Admin leadership discussion 2

Psychologist Abraham Maslow categorized human behavior in the context of need-reduction, i.e., I have a need and when it gets urgent, I do something about it. Please provide discussion on the questions below:

• What are Maslow’s descriptions of human needs?
• How does his hierarchy work?

300 words

References 

Professor Mary Lou Pasternac, MPA, CPM
Decision Style Model – Norman R.F. Maier

The Decision Style Model
describes prevalent decision
styles and suggests that the
decision style chosen should be
appropriate to the type of
problem being confronted. The
model is developed from research
done by Norman R.F. Maier.

Maier found two dimensions to be important in
appraising the potential effectiveness of a decision:

§ The importance of the Quality of the decision and
the extent to which the leader possesses sufficient
information to make a high quality decision.

§ The extent to which the Acceptance of the decision
on the part of the followers is critical to the
implementation of the decision.

Normally, an individual will pay
more attention either to quality
or to acceptance. The
proportion or degree of these
two factors in the decision-
making process determines
the decision style.

Command – Using the available
information, the leader makes the
decision without involving the person
or persons who will be executing the
decision. Or you obtain information
from a selected few without sharing
the nature of the problem and then
make the decision.

Consensus – The persons affected by the
decision are brought together and a group
decision evolves from shared information
and ideas. Or you may use a virtual group
(survey data or other means). The decision
is acceptable in some degree to all group
members. This approach may include
Bounded Consensus, where the groups must
make the decision bounded by a time or
quality constraint or it reverts to the leader.

Consultation – The leader makes the
decision after consulting with
individuals, sharing the nature of the
problem with them, as well as,
obtaining information. Or you may
bring them together as a group to
discuss the problem and obtain
information, but you make the
decision that may or may not reflect
your follower’s influence.

Convenience

– The leader chooses
whatever method is easiest at the
time the decision is required. No
special consideration is given to
finding the best method.

This Problem Type Suggests This Decision Style

Quality is critical, the leader has
the necessary information, and
there is no issue of acceptance.

Command

Quality is critical, the leader lacks
information, and there are issues
of acceptance.

Consultation

While quality is important,
acceptance is the critical issue.

Consensus

Neither quality nor acceptance
requires much attention.

Convenience

While quality and acceptance
considerations should always be kept
in mind there are other situational
factors that tend toward one decision
style over another. It is part of the
leadership function to deal with these
issues so they do not dominate the
decision style.

Some of these factors are:
Time Constraints = Tendency toward command
Safety Concerns = Tendency toward command
When these are real considerations they should be
dealt with by training and contingency plans to that
they are not just matters of command.

Trust Issues = Tendency toward command
Obviously trust issues should be dealt with by
training, transfer, or, if necessary, termination.

Lack of Information = Tendency toward consultative
Team Concept = Tendency toward consensus

For a number of years, behavioral
scientists have been labeling decision
styles with three or four descriptive
words, but little has been said,
succinctly, about the techniques for
selecting the most effective style. The
Decision Style Model attempts to
translate theory into strategy.

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PAD 44 2
Adm1mi trativ

_ea e hip &
B havior

ary Lou P

ow’s Hiera

► Psychologist Abraham Maslow first
introduced his concept of a hierarchy
of needs in his 1 943 paper “A Theory
of Human Motivation” and his
subsequent book, Motivation and
Personality. This hierarchy suggests
that people are motivated to f u lfi 11
basic needs before moving on to other
needs.

Abraham Maslow’s book Motivation
and Personality, published in 1954
introduced the Hierarchy of Needs.
Maslow extended his ideas in a later
book Toward A Psychology Of Being, a
significant and relevant commentary,
which has been revised in recent times
by Richard Lowry, who is in his own
right a leading academic in the field of
motivational psychology.

According to Maslow’s model, human needs

are critical to understanding motivation.

Maslow’s Needs Hierarchy is the most widely

used model for explaining, in general,

human’s motivation. Maslow first published

h is th e o ry in 1 9 4 3 . Th o u g h criticized at

times, this model has prevailed as the most

influential work on motivation. Th i s model

of human motivation has motivated others

to theorize about human motivation.

Maslow’ Five General Categorie

Maslow grouped many potential
human needs into five general
categories starting with the most
essential to survival and calling
them the physiological or basic
needs:

Sel f-actua lizatio n

Esteem

Love/ belonging

Safety

morality,
creativity,

spontaneity,
problem solving,
lack of prejudice.

acceptance of facts

self -esteem . confidence,
achievement. respect of others,

respect by others

friendship, family, sexual intimacy

security of: bod}’, employment , resources,
mora Uty, the family. health. property

Ma low’ Fiv General Cat gorie

l. Physiological- These relate to physical
well-being and include such needs as hunger,

thirst, breathing, exercise, rest, and sex.

2. Safety- These involve physical safety such
as being free from temperature extremes,

assault, tyranny, fire and other destructive

forces. Maslow also implied that this

category involved psychological factors, such

as, the desire for an orderly, predicatble

environment and being protected from threat

and injustice

Maslow’ Five General Categorie
3. Social (Love-Belonging) – These are

psychological needs and involve love,

belonging, a feeling of acceptance and a

desire for group involvement. The human

being is a social animal and gregarious in

nature.

4. Esteem or ego – People have a need for

status both in terms of self-respect and the

esteem of others. Accordingly they seek

feelings or achievent and competency. Men

and women are striving animals who, as they

psychologically mature, attempt to attain

~~~er levels of status and accomplishment.

Ma low’ Five eneral Categorie

5. Self-Actualization – People have a
restlessness for self-fulfillment. This
involves a striving to realize the
potential of self, or as Maslow notes,
“to become everything that one is
capable of becoming.” It is this basic
internal drive, largely unfilled, that
characterizes us a wanting animal.

ignificance and ource of the Need

► Which of the needs are most important
and critical?

► Are the needs inherent or learned?
► Is behavior a conscious, rational

response to needs?
► Is behavior part of the subconscious?

Maslow’s response to these questions made
his most important contributions:

Maslow stated that a satisfied need is not a

motivator. For example,

► Hunger is a motivating force when someone

is hungry, but if an individual has this need

satisfied, hunger is not a motivator.

► When someone is safe and free from threat,

the safety needs are not motivators.

The potency of need is a function of its

current level of fulfillment.

Ma low’ View

As per Maslow, the intensity of specific

needs is related to the hierarchy he

established:

► The physiological needs will dominate the

behavior of an individual until the needs are

fulfilled, at least, at a minimal level

necessary for existence. Then, the next-

higher level, safety needs, will become

dominant.

Ma low’ · View , continued:
► After safety needs are met at an acceptable

level, then the next step, social needs,

dominate. Thus the steps of the hierarchy

continue.

► This impacts the role that the psychological

needs play (social, esteem, and self-

actualization). These are also called

sec o n d a ry n e e d s .

That said, they are not necessarily secondary

since m o st of the m aj or a cc om p Ii sh m en ts of

persons have been impacted by the need for

achievement and self-realization.

Questions. Are needs learned or unlearned?

► Physiological needs are innate and unlearned.

They are primarily an inherent part of people

and part of their awareness when engaging in

satisfy in g the need , s u ch a eating .

► Physiological needs or at least the means of

satisfying them, are primarily learned and

unconc101us.

Considering human response to
needs is the the most crucial
lesson to be learned by the leader
to be successful in approaches to
motivating. Behavior is motivated
by needs, thus the leader needs to
focus on the impact of their
actions in meeting the needs
satisfaction of others.

PAD 443

2

Administrative

Leadership &
Behavior

Professor Mary Lou Pasternac, MPA, CPM
Week

8

Performance Management and Performance Measurement

2

1. WHAT IS PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT?

2. WHAT IS A PERFORMANCE MEASUREMENT SYSTEM?

3. WHAT DOES A PERFORMANCE MEASUREMENT SYSTEM

MEASURE?
4. HOW DOES PERFORMANCE MEASUREMENT FACILITATE

MANAGEMENT?

5. WHY DO ORGANIZATIONS DISTORT INFORMATION?

6. THE CASE STUDY OF THE SPACE SHUTTLE
7. HOW CAN WE FACILITATE THE FLOW OF INFORMATION

TO MANAGEMENT?
8. THE IMPORTANCE OF PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT

This lecture will cover:

3

} It is a method of management that is
informed and influenced by data on
organizational performance.

} It attempts to relate data on performance to
specific management initiatives.

1. What is Performance Management?

4

} It is a system for collecting, analyzing and
reporting data on key aspects of
organizational performance.

} Performance measurement involves the
measurement of organizational inputs, work
processes, outputs and outcomes or impacts.

2. WHAT IS A PERFORMANCE MEASUREMENT SYSTEM?

5

} Inputs: The people, facilities, supplies,
authority, money, political support and other
resources that the organization obtains to
do its work.

} Work processes: The sequence of tasks
involved in producing internal supplies and
organizational outputs.

} Outputs: The products produced by the
organization.

3. WHAT DOES A PERFORMANCE MEASUREMENT SYSTEM
MEASURE?

6

} Deciding on appropriate measures focuses
management on the definition of success:
◦ It provides a reason to pay attention to

internal operations.
◦ The measures selected communicate

management priorities and influence
organizational behavior.
◦ Decisions on performance measures are

critical management decisions. They are
the ground level, operational definition of
policy.

4. HOW DOES PERFORMANCE MEASUREMENT
FACILITATE MANAGEMENT?

7

} Periodic performance reports ensure
opportunities for redirection and mid-
course corrections.

} Performance reporting discussions can
allow junior and mid-level staff to directly
communicate with senior management –
reducing distortion.

} You can’t manage something if you can’t
measure it.
◦ Without measurement you can’t tell if your

actions are making things better or worse.

4. HOW DOES PERFORMANCE MEASUREMENT
FACILITATE MANAGEMENT? (Continued)

8

} Information reporting is not an automatic,
mechanical process.
◦ It is a political process requiring the buy-

in of those providing information.
} People and organizations are more likely to

provide accurate information to a system if
they utilize the data themselves and they
see a benefit to cooperation.

} In hierarchies, control of information is
often equated with organizational influence
and power.

5. WHY DO ORGANIZATIONS DISTORT INFORMATION?

9

} NATIONAL DESK
September 26, 2003, New York Times

} Dogged Engineer’s Effort To Assess Shuttle Damage
By James Glanz and John Schwartz

} “New information on fatal Columbia mission shows
that NASA engineers’ desire for outside help in
getting look at shuttle’s wing was more intense and
widespread than described in Aug 26th final report of
board investigating February 1st accident”

6. SHUTTLE CASE STUDY

10

} “New information makes it clear that failure to
follow up on request for outside imagery, first
step in discovering damage and perhaps
mounting rescue effort, did not simply fall
through bureaucratic cracks but was actively,
even hotly resisted by mission managers”.

} “Five days into flight, Rodney Rocha, NASA
engineer, was chosen by his fellow engineers to
ask shuttle mission managers to request images
of impact area, perhaps from American spy
satellites or powerful telescopes on ground”.

6. SHUTTLE CASE STUDY (Cont.)

11

} “He says he was rebuffed at least six times;
curt e-mail to him from Columbia’s flight
director LeRoy Cain concludes ‘I consider it
to be a dead issue’; numerous engineers,
most of whom have not spoken publicly until
now, say discord between them and
managers stands out in stark relief”.

} Why was this information not only ignored,
but actively resisted by management?

6. SHUTTLE CASE STUDY (Cont.)

12

} Involve key staff in developing
performance measures, data collection
and reporting procedures.

} Provide periodic, independent audits of
the system, measures and data.

} Provide internal “911” communication
channels to provide a fast track for
information to management.

} Discourage reprisals for information
reporting to senior management and
reward information reporting when
possible.

7. HOW CAN WE FACILITATE THE FLOW OF
INFORMATION TO MANAGEMENT?

13

} Tracking organizational inputs, work
processes,outputs and impacts allows
management to understand what the
organization is doing and producing.

} Tracking changes in indicators allows
management to track the effect of their
decisions and changes in the
organization’s environment.

8. THE IMPORTANCE OF PERFORMANCE
MANAGEMENT

Professor Mary Lou Pasternac, MPA, CPM
Mentoring/Coaching/Counseling

Generation X & Generation Y

} Mentoring is a developmental relationship between a more
experienced “mentor” and a less experienced partner that
typically involves the sharing of advice, resources and
support for reaching specific goals. The mentor is
experienced in a particular domain and shares that
experience while bringing the mentee up the ranks. It is a
partnership between the two. Ideally, the mentee leads the
relationship by asking for guidance and support. The
relationship can occur in a formalized program or between
two people who agree between them to work together for a
period of time. Usually, the mentors and mentees work for
the same company or belong to the same professional
organization.

Coaching is a method of professional development that can be
provided by a supervisor or a paid professional to attain a
certain work behavior that will improve leadership,
accountability, teamwork, sales, communication, goal setting,
strategic planning and more. It can be provided in a number of
ways, including one-on-one, group sessions and large scale
organizational work. Business coaches often specialize in a
specific practice area such as executive coaching, corporate
coaching, small business and leadership coaching. A good
business coach does not need to have specific business
expertise and experience in the same field as the person being
coached.

} Counselors are professionals who are trained
to diagnose and help a client with emotional
problems, resolving issues from the past or a
dysfunction. From time to time, a mentor or
coach may find it useful to recommend
counseling to a client, mentee, or employee
of an organization.

5

} Generation X encompasses the 44 to 50 million
Americans born between 1965 and 1980. This
generation marks the period of birth decline
after the baby boom and is significantly smaller
than previous and succeeding generations.

} Members of Generation X are largely in their
30’s and early 40’s. They are more ethnically
diverse and better educated than the Baby
Boomers. Over 60% of Generation Xers have
attended college.

6

Individualistic:
Generation X came of age in an era of two-income
families, rising divorce rates and a faltering
economy. Women were joining the workforce in
large numbers, spawning an age of “latch-key”
children. As a result, Generation X is independent,
resourceful and self-sufficient. In the workplace,
Generation X values freedom and responsibility.
Flexible work schedules and work-from-home
options, as long as quotas are met, may help to
retain and motivate this generation. They dislike
being micro-managed and embrace a hands-off
management philosophy, empowerment.

7

} Technologically Adept:
The Generation X mentality reflects a shift from a
manufacturing economy to a service economy. The
first generation to grow up with computers,
technology is woven into their lives. As
orgnizations, such as law firms and corporate legal
departments integrate new technological tools,
Generation X has learned and adapted. This
generation is comfortable using , cellphones, e-
mail, laptops, Blackberrys and other technology
employed in the workplace.

8

} Flexible:
Many Gen Xers lived through tough economic times
in the 1980s and saw their parents lose hard-earned
positions. Thus, Generation X is less committed to
one employer and more willing to change jobs to
get ahead than previous generations. They adapt
well to change and are tolerant of alternative
lifestyles. Generation X is ambitious and eager to
learn new skills but want to accomplish things on
their own terms.

Characteristics of Generation Xers, continued

} Value Work/Life Balance:
Unlike previous generations, members of
Generation X work to live rather than live to work.
They appreciate fun in the workplace. Generation X
managers often incorporate humor and games into
work activities.

10

Born in the mid-1980’s and later, Generation Y
professionals are in their 20s and are just
entering the workforce. With numbers
estimated as high as 70 million, Generation Y
(also known as the Millennials) is the fastest
growing segment of today’s workforce. As
organizations compete for available talent,
employers cannot ignore the needs, desires
and attitudes of this Generation Y.

} Tech-Savvy:
Generation Y grew up with technology and rely on it
to perform their jobs better. Armed with
BlackBerrys, laptops, cellphones and other gadgets,
Generation Y is plugged-in 24 hours a day, 7 days
a week. This generation prefers to communicate
through e-mail and text messaging rather than
face-to-face contact and prefers webinars and
online technology to traditional lecture-based
presentations.

12

} Family-Centric:
The fast-track has lost much of its appeal for
Generation Y who is willing to trade high pay for
fewer billable hours, flexible schedules and a better
work/life balance. While older generations may
view this attitude as narcissistic or lacking
commitment, discipline and drive, Generation Y
legal professionals have a different vision of
workplace expectations and prioritize family over
work.

13

} Achievement-Oriented:
Nurtured and pampered by parents who did
not want to make the mistakes of the
previous generation, Generation Y is
confident, ambitious and achievement-
oriented. They have high expectations of
their employers, seek out new challenges
and are not afraid to question authority.
Generation Y wants meaningful work and a
solid learning curve.

14

} Team-Oriented:
As children, Generation Y participated in team
sports, play groups and other group activities. They
value teamwork and seek the input and affirmation
of others. Part of a no-person-left-behind
generation, Generation Y is loyal, committed and
wants to be included and involved.

15

} Attention-Craving:
Generation Y craves attention in the forms of
feedback and guidance. They appreciate being
kept in the loop and seek frequent praise and
reassurance. Generation Y may benefit greatly
from mentors who can help guide and develop
their young careers.