Weekly Reflection

  1. Write a 200- to 250-word reflection on this week’s topic by responding to the question/comment below.
  2. Your response should be in standard essay format (introduction, body, conclusion; complete sentences, paragraphs). Points will be deducted if you do not follow this format and/or the quality of the writing is poor (spelling, grammar, or punctuation errors), so be sure to proofread carefully.
  3. NO Points if any of your reflection is plagiarized. Use only the required readings/lectures in your response, but don’t over-quote from them – this should be written IN YOUR WORDS.

Political�Geography
Part�1:�Political�Independence�

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&�Making�Nations

Map�of�
Independence�
Movements

Becoming�States
� PostͲindependence�Latin�American�states�

suffered�from�social�polarization�– a�legacy�of�
landownership�and�economic�practices�
established�during�the�colonial�period

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� Independence�struggles�were�not�class�
struggles�but�antiͲcolonial�struggles�– began�life�
with�internal�contradictions�and�destabilizing�
internal�politics
� Oppressed,�illiterate�masses�illͲprepared�for�

civic�responsibility;�elites�opposed�to�any�
form�of�power�sharing

� Independence�did�not�mark�a�break�with�the�
exploitative�colonial�attitudes�and�structures�–
emergence�of�new�elites
� Contradictory�political�environment�–

constitutions�with�eloquent�guarantees�of�
personal�civil�liberties�that�have�been�
widely�violated�since�independence

Caudillismo
� After�independence,�the�economic�elite�became�

somewhat�autonomous�and�left�politics�to�the�military�
figures�from�the�revolutions

� Caudillismo�– arbitrary�rule�by�a�military�or�political�
strongman�or�chief;�rule�enforced�by�violent�means�
(early):�political�assassination�or�an�army�revolt,�and�
nonͲviolent�means�later:�election�rigging,�intimidation�
– one�candidate,�continuismo�(rewriting�constitution,�
or�rigging�election�for�handpicked�successor)

� Caudillos�had�regional�power�bases�and�exerted�power�
over�localized�areas�– a�symptom�of�the�disunity�within�
large�states
� Some�caudillos�were�able�to�take�over�the�whole�

state�– Juan�Manuel�de�Rosas�(Argentina),�Antonio�
Lopez�de�Santa�Anna�(Mexico)�– but�most�ruled�
their�regional�enclaves

� Caudillismo�and�the�support�bases�established�around�
them�gave�rise�to�the�cult�of�the�individual�that�we�see�
later�in�populism�– associated�influences�of�
paternalism,�clientelism�and�authoritarianism

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Elites�in�Power
� PostͲindependence�caudillo�period�dissipated�around�1850s�as�

elites�reemerged�from�seclusion
� States�became�more�unified�– facilitated�by�rail�and�road�

infrastructure�development�– as�foreign�investment�capital�
flowed�into�the�region

� During�this�period,�politics�was�the�territory�of�the�rich�– either�
directly�or�through�dictators�– Porfirio�Diaz�in�Mexico

� Key�political�issues�were�between�two�factions�– liberals�and�
conservatives
� Conservatives�– proͲChurch,�centralized�government�

favoring�big�cities
� Liberals�– separation�of�church�and�state,�federalist�(power�

base�in�outlying�regions),�egalitarian�political�philosophies
� In�19th century�Colombia,�there�were�8�national�civil�wars,�14�

regional�civil�wars,�and�many�other�local�disputes�between�the�
two�parties

� Found�ways�to�ensure�elite�rule�was�maintained�– ballotͲbox�
stuffing,�voteͲbuying,�literacy�laws�– illiterate�people�could�not�
vote�in�Peru�until�1979

‘LD]

Case�Study:�The�Mexican�Revolution
and�Developing�Nationalism

Why�Revolution?
� Mexico�under�Porfirio�Diaz

� He�encouraged�foreign�and�national�investment�in�oil,�railroads,�and�land�
development�– trackage�increased�from�723�miles�in�1881�to�9029�miles�
in�1900

� Expanded�haciendas�– peasants�lost�their�last�remnants�land�and�became�
like�property�of�the�hacienda
� By�1910,�98%�of�arable�land�was�owned�by�haciendas;�90%�of�
peasants�were�landless

� Terrazas�hacienda�larger�than�Belgium�&�the�Netherlands�combined�
� Vast�amounts�of�property�were�under�foreign�control�– by�1910,�US�held�

100M�acres�(22%�of�Mexico’s�land�surface)
� Thousands�were�transformed�into�agrarian�and�industrial�workers�–

indebted�to�company�store,�substandard�living�conditions,�rigidly�
controlled,�violently�suppressed�if�they�tried�to�unionize

� Results
� Strong�land�owning�class,�weak�middle�class,�exploited�peasants�and�

workers
� The�disaffected�coalesced�into�revolutionary�force

Two�Revolutions
� MiddleͲclass�professionals,�intellectuals,�ranchers�

and�merchants�who�wanted�a�modern,�
democratic,�progressive�state�with�a�strong�
centralized�national�government
� 1908�– Madero�publishes�The�Presidential�

Succession�in�1910�that�called�for�free�
elections

� Madero�was�imprisoned�– Diaz�reͲelected�
himself

� Peasants�who�wanted�land�reform�and�social�
justice�based�on�local�selfͲrule
� Two�fronts�– North�led�by�Pancho�Villa,�and�

the�South�led�by�Emiliano�Zapata�
� Villa�and�Zapata’s�peasant�armies�defeated�the�

Federal�Army�in�1911�and�Madero�became�
president

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Revolution�– Part�1
� Madero’s�Rule

� Established�free�press,�independent�Congress�with�
power�over�executive,�enable�formation�of�political�
parties

� But…old�bureaucracy�remained,�haciendas�were�
untouched,�peasants�did�not�recover�their�land

� Battles�between�police�and�unions�&�peasant�
invasions�in�rural�areas

� Results
� Denounced�as�a�traitor�by�Zapata
� Conspiracy�instigated�by�US�ambassador�led�to�

murder�of�Madero�by�General�Victoriano�Huerta
� Huerta�was�an�incompetent�tyrant�– rebel�factions�

united�under�Venustiano�Carranza�(representing�
middle�and�upper�classes�– businessmen,�
professionals,�small�landowners);�Villa�and�Zapata�
also�attacked�Huerta’s�forces�

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Revolution�– Part�2

� Huerta�was�defeated�in�1914�– then�the�
revolution�turned�in�on�itself�– goals�of�Villa�and�
Zapata�were�at�odds�with�Carranza�and�
Obregon

� Carranza�was�briefly�pushed�out�of�Mexico�City�
by�Villa�and�Zapata�– but�they�did�not�seize�
power�– they�went�back�to�the�countryside

� Zapata�redistributed�land�according�to�each�
village�and�the�villages�ruled�themselves�
according�to�their�customs�(1914Ͳ1915)

� Local�autonomy�was�at�odds�with�the�vision�of�a�
national�Mexican�state�by�Carranza�and�
Obregon

� Alvaro�Obregon�defeats�Villa�in�1915
� Carranza�set�up�Zapata�to�be�assassinated�in�

1919�– many�of�Zapata’s�followers�still�don’t�
believe�he�died

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Revolution�– Part�3

� Obregon�became�the�leader�in�1920�after�
Carranza�was�mysteriously�assassinated

� He�implemented�the�revolutionary�Constitution�of�
1917,�which�included�land�reform�(to�win�over�the�
Zapatismo�forces)�and�radical�laws�on�land�
ownership�and�exploitation�of�subsoil�resources

� He�also�established�a�comprehensive�national�
education�plan�– led�by�Jose�Vasconcelos
� In�1910,�rural�masses�equaled�80%�of�the�

population�and�all�but�10%�of�them�were�
illiterate�

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Creating�Nations
� Nation:�A�group�of�people�who�share�particular�historicalͲ

cultural�characteristics�or�imagine�themselves�to�do�so
� Nationalism:�Strong�identification�with�the�nation�to�which�a�

person�feels�they�belong;�encapsulates�a�set�of�beliefs�and�
practices�which�people�come�to�accept�as�‘natural’

� ‘imagined�communities’—provide�feeling�of�belonging,�
solidarity�and�commonality�among�people�who�have�never�met�
and,�in�most�cases,�never�will�(Benedict�Anderson�1991)

Creating�Mexico�&�Mexicans
� Vasconcelos�helped�to�created�a�new�nation�– that�represented�all�its�

parts�and�history�– Indian,�Spanish,�Mestizo�– through…
� Education�Reform�&�the�Cultural�Revolution�– Mexican�muralists�

helped�to�“write”�the�history�of�Mexico�– to�bring�everyone�into�the�
story

&RUWHV� �³/D�0DOLQFKH´

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