Computer Ethics

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Chapter 2:
Introduction
to Ethics

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2.1 Introduction
We Live in Communities
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The Ethical Point of View
Most everyone shares “core values”, desiring:
Life
Happiness
Ability to accomplish goals
Two ways to view world
Selfish point of view: consider only your own self and your core values
Ethical point of view: respect other people and their core values
Chapter Overview
Introduction
Review of nine ethical theories
Comparing workable ethical theories
Morality of breaking the law

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Defining Terms
Society
Association of people organized under a system of rules
Rules: advance the good of members over time. We call these rules morality.
Morality
A society’s rules of conduct
What people should / should not to do in various situations
Ethics
Rational examination of morality
Evaluation of people’s behavior
Analogy for Difference between Morality and Ethics
People must keep their cars on the roads.
Society: Town
Morality: Roads

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Why Study Ethics?
Ethics: a way to decide the best thing to do
New problems accompany new technologies
“Common wisdom” may not exist for novel situations brought about by new technologies

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Scenario 1 (Page 81)
Did Alexis do anything wrong?
Who benefited from Alexis’s course of action?
Who was hurt by Alexis’s course of action?
Did Alexis have an unfair advantage over her high school classmates?
Would any of your answers change if it turns out Alexis did not win a college scholarship after all?
Are there better ways Alexis could have achieved her objective?
What additional information, if any, would help you answer the previous questions?
Scenario 2 (page 82)
Did the antispam organization do anything wrong?
Did the ISPs that refused to accept email from the blacklisted ISPs do anything wrong?
Who benefited from the organization’s action?
Who was hurt by the organization’s action?
Could the organization have achieved its goals through a better course of action?
What additional information, if any, would help you answer the previous questions?

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Scenario 3 (Page 82)
Did the East Dakota State Police do anything wrong?
Who benefited from the actions of the EDSP?
Who was harmed by the actions of the EDSP?
What other courses of action could the EDSP have taken to achieve its objectives?
What additional information, if any, would help you answer the previous questions?
Scenario 4 (Page 83)
Should you recommend release of the product next week?
Who will benefit if the company follows your recommendation?
Who will be harmed if the company follows your recommendation?
Do you have an obligation to any group of people that may be affected by your decision?
What additional information, if any, would help you answer the previous questions?

Sample answers for the 4 scenarios

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More on Ethics
Ethics: is the rational, systematic analysis of conduct that can cause benefit or harm to other people.
“Doing ethics” means explaining people conclusions
Best explanations based on facts, shared values, logic
Ethics focuses on people’s voluntary, moral choices. If you do an accident because you have chosen the wrong action, which is due to someone mistake? Or because of being drunk?
Workable ethical theory: produces explanations that might be persuasive to a skeptical, yet open-minded audience
A Good Ethical Theory Supports Persuasive, Logical Arguments

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What Is Relativism?
Relativism
No universal norms of right and wrong
One person can say “X is right,” another can say “X is wrong,” and both can be right
Subjective relativism
Each person decides right and wrong for himself or herself
“What’s right for you may not be right for me”
2.2 Subjective Relativism
Case for Subjective Relativism
Well-meaning and intelligent people can disagree on moral issues: Abortion in USA
Ethical debates are disagreeable and pointless: Both sides are right regard Abortion in USA
In the following sections we consider nine ethical theories—nine frameworks for
moral decision making.

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Case Against Subjective Relativism – SR
Blurs line between doing what you think is right and doing what you want to do
Makes no moral distinction between the actions of different people
SR and tolerance are two different things. For example, “People must be tolerant“ is against SR, because SR is about no universal moral norms.
Decisions may not be based on reason
Not a workable ethical theory

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Cultural Relativism in a Nutshell
What is “right” and “wrong” depends upon a society’s actual moral guidelines
These guidelines vary from place to place and from time to time
A particular action may be right in one society at one time and wrong in other society or at another time
2.3 Cultural Relativism
Case for Cultural Relativism
Different social contexts demand different moral guidelines
It is arrogant for one society to judge another

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Case Against Cultural Relativism
Because two societies do have different moral views doesn’t mean they ought to have different views
It doesn’t explain how moral guidelines are determined
What if there are no cultural norms?
It doesn’t account for evolution of moral guidelines.
It provides no way out for cultures in conflict
Existence of many acceptable practices does not imply all practices are acceptable (many/any misconception)
Societies do, in fact, share certain core values
Only indirectly based on reason
Not a workable ethical theory

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Overview of Divine Command Theory
Good actions: those aligned with God’s will
Bad actions: those contrary to God’s will
Holy books reveal God’s will
We should use holy books as moral decision-making guides
2.4 Divine Command Theory
Divine Command Theory in Action
السرقة من الكبائر

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Case for Divine Command Theory
We owe obedience to our Creator
God is all-good and all-knowing
God is the ultimate authority
Case Against Divine Command Theory
Different holy books disagree on certain teachings
Society is multicultural, secular
Some modern moral problems not directly addressed in scripture
“The good” ≠ “God” (equivalence misconception)
Based on obedience, not reason
Not a workable ethical theory for our purposes

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Definition of Ethical Egoism
Each person should focus exclusively on his or her self-interest
Morally right action: that action that provides self with maximum long-term benefit
Ayn Rand, author of The Fountainhead and Atlas Shrugged, espoused a theory similar to ethical egoism. Rand’s moral philosophy “holds man’s life as the standard of value—and his own life as the ethical purpose of every individual man”
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2.5 Ethical Egoism
Case for Ethical Egoism
It is practical since we are already inclined to do what’s best for ourselves
It is better to let other people take care of themselves
The community can benefit when individuals put their well-being first
Other moral principles are rooted in the principle of self-interest

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Case Against Ethical Egoism
An easy moral philosophy may not be the best moral philosophy
We know a lot about what is good for someone else. The question is, how are we going to respond to that person’s need in this theory?
Self-interest can lead to deliberately immoral behavior
Other moral principles are superior to principle of self-interest
People who take the good of others into account lead happier lives
By definition, does not respect the ethical point of view
Not a workable ethical theory
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Critical Importance of Good Will
Good will: the desire to do the right thing
Immanuel Kant: believed that people’s actions must be guided by moral laws, and that these moral laws were universal. Only thing in the world that is good without qualification is a good will
Many Kant Moral laws can be found in the Quran and the Bible, Kant’s methodology allows these laws to be derived through a reasoning process.
Reason should cultivate desire to do right thing
2.6 Kantianism

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Categorical Imperative (1st Formulation)
Kant formulated a supreme rational principle that tells us precisely whether a specific action is right or wrong. He called this principle the categorical imperative: Act only from moral rules that you can at the same time will to be universal moral laws.
Illustration of 1st Formulation
Question: Can a person in a difficult situation make a promise with the intention of breaking it later?
Proposed rule: “I may make promises with the intention of later breaking them.”
The person in trouble wants his promise to be believed so he can get what he needs.
Universalize rule: Everyone may make & break promises
Everyone breaking promises would make promises unbelievable, contradicting desire to have promise believed
The rule is flawed. The answer is “No.”

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A Quick Check
When evaluating a proposed action, reverse roles
What would you think if that person did the same thing to you?
Negative reaction evidence that your will to do that action violates the Categorical Imperative
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Categorical Imperative (2nd Formulation)
Act so that you treat both yourself and other people as ends in themselves and never only as a means to an end.
This is usually an easier formulation to work with than the first formulation of the Categorical Imperative.
Kant: Wrong to Use Another Person Solely as a Means to an End

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Plagiarism Scenario (Page 99)
Carla
Single mother
Works full time
Takes two evening courses/semester
History class
Requires more work than normal
Carla earning an “A” on all work so far
Carla doesn’t have time to write final report
Carla purchases report; submits it as her own work

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Kantian Evaluation (1st Formulation)
Carla wants credit for plagiarized report
Rule: “You may claim credit for work performed by someone else”
If rule universalized, reports would no longer be credible indicator’s of student’s knowledge, and professors would not give credit for reports
Proposal moral rule is self-defeating
It is wrong for Carla to turn in a purchased report
Kantian Evaluation (2nd Formulation)
Carla submitted another person’s work as her own
She attempted to deceive professor
She treated professor as a means to an end
End: passing the course
Means: manipulate professor
What Carla did was wrong

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Case for Kantianism
Aligns with common moral concern: “What if everyone acted that way?”
Produces universal moral guidelines
Treats all persons as moral equals
Perfect and Imperfect Duties
Perfect duty: duty obliged to fulfill without exception
Example: Telling the truth
Imperfect duty: duty obliged to fulfill in general but not in every instance
Example: Helping others

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Case Against Kantianism
Sometimes no rule adequately characterizes an action
Sometimes there is no way to resolve a conflict between rules
In a conflict between a perfect duty and an imperfect duty, perfect duty prevails
In a conflict between two perfect duties, no solution
Kantianism allows no exceptions to perfect duties
Despite weaknesses, a workable ethical theory

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Principle of Utility
Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill developed a theory that is in contrast to Kantianism
An action is good if its benefits exceeds its harms
An action is bad if its harms exceed its benefits
Utility: tendency of an object to produce happiness or prevent unhappiness for an individual or a community
Happiness = advantage = benefit = good = pleasure
Unhappiness = disadvantage = cost = evil = pain
2.7 Act Utilitarianism

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Principle of Utility (Greatest Happiness Principle)
An action is right (or wrong) to the extent that it increases
(or decreases) the total happiness of the affected parties.

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Act Utilitarianism
Utilitarianism
Morality of an action has nothing to do with intent
Focuses on the consequences
A consequentialist theory
Act utilitarianism
Add up change in happiness of all affected beings
Sum > 0, action is good
Sum < 0, action is bad Right action to take: one that maximizes the sum Intensity Duration Certainty Propinquity Fecundity Purity Extent Bentham: Weighing Pleasure/Pain 1-* 1-* Highway Routing Scenario State may replace a curvy stretch of highway New highway segment 1 mile shorter 150 houses would have to be removed Some wildlife habitat would be destroyed Evaluation Costs $20 million to compensate homeowners $10 million to construct new highway Lost wildlife habitat worth $1 million Benefits $39 million savings in automobile driving costs Conclusion Benefits exceed costs Building highway a good action 1-* 1-* Case for Act Utilitarianism Focuses on happiness Down-to-earth (practical) Comprehensive Case Against Act Utilitarianism Unclear whom to include in calculations and how far out into the future to consider Too much work Ignores our innate sense of duty We cannot predict consequences with certainty Susceptible to the problem of moral luck Overall, a workable ethical theory 1-* 1-* Applying Principle of Utility to Rules We ought to adopt moral rules which, if followed by everyone, will lead to the greatest increase in total happiness Act utilitarianism applies Principle of Utility to individual actions Rule utilitarianism applies Principle of Utility to moral rules 2.8 Rule Utilitarianism Anti-Worm Scenario August 2003: Blaster worm infected thousands of Windows computers Soon after, Nachi worm appeared Took control of vulnerable computer Located and destroyed copies of Blaster Downloaded software patch to fix security problem Used computer as launching pad to try to “infect” other vulnerable PCs 1-* 1-* Evaluation using Rule Utilitarianism Proposed rule: If I can write a helpful worm that removes a harmful worm from infected computers and shields them from future attacks, I should do so Who would benefit People who do not keep their systems updated Who would be harmed People who use networks People who’s computers are invaded by buggy anti-worms System administrators Conclusion: Harm outweighs benefits. Releasing anti-worm is wrong. 1-* 1-* Case for Rule Utilitarianism Not every moral decision requires performing utilitarian calculus Moral rules survive exceptional situations Avoids the problem of moral luck Reduces the problem of bias Appeals to a wide cross-section of society 1-* 1-* Case Against Utilitarianism in General All consequences must be measured on a single scale. All units must be the same in order to do the sum In certain circumstances utilitarians must quantify the value of a human life Utilitarianism ignores the problem of an unjust distribution of good consequences. Utilitarianism does not mean “the greatest good of the greatest number” That requires a principle of justice What happens when a conflict arises between the Principle of Utility and a principle of justice? Despite weaknesses, both act utilitarianism and rule utilitarianism are workable ethical theories 1-* 1-* Basis of Social Contract Theory Thomas Hobbes In a “state of nature” our lives would be “solitary, poore, nasty, brutish, and short” We implicitly accept a social contract Establishment of moral rules to govern relations among citizens Government capable of enforcing these rules Jean-Jacques Rousseau In ideal society, no one above rules That prevents society from enacting bad rules 2.9 Social Contract Theory 1-* 1-* James Rachels’s Definition “Morality consists in the set of rules, governing how people are to treat one another, that rational people will agree to accept, for their mutual benefit, on the condition that others follow those rules as well.” Kinds of Rights Negative right: A right that another can guarantee by leaving you alone Positive right: A right obligating others to do something on your behalf Absolute right: A right guaranteed without exception Limited right: A right that may be restricted based on the circumstances Correlation between Types of Rights Positive rights tend to be more limited Negative rights tends to be more absolute 1-* 1-* John Rawls’s Principles of Justice Each person may claim a “fully adequate” number of basic rights and liberties, so long as these claims are consistent with everyone else having a claim to the same rights and liberties Any social and economic inequalities must Be associated with positions that everyone has a fair and equal opportunity to achieve Be to the greatest benefit of the least-advantaged members of society (the difference principle) 1-* Rawls’s First Principle of Justice 1-* 1-* Rawls’s Difference Principle 1-* 1-* 1-* DVD Rental Scenario Bill owns chain of DVD rental stores Collects information about rentals from customers Constructs profiles of customers Sells profiles to direct marketing firms Some customers happy to receive more mail order catalogs; others unhappy at increase in “junk mail” Evaluation (Social Contract Theory) Consider rights of Bill, customers, and mail order companies. Does customer have right to expect name, address to be kept confidential? If customer rents DVD from bill, who owns information about transaction? If Bill and customer have equal rights to information, Bill did nothing wrong to sell information. If customers have right to expect name and address or transaction to be confidential without giving permission, then Bill was wrong to sell information without asking for permission. 1-* 1-* Case for Social Contract Theory Framed in language of rights Explains why people act in self-interest in absence of common agreement Provides clear analysis of certain citizen/government problems Why okay for government to deprive criminals of certain rights Why civil obedience can be morally right action Workable ethical theory Case Against Social Contract Theory No one signed social contract Some actions have multiple characterizations Conflicting rights problem May unjustly treat people incapable of upholding contract Despite weaknesses, a workable theory 1-* Critique of Enlightenment Theories Kantianism, utilitarianism, social contract theory ignore important moral considerations moral education moral wisdom family and social relationships role of emotions Virtue ethics arete, virtue, excellence: reaching highest potential Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics (4th century BC) 1-* 2.10 Virtue Ethics 1-* Virtues and Vices Two types of virtue intellectual virtues: virtues associated with reasoning and truth moral virtues: virtues of character (e.g., honesty) Moral virtues developed by habitually performing right action deep-seated character traits disposition to act in a certain way and feel in a certain way 1-* Aristotle: Happiness derives from living a life of virtue. 1-* Summary of Virtue Ethics 1-* A right action is an action that a virtuous person, acting in character, would do in the same circumstances. A virtuous person is a person who possesses and lives out the virtues. The virtues are those character traits human beings needs in order to flourish and be truly happy. Vices Vices are opposite of virtues Vice: a character trait that prevents a human being from flourishing or being truly happy Often, a virtue situated between two vices Courage between cowardliness and rashness Generosity between stinginess and prodigality 1-* Case for Virtue Ethics It often makes more sense to focus on virtues than obligations, rights, or consequences Personal relationships can be morally relevant to decision making Our moral decision-making skills develop over time With this theory there are no irresolvable moral dilemmas Emotions play an important role in living a moral life 1-* Case Against Virtue Ethics Reasonable people may disagree on character traits needed for human flourishing Cannot use virtue ethics to guide government policy Virtue ethics undermines attempts to hold people responsible for their bad actions Despite weaknesses, virtue ethics a workable theory 1-* 1-* Objectivism vs. Relativism Objectivism: Morality has an existence outside the human mind Relativism: Morality is a human invention Divine command theory, ethical egoism, Kantianism, utilitarianism, social contract theory, and virtue ethics examples of objectivism 2.11 Comparing Workable Ethical Theories Workable Ethical Theories We seek theories with these characteristics: Based on the ethical point of view Objective moral principles developed using logical reasoning based on facts and commonly held values Workable ethical theories Kantianism Act and rule utilitarianism Social contract theory Virtue ethics 1-* 1-* Comparing Workable Ethical Theories 1-* Social Contract Theory Perspective Everyone in society bears certain burdens in order to receive certain benefits Legal system supposed to guarantee people’s rights are protected Everything else being equal, we should be law-abiding Should only break law if compelled to follow a higher-order moral obligation 1-* 2.12 Morality of Breaking the Law Social Contract: A Prima Facie Obligation to Obey the Law 1-* Kantian Perspective Everyone wants to be treated justly Imagine rule: “I may break a law I believe to be unjust” If everyone acted according to this rule, then laws would be subverted Contradiction: Cannot both wish to be treated justly and allow laws to be subverted 1-* Rule Utilitarian Perspective What would be consequences of people ignoring laws they felt to be unjust? Beneficial consequence: Happiness of people who are doing what they please Harmful consequences: Harm to people directly affected by lawless actions, general loss of respect for laws, increased burden on criminal justice system Harms greater than benefits 1-* Act Utilitarian Perspective Possible to conceive of situations where benefits of breaking law exceed harms Suppose give penniless, bedridden friend copy of CD Friend benefits by $15 (value of CD) I benefit by $10 (satisfaction of helping friend) Harms of $0 (no lost sale, no police involvement) With $25 of benefit and $0 of harm, action is determined to be good 1-* 1-* Summary Insights Offered by Various Theories Kantianism: Every person is equally valuable, and when you interact with other people you should always respect them as rational beings. Utilitarianism: You should consider the consequences of an action before deciding whether it’s right or wrong. Social contract theory: We should collectively promote human rights, such as the rights to life, liberty, and property. Virtue ethics: You can count on a good person to do the right thing at the right time in the right way. 1-* It’s Up to You You can consider duties and rights and consequences and virtues when making moral decisions Ultimately, you have to decide: What kind of person do I want to be? What kind of world do I want to live in? 1-* Chapter 1: Catalysts for Change 1-* 1-* Organization of Chapter Introduction Milestones in computing Milestones in networking Milestones in information storage and retrieval Information technology issues 1-* 1-* Information Age Era characterized by unprecedented access to information Catalysts Low-cost computers High-speed communication networks 1.1 Introduction Advances in Past Two Decades Smartphones MP3 players Digital photography Email World Wide Web 1-* 1-* Technology and Values Dynamic between people, technology People adopt technology Technology changes society Using technology can change people Our experiences physically change our brains (e.g., London taxi drivers) Experiences with technology can have psychological effects, too (e.g., effects of dependency on cell phones) Technologies solve problems, but may create new problems Automobile Refrigerator Low-cost international communication Amish bishops meet twice a year to discuss matters of importance to the church, including whether any new technologies should be allowed. 1-* 1-* Aids to Manual Calculating Tablet: a flat piece used especially for an inscription Clay, wax tablets (ancient times) Slates (late Middle Ages) Paper tablets (19th century) Abacus Rods or wires in rectangular frame Lines drawn on a counting board Mathematical tables Tables of logarithms (17th century) Income tax tables (today) 1.2 Milestones in Computing 1-* 1-* Early Mechanical Calculators Calculators of Pascal and Leibniz (17th century) Worked with whole numbers: Did * and / through repeated + and - Unreliable Arithmometer of de Colmar (19th century) Took advantage of advances in machine tools Adopted by insurance companies Printing calculator of Scheutzes (19th century) Used method of differences pioneered by Babbage Adopted by Dudley Observatory (mainly for astronomy) in New York Completed astronomical calculations 1-* 1-* Social Change  Market for Calculators Gilded Age (1870-1900. Era of rapid economic growth) Rapid industrialization Economic expansion Concentration of corporate power New, larger corporations Multiple layers of management Multiple locations Needed up-to-date, comprehensive, reliable, and affordable information 1-* 1-* Calculator Adoptions  Social Change Fierce market Continuous improvements in size, speed, ease of use Sales increased rapidly “Deskilling” and feminization of bookkeeping People of average ability quite productive Calculators 6 faster than adding by hand Wages dropped Women replaced men 1-* 1-* Cash Register Store owners of late 1800s faced problems Keeping accurate sales records for department stores Preventing misuse from clerks Response to problems: cash register Created printed, itemized receipts Maintained printed log of transactions Rang bell every time drawer was opened Punched Card Tabulation Punched cards (late 19th century) One record per card (or LOC) Cards could be sorted into groups, allowing computation of subtotals by categories Early adopters U.S. Bureau of the Census, Railroads, Retail organizations Heavy industries… 1-* 1-* Tabulators  Data-processing Systems Data-processing system: 3 main components Receives input data Performs one or more calculations Produces output data Punched cards: Are within these systems Stored input data and intermediate results Stored output On most sophisticated systems, also stored programs Precursors of Commercial Computers Atanasoff-Berry Computer to solve linear equations: vacuum tubes: Not programmable ENIAC (electronic numerical integrator and computer): externally programmed with wires: Each instruction was programmed by puting wires into plugboards. EDVAC: program stored in memory Small-Scale Experimental Machine used the CRT (Cathode R ay Tube) as a storage device for digital information. It was the first operational, fully electronic computer system that had both program and data stored in its memory. Vacuum tube is a glass tube that has its gas removed, creating a vacuum. Vacuum tubes contain electrodes for controlling electron flow and were used in early computers as a switch or an amplifier. * 1-* 1-* First Commercial Computers Remington-Rand Completed UNIVAC (universal automatic computer) in 1951 Delivered to U.S. Bureau of the Census Predicted, successfully, winner of 1952 Presidential election IBM Larger base of customers Far superior sales and marketing organization Greater investment in research and development Dominated mainframe market by mid-1960s CBS News Coverage of 1952 Presidential Election Featured UNIVAC Computer 1-* 1-* Programming Languages Assembly language Symbolic representations of machine instructions one assembly language instruction was required for every machine instruction. FORTRAN First higher-level language (shorter programs)
Designed for scientific applications

COBOL

U.S. Department of Defense standard
Designed for business applications

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Time-Sharing Systems and BASIC
Time-Sharing Systems
Divide computer time among multiple users
Users connect to computer via terminals
Cost of ownership spread among more people
Gave many more people access to computers
BASIC
Developed at Dartmouth College
Simple, easy-to-learn programming language
Popular language for teaching programming
Transistor
Replacement for vacuum tube
Invented at Bell Labs (1948)
Semiconductor
Faster
Cheaper
More reliable
More energy efficient

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Integrated Circuit
Semiconductor containing transistors, capacitors, and resistors
Invented at Fairchild Semiconductor and Texas Instruments
Advantages over parts they replaced
Smaller
Faster
More reliable
Less expensive

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IBM System/360
Before System/360
IBM dominated mainframe marked in 1960s
IBM computers were incompatible
Switch computers  rewrite programs
System/360
Series of 19 computers with varying levels of power
All computers could run same programs
Upgrade without rewriting programs
IBM System/360

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Microprocessor
Computer inside a semiconductor chip
Invented in 1970 at Intel
Made personal computers practical
Antecedents to the Personal Computer
Whole Earth Catalog: A magazine and product catalog
“Sort of like Google in paperback form” (Steve Jobs)
Stewart Brand saw “technology as a tool for individual and collective transformation” (Fred Turner)
People’s Computer Company
Educated people on how to use computers
People gathered around time-share computers
Culture promoted free exchange of software
Homebrew Computer Club
Meeting place for hobbyists
Steve Wozniak created system that became Apple I

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Personal Computer
Altair 8800
Gates and Allen created BASIC interpreter
Interpreter pirated at Homebrew Computer Club meeting
Personal computers became popular
Apple Computer: Apple II
Tandy Corporation: TRS 80
Businesses drawn to personal computers
Computer spreadsheet program: VisiCalc
IBM launches IBM PC
Steve Wozniak and Steve Jobs with Apple I Personal Computer
Time for Questions

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Early Networking: Semaphore Telegraph Tower
1.3 Milestones in Networking
Photo l’Adresse Musée de La Poste, Paris / La Poste
Electricity and Electromagnetism
Volta invented battery (In 1799 He produced an electric current by submerging two different metals close to each other in an acid.)
In 1820 Christian Oersted discovered that electricity creates magnetic field
Sturgeon constructed electromagnet
Henry: communication using electromagnets (1830: Page 51)

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Telegraph
U.S. government funded first line
40 miles from Washington, D.C. to Baltimore
Built by Samuel Morse in 1843-1844
Private networks flourished
12,000 miles of lines in 1850
Transcontinental line in 1861 put Pony Express out of business
200,000 miles of lines by 1877
Technology proved versatile (adaptable)
For instance, people kept finding new applications for the telegraph:
Fire alarm boxes
Police call boxes

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Telephone
Alexander Graham Bell
Constructed harmonic telegraph: All of the dots and dashes of Morse code have the same note (sound). The harmonic telegraph assigned a different note (different sound frequency) to each message.
Leveraged concept into first telephone
Social impact of telephone
Blurred public life / private life boundary
Eroded traditional social hierarchies
Reduced privacy: Responsible for the system overheard conversations
Enabled first “online” communities: Party lines (page 54)
Typewriter and Teletype
Typewriter
Individual production of “type set” documents
Common in offices by 1890s
Teletype
Typewriter connected to telegraph line
Popular uses
Transmitting news stories
Sending records of stock transactions

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Radio
Pioneers
Hertz generated electromagnetic waves
Marconi invented radio: Wireless Telegraph Co.
First used in business
Wireless telegraph
Transmit voices
Entertainment uses
Suggested by Sarnoff: The receiver can be designed in the form of a simple music box . . . can be placed in the parlor or living room
Important entertainment medium by 1930s
Television
Began in 1884, Invented in 1927 and Became popular in 1950s
Price fell dramatically
Number of stations increased
Social effects
Worldwide audiences
Networks (Channels) strive to be first to deliver news
Impact of incorrect information; e.g., 2000 presidential election

Radio works by transmitting and receiving electromagnetic waves. The radio signal is an electronic current moving back and forth very quickly. A transmitter radiates this field outward via an antenna; a receiver then picks up the field and translates it to the sounds heard through the radio.
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Remote Computing
Stibitz and Williams built Complex Number Calculator at Bell Labs
Bell Labs part of AT&T (phone company)
Teletype chosen for input/output
Allowed operator to be distant from machine
Long-distance demonstration between New Hampshire and New York City (page 57)
ARPANET
In reaction to the launch of Sputnik by the Soviet Union in 1957, the Department of Defense (DoD) created the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA), which created the ARPA Network (ARPANET).
Licklider conceived of “Galactic Network”: a Global Network Computer
Decentralized design to improve survivability in case of nuclear attack. Every computer on the network would have the ability to make decisions about how message traffic should be routed.
Packet-switching replaced circuit switching

He typed numbers into the teletype, which transmitted the data 250 miles to the calculator in New York City.
After the calculator had computed the answer, it transmitted the data back to the teletype, which printed the result.
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Circuit-switched v. Packet-switched Networks
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Email
Creation
ARPANET users relied upon the telephone for communications, until Tomlinson at BBN wrote software to send, receive email messages
Roberts created email utility: list email, read them, reply to them,forward them and save them.
Current status
One of world’s most important communication technologies
Around 200 billions of messages sent in U.S. every day
Internet
ARPA researchers anticipated the need to connect the ARPANET with other networks based on different designs.
Kahn conceived of open architecture networking
Cerf and Kahn designed TCP/IP protocol
Internet: network of networks communicating using TCP/IP

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NSFNET
Created by National Science Foundation
Provided access grants to universities
Encouraged commercial subscribers for regional networks
Banned commercial traffic on NSFNET Backbone
Private companies developed long-distance Internet connections
After private networks established, NSF shut down NSFNET Backbone 1955
There is similar initiative in UAE: ANKABUT
Broadband
Broadband
High-speed Internet connection
Makes feasible transfer of very large files (e.g., video)
The growth of file swapping among Internet users has paralleled the growth of broadband connections.

Typical broadband speeds

Taiwan 85.02 average download speed (megabits/second)
Singapore 70.86

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Wireless Networks
Cell phones
Motorola demonstrated the first cell phone in 1973, weighed 2 ½ pounds
Now weigh a few ounces and also support texting and broadband Internet access
Public access wireless local area networks
In 1993 Sjodin proposed the development of public access wireless local area networks.
Today wireless Internet access points, or hotspots, are everywhere
Most hotspots use a technology known as Wi-Fi.
Wi-Fi or Wireless Fidelity, meaning you can access or connect to a network using radio waves, without needing to use wires.
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Time for Questions

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Greek Alphabet in the Ancestor of the English Alph.
True alphabet: letters for both consonant and vowel sounds
750 BC: Greeks developed first true alphabet with 24 characters
Simple, efficient way of transforming spoken words into written form compared with earlier writing systems in Mesopotamia and Egypt
Oral culture transitioned to written culture
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1.4 Milestones in Information Storage and Retrieval
Codex and Paper
Codex
Rectangular pages sewn together on one side
Replaced papyrus scrolls as way of storing books
Allowed quicker access to particular passages
First produced by hand, then by wood engraving
Paper
Invented by Chinese, brought to Europe in late Middle Ages
By 15th century replaced parchment for pages in less expensive codices

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Gutenberg’s Printing Press
Based on movable metal type rather than wood blocks (Codex)
Church principal customer of early publishers
Powerful mass communication tool
Printing press’s impact on Reformation
More than 300,000 copies of Luther’s publications
Protestants out-published Catholics by 10-to-1 in the middle 16th century
Newspapers
Newspapers: Stimulated free expression
Governments responded
Licensing
Censorship
Impact on American Revolution
Newspapers helped unify colonies
Persuaded public opinion toward independence from Great Britain

Reformation is the action or process of reforming an institution or practice.
A 16th-century movement for the reform of abuses in the Roman Church ending in the establishment of the Reformed and Protestant Churches.
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Hypertext
Vannevar Bush envisioned Memex (Memory and Index): an information retrieval system equipped with “any item may select immediately and automatically another”
Ted Nelson
Coined word hypertext: a linked network of nodes containing information
Proposed creation of Xanadu: a worldwide network of connected literature
Douglas Engelbart
In 1960s, people submitted computer jobs in the form of decks of punch cards and waited hours to run.
Computer output was pages full of numbers that programmers had examine.
Engelbart wondered why people couldn’t interact directly with computers and view the output on a CRT, like radar images.
Directed construction of NLS (oNLine System)
Demonstrated windows, email, mouse, videoconferencing
Douglas Engelbart Rehearses for
“The Mother of All Demos”

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Graphical User Interface
Xerox PARC (Palo Alto Research Center)
Alan Kay saw Doug Engelbart demo in 1968
Alto personal computer (early 1970s)
Bit-mapped display, keyboard, and mouse
Apple Computer
Steve Jobs visited Xerox PARC in 1979
Apple released Macintosh (1984)
Bit-mapped display, keyboard, mouse and affordable price
Microsoft released Windows 3.0 (1990)
Released in May 1990
Quickly became dominant graphical user interface
Single-Computer Hypertext Systems
Peter Brown at University of Kent
Guide (1982)
Released versions for Macintosh and IBM PC
Apple Computer
HyperCard (1987)
Hypertext system based on “stacks” of “cards”
Links represented by buttons
Basis for best-selling games Myst and Riven

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World Wide Web
First browser built at CERN in Switzerland
Tim Berners-Lee: WorldWideWeb (1990)
Berners-Lee created Web protocols
Protocols based on TCP/IP  general
Later browsers
Mosaic
Netscape Navigator
Netscape Mozilla
Microsoft Internet Explorer
FireFox
Google Chrome(most popular)

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Traffic Information on the Web
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Copyright © 2011 by WSDOT. Reprinted with permission.

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Search Engines
Crawler-based engines (Google, AltaVista)
Programs called spiders follow hyperlinks and visit millions of Web pages
System automatically constructs Web page database
Human-assisted engines (Open Directory)
Humans build Web page database
Web page summaries more accurate
Far fewer Web pages in database
Hybrid systems (MSN Search)
Time for Questions

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Information Technology
Definition:
Devices used in creation, storage, manipulation, dissemination of data, sound, and/or images
Examples
Tablets, smartphones, laptop computers
People making greater use of IT
Costs keep falling
Capabilities keep rising
1.5 Information Technology Issues

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IT Issues
Email
Easy way to keep in touch
Spam has become a real problem
Web
Free access to huge amounts of information
Harmful consequences of some sites
CDs, MP3s
Free or cheap copies readily available
May be unfair to musicians
Credit cards
Convenience over cash and checks
Increases possibility of identity theft
Who owns information about transactions?
Loan applications
Based on credit history, not personal interview
Lower interest rates, but less flexibility
Telecommuting
Saves time, allows more flexible work hours
Do teleworkers get overlooked for promotions?
Improved global communication network
Allows companies to sell to entire world
Allows companies to move jobs out of U.S.
Should IT consumers be concerned about working conditions in factories in developing countries?
World Wide Web
A conduit for democratic ideas?
Another tool for totalitarian governments?

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Summary
Revolutionary discoveries are rare; change is usually incremental
Information technology has long history
Social conditions give rise to new technologies
Adoption of technologies can change society
Rate of technological change accelerating

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© Zits Partnership. KING FEATURES SYNDICATE

Student Name: __________________________ Student ID: _________

Assignment 1

In the first chapter, we learnt about Catalysts for Change. The author qualified milestones in computing, networking, and information storage and retrieval as significant inventions. In a typical 1000-word essay, explain if you agree or disagree with his opinion? And explain why.

Do not select passages from any resources! You must express your opinion from your understanding of the course materials and online resources.

Each student is required to submit the following assignments according to the schedule on the blackboard.

Students have to include proper citations. The essay’s quality of writing is part of the assessment. Therefore, typographical, grammatical or syntactical errors will affect the grade. No late submission. It WON’T be accepted.

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