE

Cranes, Demolition, Excavation,
Concrete

https://www.osha.gov/Publications/osha2202

https://www.osha.gov/cranes-derricks/presentation/index.html

UNIT x STUDY GUIDE

Title

Occupational Safety & Health Administration. (n.d.). OSHA fact sheet: Subpart CC – cranes and derricks in

construction: Operator qualification and certification [Brochure]. Retrieved from
https://www.osha.gov/Publications/OpCertfactsheet9-29SOL-DB

Occupational Safety & Health Administration. (2015). OSHA technical manual, Section V, Chapter 1:
Demolition. Retrieved from https://www.osha.gov/dts/osta/otm/otm_v/otm_v_1.html

Occupational Safety & Health Administration. (n.d.). Excavations [PowerPoint presentation]. Retrieved from
https://www.osha.gov/dte/outreach/construction_generalindustry/const_outreach_tp.html

Occupational Safety & Health Administration. (2015). OSHA technical manual, Section V, Chapter 2:
Excavations: Hazard recognition in trenching and shoring. Retrieved from
https://www.osha.gov/dts/osta/otm/otm_v/otm_v_2.html

Occupational Safety & Health Administration. (1998). Concrete and masonry construction [Brochure], pp. 1-
10. Retrieved from https://www.osha.gov/Publications/osha3106

Unit Lesson

Cranes

On July 14, 1999, a 547-foot mobile crane, nicknamed “Big Blue,” collapsed during the construction of Miller
Park baseball stadium in Milwaukee. The crane was lifting a 450-ton stadium roof section when it fell. Three
ironworkers were killed, and the millions of dollars in damage delayed the project for an entire year. Causal
factors included operating the crane in winds greater than the crane’s rating and soft ground beneath the
crane (Occupational Safety & Health Administration [OSHA], 2005, p.1). The Occupational Safety & Health
Administration (OSHA) issued a total of eight citations to three different contractors and assessed more than
$500,000 in fines. Ironically, several OSHA inspectors were onsite at the time of the accident, investigating
potential fall hazards.

While most safety practitioners will not have to deal with the largest mobile crane in the world, nearly all
construction requires some type of crane or lifting device at some point in the project. Cranes are complex
pieces of equipment that require engineering skills for the design and execution of safe lifts. OSHA
recognizes this complexity in its very comprehensive standard for cranes (29 CFR 1926 Subpart CC).
Construction safety professionals need to ensure that only qualified persons are allowed to operate cranes,
rig loads, and design lifts. Crane inspections must be current and documented.

(Almeida, n.d.)

https://www.osha.gov/Publications/OpCertfactsheet9-29SOL-DB

https://www.osha.gov/dts/osta/otm/otm_v/otm_v_1.html

https://www.osha.gov/dte/outreach/construction_generalindustry/const_outreach_tp.html

https://www.osha.gov/dts/osta/otm/otm_v/otm_v_2.html

https://www.osha.gov/Publications/osha3106

UNIT x STUDY GUIDE

Title

Excavation and Trenching

Many construction projects begin with dirt work or excavations. Earth-moving equipment moves dirt around
the site, and then the digging starts for water lines and other types of underground utilities. Open trenches are
created. Eventually, workers will need to enter those trenches to install utility lines. While excavation and
trenching accidents are not always as “newsworthy” as a dramatic mobile crane collapse, they occur
frequently enough to be part of OSHA’s “Fatal Four” construction hazards (OSHA, n.d.-a). The most common
hazard of working in an excavation or trench is when the walls cave in and trap workers, and it often happens
without warning. The trench does not have to be deep to be hazardous. Most accidents occur in trenches 5-
15 feet deep. Other concerns include:

 asphyxiation due to lack of oxygen,

 inhalation of toxic materials,

 fire, and

 electrocution from accidental severing of underground utility lines.

Watch this video, created by WorkSafeBC, highlighting the dangers of working in trenches: https://youtu.be/Q-
4zmR6yGzw (used with permission from WorkSafeBC)

Concrete and Masonry

Concrete is widely used in construction as pre-cast pieces transported to the site and assembled, or poured
into forms at the site. Safe movement of pre-cast concrete depends on a knowledge of the weight of the
materials as well as an understanding of the capacity of the equipment used to move the load. Pouring
concrete creates a series of unique hazards, often starting with a trench into which forms are placed. Steel
rebar is used to give the concrete additional strength, and before the concrete is poured, workers must be
protected from the impalement hazards. Once the concrete is poured, a determination must be made that it
has gained sufficient strength before the forms are removed. There must be a written plan for how this
determination is made, or an approved standard test method must be used (OSHA, 1998).

An often-overlooked hazard of working with concrete is skin exposure to portland cement. Portland cement is
also used in mortar, plaster, grout, stucco, and terrazzo. Skin contact with wet cement can cause caustic
burns. These burns do not cause immediate pain and are often overlooked until serious damage has been
done. Repeated skin exposure to cement can also result in sensitization, where even brief contact triggers a
dermatitis-like reaction. Adequate PPE must be provided and used.

Demolition

Demolition is construction in reverse. Unlike construction, however, the hazards are not always easy to
identify. For this reason, the OSHA standard for demolition (29 CFR 1926 Subpart T) requires extensive
planning and preparation. Some of the key requirements are:

 engineering survey of the structure to be demolished,

 location of all utilities,

 medical services, and

 fire prevention and protection (OSHA, 2015).

Demolition is a significant source of exposure to hazardous materials such as asbestos, lead, and cadmium.
The engineering survey must contain a list of all the materials used in the construction of the facility to be
demolished.

You can be sure that the demolition shown in the linked video, created by Controlled Demolition, Inc., would
not have been successful had there not been a solid plan in place: https://youtu.be/oiftDBtCFt8 (Used by
permission from Controlled Demolition, Inc. – Phoenix, Maryland, USA.)

Caught-In or -Between Hazards

OSHA has identified caught-In or -between hazards as one of the four leading causes of construction fatalities
(OSHA, n.d.-b). Many of these hazards involve construction equipment and excavations. Click on this image
for an example of a common caught-in or -between hazard:

Home

UNIT x STUDY GUIDE
Title

References

Almeida, A. (n.d.). “What the heck is THAT??” [Cartoon]. Retrieved from
http://www.almeidacartoons.com/Safe_toons1.html

Occupational Safety & Health Administration. (n.d.-a). Commonly used statistics. Retrieved from
https://www.osha.gov/oshstats/commonstats.html

Occupational Safety & Health Administration. (n.d.-b). Construction focus four training. Retrieved from
https://www.osha.gov/dte/outreach/construction/focus_four/index.html

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Construction Safety

QUESTION 6

Discuss the site evaluation steps that should be taken before starting an excavation project. Which step(s) are likely to contribute the most in preventing excavation injuries? Why? Your response should be at least 200 words in length.

QUESTION 7

What is the purpose of conducting an engineering survey prior to a demolition project? Describe and discuss the major components of an engineering survey for the demolition of a two-story wood structure. Your response should be at least 200 words in length.

QUESTION 8

QUESTION 9

Discuss hazards and precautions to be taken when operating a crane near power lines. Your response should be at least 75 words in length.

Calculate the price of your order

Discuss the site evaluation steps that should be taken before starting an excavation project. Which step(s) are likely to contribute the most in preventing excavation injuries? Why?
Your response should be at least 200 words in length.

What is the purpose of conducting an engineering survey prior to a demolition project? Describe and discuss the major components of an engineering survey for the demolition of a two-story wood structure.
Your response should be at least 200 words in length.

Discuss hazards and precautions to be taken when operating a crane near power lines.
Your response should be at least 75 words in length.