DQ1
Discussion Question 1 – CLO 1
Evaluate the strategy, business models, and competitive advantage and provide a
Definition of strategic inflection point and provide at least two examples with descriptions.
Do not forget to justify your argument(s) by providing support from peer-reviewed source(s).
*******
1 page. APA format.
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Interview
Rita McGrath: anticipating and exploiting
strategic inflection points
Brian Leavy
E
ffective strategy development in the face of uncertainly has never been more
challenging or pressing now as the digital revolution continues apace. The acronym
VUCA (volatile, uncertain, complex, ambiguous) has never seemed more apt, nor
discontinuous change more prevalent. In such a dynamic competitive context, trying to
anticipate the where and when of the next market disruption has never been more difficult.
Rita McGrath is a pioneer of “discovery-driven planning,” now widely recognized as one of the
most effective approaches for strategy development in the face of uncertainty. Her research and
experience interacting with executive teams positions her to offer
corporate leaders practical perspectives and advice on how to
approach strategically the great opportunities and dangers that lie
ahead in this VUCA environment. Which is what Professor McGrath
sets out to do in her latest book, Seeing Around Corners: How to
Spot Inflection Points in Business Before They Happen (Houghton
Mifflin Harcourt, 2019).
She is a globally recognized expert on innovation and growth
strategies at Columbia Business School and number five in the
2019 Thinkers 50 rankings. Her previous books on innovation
and strategy include Discovery-Driven Growth: A Breakthrough
Process to Reduce Risk and Seize Opportunity (co-authored
with Ian Macmillan, Harvard Business Review Press, 2009) and
The End of Competitive Advantage: How to Keep Your Strategy
Moving as Fast as Your Business (Harvard Business Review
Press, 2013). Her interviewer, Brian Leavy, is emeritus professor
of strategy at Dublin City University Business School and a
Strategy & Leadership contributing editor (brian.leavy@dcu.ie).
Strategy & Leadership: What inspired you to focus on inflection
points in Seeing Around Corners, and how do you see this latest
book building on your previous work on innovation and strategy?
Rita McGrath: The best-known treatment of strategic inflection
points is probably Andy Grove’s book from the 1990s, Only the
Paranoid Survive. I remember being very taken with that book at
the time and it stuck with me. Grove’s book, however, was
mostly about the period after an inflection point has washed
over the organization, with less of a focus on how you might see
Professor Rita McGrath
Credit: Evelyn Reinson
DOI 10.1108/SL-12-2019-0181 VOL. 48 NO. 2 2020, pp. 3-9, © Emerald Publishing Limited, ISSN 1087-8572jSTRATEGY & LEADERSHIPj PAGE 3
mailto:brian.leavy@dcu.ie
http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/SL-12-2019-0181
them coming to begin with, so I thought a perspective on how you might anticipate or even
spark an inflection point might be useful.
The specific impetus for the book does very much come from my previous work on
innovation and strategy. In my last book, The End of Competitive Advantage I argued
that our longstanding obsession with defending existing advantages was in many
cases misplaced. Instead, leaders need to think in terms of transient advantages, in
which the period of “exploitation” of an existing advantage becomes shorter. This
implies that innovation needs to be more than a sideshow; it needs to be an actual
proficiency. The follow up question was, “how do you know when it’s time to start
looking for a new advantage, or how do you know when an existing advantage is
starting to show signs of erosion?” That got me thinking about timing and the way in
which inflection points unfold.
What crystallized the core theme of the book was when a colleague sent me the article
“When You Change the World and No One Notices.”[1] The author, Margaret Housel, noted
that the Wright brother’s successful manned flight at Kitty Hawk went largely ignored for
years. The first passing mention of their achievement in the New York Times came three
years after it happened. It was four and a half years afterward that serious reporters and
editors began to realize the significance.
What this suggested was that major inflection points that create real change unfold the
way Ernest Hemingway’s character Mike in his novel The Sun Also Rises responds when
he is asked how he went bankrupt. “Gradually,” he replied, “then suddenly.” The same is
true with inflection points, I realized. This led to the realization that if they do take a while
to unfold, an astute strategist who was paying attention to the signs could take
advantage of the inflection.
Understanding the nature of inflection points
S&L: As you define it an inflection point “happens when a 10X change alters the basic
assumptions upon which a business is built.” Given that inflection points can happen
“gradually, then suddenly” how can they be prepared for and harnessed opportunistically?
McGrath: When an inflection point does indeed reach a tipping point, it can feel as
though it came out of nowhere. My thesis is that if you are making a series of small
options-style investments that are at the “edges” of your mainstream activities, you are
likely to pick up on weak signals that allow you to, in an optimistic scenario, surf along an
inflection point so that when the opportunity presents itself, you can move with speed to
capture an advantage.
The dilemma is that often the big trends that go with inflection points are so vivid and scary,
companies often initially overreact. Retailers, for instance, faced with the prospect of
e-commerce poured millions, even billions into building out websites and the like. The
difficulty is that the ecosystem to support e-commerce – fast internet connections, the ability
to pay online, search engines – all of those were still to come in the AOL-Time Warner
merger days. The retailers then drew the conclusion that this Internet stuff was overblown
“The dilemma is that often the big trends that go with
inflection points are so vivid and scary, companies often
initially overreact.”
PAGE 4jSTRATEGY & LEADERSHIPjVOL. 48 NO. 2 2020
and would never amount to anything. Today, of course, we are looking at traditional retailers
struggling, even as e-commerce operations seek to open brick-and-mortar presences.
A company that got it right is Kloeckner, a German metals services business that made
the shift to the digital inflection point a core initiative for the company. This shift has
enabled Kloeckner to pursue new business models that rely less on its commodity
products and more on its skilled workforce and to expand its footprint to additional
categories of commodities.
S&L: One of the major implications of the “gradually, then suddenly” nature of most
inflection points is that it can often be as dangerous to move too early as too late in seeking
to take advantage of them.
McGrath: It is easy to get it wrong. Citibank, back in the 90s launched a venture it called the
“POS” (for point of sale) business. It involved creating a loyalty card which customers would
use at the point of sale which would send information about what a customer was buying back
to the bank. Citibank hypothesized that this information would have incredible value to retailers
and consumer packaged goods companies because once companies knew what a shopper
was buying, they could promote other goods that shopper preferred. A bad idea? Not at all! It
was a spectacularly good idea, but the venture suffered from an incomplete ecosystem.
Today, many organizations are making billions by trading in exactly this kind of information.
Getting ahead of inflection through early detection
S&L: Early evidence of a coming inflection point “doesn’t come easily” and is most likely to
appear first “at the edges.” What practices might a firm follow to enhance its capacity to
pick up on emerging signals that might well have inflection implications?
McGrath: Leaders need to make time to talk to customers, see what is really going on
personally, touch base with the people in their organization who are actually at the coal face of
customer service delivery or technology, and so on. Specific practices for doing this, include
“talking to the future,” an approach inspired by science fiction writer William Gibson’s
observation that “The future is already here – it’s just not evenly distributed.”
So go to where the future is starting to appear – talk to today’s 10-year olds if you want to
learn something about what tomorrow’s 20 year olds are going to be like.
Unfortunately in many companies, the kind of time and modest resources it takes to get out
to the edges gets squeezed out in rounds of cost cutting or efficiency drives. A current
poster child would be KraftHeinz, which has legacy brands badly in need of reinvention, but
whose private equity owners are pushing for every possible dollar of cost savings to pay
down debt and increase EBITDA.
A nice example of someone who used insights from the edges to spark a positive inflection point
is Hubert Joly, the former CEO of Best Buy. He credits spending two weeks working in the store
as the single most important thing he did to figure out how to turn around the electronics retailer.
The main point here is that the future does not happen all at once. It begins to unfold
unevenly, and if you can “interview” where it is starting to take place now, you can begin to
develop an early point of view about it.
“The future doesn’t happen all at once. It begins to unfold
unevenly, and if you can ‘interview’ where it is starting to
take place now, you can begin to develop an early point of
view about it.”
VOL. 48 NO. 2 2020 jSTRATEGY & LEADERSHIPj PAGE 5
S&L: Developing “leading indicators” and imagining “different future possibilities” are key to
both spotting and scoping impending inflection points. How can executives effectively
address these related challenges?
McGrath: The answer ties to my earlier work on transient advantage. When a set of
executives get very used to exploiting an existing advantage, they settle on a set of key
metrics that represent success and, often, get very accustomed to working with lagging
indicators. Profits, margins and sales, for instance, are all lagging indicators – they do not
tell you what is coming in the future. What you want are leading indicators – those things the
help you determine what may well be coming. So the first challenge I give to senior teams is
to develop a framework of what leading indicators are for the important outcomes in their
business and focus on driving those leading indicators.
For example, in a software-as-a-service business, the business model requires getting lots of
customers to sign up to pay for the offer in relatively small amounts each month. Before they
can sign up as customers, however, they have to demonstrate that they are interested. So a
set of leading indicators of potential future growth would involve engagement metrics, such
as frequency of visits, depth of exploration of content and sign-ups for things like
newsletters. These would be potential leading indicators of building a future relationship.
S&L: The period before the signals of an inflection point “become obvious and strong” is
typically a “confusing” one when “people legitimately have major differences of opinion” on
what the weak signals mean and how to respond. What tools and insights can help
executives navigate this challenge?
McGrath: I lead executive teams through a very simple scenario planning exercise in which
I ask them to posit two potentially important future uncertainties, with different values for
each. This yields four possible future states for their business. For instance, if I were
considering the future of business schools, one major uncertainty is whether the degree
itself continues to have value for the majority of potential students or whether students
perceive the value of the degree has diminished. Another uncertainty is whether employers
are eager to hire students because of the MBA or because of other factors. Putting these
two together, you get a table like this:
The next step is to create a short “story” about the future state each scenario represents, as
summarized in this table:
Then, I ask the team to come up with what I call a “time zero” event for each scenario – in
other words something that might be in a newspaper headline that represents either
positive or negative signal of an inflection point:
PAGE 6jSTRATEGY & LEADERSHIPjVOL. 48 NO. 2 2020
Then we do an exercise in which we work backward from the time zero events to identify
indicators which would tell us whether that outcome is more or less likely to be happening.
When teams worked through this together, it is likely that common themes and shared
perspectives emerge.
S&L: The timely identification of important shifts in a business’ “arena” is crucial to the early
detection of impending inflection. How does your concept of “arena” most differ from
“industry,” and how should executives carry out an “arena-based analysis” to better detect
inflection early?
McGrath: An industry is basically a made-up construct that economists have used for years
to try to simplify economic analysis and policymaking. From a customer point of view, what
industry a firm belongs to has very little relevance. What customers want, as Clayton
Christensen famously observed, is to get jobs done in their lives, whoever does it for them.
Netflix, for example, says that it is competing for disposable time. Not that it is in the TV,
movie, or even entertainment business, but that it is in the business of being so relevant to
you that you will give it your attention as opposed to doing whatever else might occupy that
time.
To look at your arena, you really need to start with the pot of resource you are contesting –
Money? Time? Space? Information? Then look at the customers who control those
resources and ask, what jobs are they trying to get done? Then you can start to look at
the alternative ways they could get the job done and begin to use that insight to inform
your strategy. As an example, Hubert Joly, CEO at Best Buy, realized that while
customers might buy a flat-screen TV, what they really want is a home theatre experience
that few of them have the knowledge to set up. He used that insight to make service a
core part of the Best Buy offering, by creating complete technology experiences that
customers could buy into.
S&L: The potential for an inflection in any arena is often to be found in the pain points or
negative attributes associated with conventional offerings. How should executives go about
uncovering the current pain points most likely to lead to inflection and figuring out how they
might be changed to advantage?.
McGrath: There is no substitute for watching how customers interact with your product or
service and listening to their conversations about their experience. In today’s social media
world, moreover, there is plenty of rich feedback about what customers like and do not like.
Kara Swisher recently, for instance, posted a story of how Amazon did better than FedEx on
a recent delivery task, which prompted literally hundreds of comments on people’s
experiences with both companies. Sitting in on call center calls, talking to people who work
directly with customers and taking on unfamiliar customer roles are also ways of getting
inspiration.
Planning and action in the face of inflection
S&L: When it comes to planning and action, the key requirements are being “able to keep
multiple futures in mind” and “create a plan for fast learning.” How can executives
effectively meet these requirements?
“So the first challenge I give to senior teams is to develop a
framework of what leading indicators are for the important
outcomes in their business.”
VOL. 48 NO. 2 2020 jSTRATEGY & LEADERSHIPj PAGE 7
McGrath: Since it really is not possible to predict the future, you need to be able to view it
through the lens of possible scenarios. The fast learning part is important because you want
to get as much new information as you can as quickly and inexpensively as you can. As an
inflection point progresses, you would like to be able to detect what is shifting, so continuous
small experiments are useful. For example, today we are looking at the emerging potential of
conversational commerce – when people interact with technology by speaking to it rather
than by typing. While I would not advise abandoning your keyboard just yet, it would make
sense to see how customers react to different ways that they might be able to “talk” to your
company using technology to make things happen.
S&L: You warn that it “isn’t enough to see an inflection point coming. Many people in the
organization need to align around a common point of view in order to respond effectively.”
How can leaders foster such commonality of purpose?”
McGrath: Leaders need to help people understand their role in the future organization. A
textbook case of this was Adobe’s decision to abandon shrink-wrapped software and move
to a cloud-based subscription model – the senior team spent an enormous amount of time
and energy making their rationale for doing this clear to employees and an equally
challenging amount of time and attention making sure that the right skills and capabilities
were in place for the transition.
An interesting take on cultures that are built for resilience is described in MIT professor
Zeynep Ton’s[2] work on good jobs. She points out that a company that simultaneously
invests in world class operations plus good jobs can outperform those that do not, even in
thin-margin businesses. Part of the good jobs approach is cross-training and keeping
everyone in the communication loop, which creates far greater resilience than when
everyone is working in a silo.
S&L: In order to enhance their ability to orchestrate “an inflection inside the organization” so as
to “create a better fit with the inflection happening outside it,” companies should be aiming to
systematically increase their “innovation proficiency.” What guidance can you offer?
McGrath: Having an innovation proficiency means that you have achieved an ongoing
practice of finding new opportunities and moving resources to capture them without
depending on a single leadership champion. In other words, it is as robust as any other
ongoing process in the organization. This requires a governance system, the right metrics,
deftness with respect to how people and talent are assigned to projects and a culture that
embraces discovering new opportunities. At MetLife, for instance, the innovation office is a
catalyst to accelerate ideas that are moved forward by business unit heads who commit to
allocating people and budget to the ideas that appear attractive.
Leading in ambiguous, inflection-prone environments
S&L: What is the right leadership approach for building an inflection-ready organization and
how does it differ from the traditional hierarchical one?
McGrath: The trouble with traditional leadership models is that they assume that the “top” of
an organization is the only place that information all comes together. In reality, by the time a
“From a customer point of view, what industry a firm belongs
to has very little relevance.”
PAGE 8jSTRATEGY & LEADERSHIPjVOL. 48 NO. 2 2020
piece of information gets to the “top” of most complex organizations it has shed much of its
nuance and meaning. Even worse, disconfirming or uncomfortable information may never
make it to the “top.” Instead, what leaders should be thinking about is pushing decision
rights to the part of the organization that has the most information, regardless of formal rank.
Leaders still have the job of creating the context, setting goals and establishing the
guardrails or swim lanes, but they need to give the authority to summon adaptive responses
to the part of the organization most able to respond.
A fascinating example of this is the Dutch nursing operation Buurtzorg which means,
“neighbourhood care.” Jos de Blok, a nurse, is the CEO and founder of an organization to
provide support to self-governing teams of nurses who are responsible for care in given areas.
De Blok identifies the role of the center as providing technology enablement to the teams of
nurses via state of the art IT. Instead of managers, the nurses have “coaches” who help them
solve problems rather than managing them. The approach keeps administration and
traditional “leadership” activities very simple. The organization has grown very rapidly and is
being held up by some as a model for leveraging the skills of highly trained professionals.
S&L: Finally, how can executives apply the insights from Seeing Around Corners in their
own career development?
McGrath: The first implication is that the skills that got you to wherever your current job is are
unlikely to be sufficient to get you through an inflection point. So being personally curious,
investing in your own self-development and opening your mind to activities that might teach
you something even if they are not strictly speaking part of your “job” are all valuable.
Secondly, there is increasing evidence that career ladders are starting to give way to career
zigzags. As Reid Hoffman outlined in his book The Alliance,[3] we are increasingly in a “tour
of duty” environment, so consider using your next tour of duty as an opportunity to stretch
into new areas.
Finally, inflection points are personal as well. We all know that major turning points in our
lives leave us with unique experiences, lessons learned and values. In the book, I
recommend that executives take some time to occasionally reflect on their values and
aspirations and use that insight to guide their future career choices.
Notes
1. Morgan Housel, “When You Change the World and No One Notices,” Collaborative Fund, Sep 3,
2016, www.collaborativefund.com/blog/when-you-change-the-world-and-no-one-notices/
2. Zeynep Ton, The Good Jobs Strategy: How the Smartest Companies Invest in Employees to Lower
Costs and Boost Profits (New Harvest, 2014).
3. Reid Hoffman, Ben Casnocha, Chris Yeh. The Alliance: Managing Talent in the Networked Age,
(Harvard Business Review Press, 2014).
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“There’s no substitute for watching how customers interact
with your product or service and listening to their
conversations about their experience.”
VOL. 48 NO. 2 2020 jSTRATEGY & LEADERSHIPj PAGE 9
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Reproduced with permission of copyright owner. Further reproduction
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- Rita McGrath: anticipating and exploiting strategic inflection points
Understanding the nature of inflection points
Getting ahead of inflection through early detection
Planning and action in the face of inflection
Leading in ambiguous, inflection-prone environments
Tamara – Journal for Critical Organization Inquiry, © 2012 by Kozminski University
Vol. 10, Issue 4, December 2012, pp. 29-43, ISSN 1532-5555
Volume 10 Issue 4
1 2 / 2 0 1 2
tamarajournal.com
Deconstructing Strategic Inflections by
Imagery
• YUE CAI-HILLON, M ARK E. HILLON, DAVID M. BOJ E
Yue Cai-Hillon University of Central Missouri, US
cai-hillon@ucmo.edu
Mark E. Hillon University of Central Missouri, US
hillon@ucmo.edu
David M. Boje New Mexico State University, US
dboje@nmsu.edu
Keywords
Abstract
Strategic Inflection
Deconstruction
Strategy
Imagery
Traditionally, strategic messages were communicated through the power of text and
financial measures. Over the years, with an increased use and evident impact of aesthetics,
such as art, corporations began to incorporate imagery in strategic messages to strengthen
their persuasive power. The addition of this creative use of art has also brought interest in
strategy analysis to help uncover those hidden messages and identify marginal but living
voices, in other words, antenarratives. In the role of a strategy spectator, understanding the
signals for corporate strategic inflection prior to its occurrence is essential when
calculating a company‘s future performance. These signals are never handed to you. They
are hidden and cannot be identified by accepting the face-value of the dominant and
apparent organizational voices, delivered through corporate documents. When a spectator
is swooped into the organizational dominant storyline, he/she becomes part of the grand
narrative and loses his/her critical perspective. Instead, strategic inflection signals should
be identified through organizational antenarratives, uncovered in the deconstruction of an
organization‘s strategy storytelling. Deconstruction of imagery, as a new complementary
method to text and financial reporting embedded throughout corporate documents, helps
strategy spectators understand a more abstract and less obvious side of strategy authors‘
strategic intentions. In the case of Motorola, this paper will demonstrate how imagery has
been incorporated into organizational storytelling and how deconstruction could help
strategy spectators make sense of and potentially anticipate strategic inflections.
Introduction
On the stage of strategy live two primary characters: strategy authors and spectators/spec-actors. Strategy authors use
corporate documents like annual reports, corporate responsibility reports, press releases and other official documents to
convey a strategic message to their shareholders and stakeholders. Beyond being informative, the primary psychological
intention behind the documents is persuasion. Through carefully and strategically crafted stories, corporations persuade
stakeholders of the corporation‘s reasons for existence, past and present honorability, and belief that the company has a
CAI-HILLON • HILLON • BOJE
Page 30
promising future and is therefore a smart investment. On the other hand, the role of a strategy spectator/analyst or a
competitive intelligence researcher is to investigate the reliability and multitude representativeness of the message through
deconstruction, which helps to identify the unspoken signals for changes embedded within these documents. By
uncovering strategic intentions and missing voices hidden behind each message, spectators are better at forecasting a
corporation‘s future actions and potentially expand on competitive opportunities. In strategy, these forecasted changes are
called strategic inflections. A strategic inflection is a deliberate but emergent strategic activity, which occurs when the
fundamentals about an organization is about to change
(Grove, 1996).
Traditionally, strategic messages were communicated through the power of text and financial measures. Over the
years, with an increased use and evident impact of aesthetics, such as art, corporations began to incorporate imagery in
strategic messages to strengthen their persuasive power. The addition of this creative use of art has also brought interest in
strategy analysis to help uncover those hidden messages and identify marginal but living voices, in other words,
antenarratives.
In the role of a strategy spectator, understanding the signals for corporate strategic inflections prior to its occurrence is
essential when calculating a company‘s future performance. Signals of strategic inflections are never apparent; rather, they
are hidden and cannot be identified by mindlessly accepting the face value of the dominant organizational voices,
delivered through corporate documents. When a spectator is swooped into the organizational dominant storyline, he/she
becomes part of the grand narrative and loses his/her critical perspectives. Instead, strategic inflection signals should be
identified through organizational antenarratives, uncovered in the deconstruction of an organization‘s strategy storytelling.
Deconstruction of text and financial measures helps strategy spectators understand the more literal side of the strategy
authors‘ strategic intentions. Deconstruction of imagery embedded throughout corporate documents, as a new
complementary method to text and financial reporting, helps strategy spectators capture a more abstract and less obvious
side of strategy authors‘ strategic intentions.
The purpose of this paper, in the role of a strategy spectator, is to demonstrate how to uncover signals of corporate
strategic inflections through deconstructing imagery. The company to be studied is Motorola Inc. preceding its recent
business spilt into Motorola Mobility and Motorola Solutions. Corporate documents to be used in this study are:
Motorola1966-68 Annual Reports, 1986 Annual Report, 2004-09 Annual Reports, and 2003-09 Global Corporate
Citizenship Reports.
Strategic Inflections
The notion of ‗strategy‘ was first brought to life in politics and military during the 4th and 6th century BC (Pomeroy,
1999). Strategic management or business strategy, a business discipline, was not acknowledged until pioneered by Alfred
D. Chandler, Phillip Selznick, Igor Ansoff, and Peter Drucker in the 1950s and 60s.
Chandler (1962) pointed out that structure follows strategy. A company‘s structure, direction, and focus must be
supported by a coordinated long-term strategy. Drucker (1954, 1994) considered organizations managed by objectives and
that strategy is a bundle of assumptions that guides the direction and behavior of an organization to achieve those
objectives. The art of management based on the image created through these assumptions (e.g. structure, mission, vision,
objective, market, technology, core competency, competitors, and environment) will result in an organization‘s success or
failure.
Strategy is a ‗calculus of relations of forces‘ and only becomes possible when the ‗subject of will and power can be
isolated‘ (de Certeau, 1984). Therefore, strategies are actions dependent on power yet simultaneously project power to
formulate places to distribute the power using favorable operational tactics (de Certeau, 1984). No doubt, organizations
are living stories conversing with the world around them. Mintzberg (1987) thought the ―art of crafting strategy‖ is to
know when to reconstruct and renew this power. One way to recognize this need is when assumptions no longer satisfy
the reality (Drucker, 1994). Another is through recognizing the corporate transformation dissonance between strategic
intention and behavior (Burgelman & Grove, 1996).
Organizations continuously story and re-story to influence or react to their internal and external environmental
alterations. The time when significant re-story occurs is identified as a ―strategic inflection point‖ in strategic
management.
A strategic inflection point is defined as: ―A time in the life of a business when its fundamentals are about to change‖
(Grove, 1996, p. 3). In the diagram below it shows a strategic inflection point occurs when the old strategy dissolves and
gives ways to the new strategy. The navigations through these inflection points directly influence the success or failure of
the strategy change.
Deconstructing Strategic Inf lections by Imagery
Page 31
Strategic Inflection Point Diagram 1 (source: Grove, 1996:32)
Strategic inflections are ‗common‘ and can be seen at any levels of an organization or its inhabited marketplace
(Grove, 1996).
Whether the company becomes a winner or a loser was related to its degree of adaptability…
Strategic inflection points offer promises as well as threats…. ―adopt or die‖ takes on the true
meaning. (Grove, 1996, p. 76)
The detection of the organization Inflection Curve slope rate of change helps pinpoint strategic inflection points.
However, a strategic inflection point is difficult to become evident preceding its occurrence. If a strategic shift can be
discovered ahead of time, competitive advantages may be acquired by both strategy authors and spectators.
This study serves as a case study to explore strategy shifts, by exploring company strategy storytelling changes to
better understand and identify the organization history, present and future strategy and structure shifts for more purposeful
strategy formulations and implementations.
Deconstruction
Language is a technique used to mediate one‘s interpretation of reality. It is in fact not reality; rather, ―reality exists
outside language (Hall, 1980: p.55)‖. This interpretation is accomplished in the course of discursive ‗knowledge‘ encoding
and decoding (Hall, 1980). Authors encode knowledge frameworks into a purposeful language. Decoding of this language
occurs consciously and/or subconsciously by both active and passive spectators. Subconscious decoding is reliant on an
encoders‘ knowledge framework and commonly shared meanings for stories in both text and image (Hall, 1980). On the
other hand, deconstruction is a technique of conscious decoding. This type of critical inquiry questions the authority of the
encoder and its implied reality.
Deconstruction is a term first introduced by the French philosopher Jacques Derrida (1967) in his book Of
Grammatology.
―Writing thus enlarged and radicalized, no longer issues from a logos. Further, it inaugurates
the destruction, not the demolition but the de-sedimentation, the de-construction, of all the
significations that have their source in that of the logos (1967:12).‖
Here, Derrida contracts the meaning of speech and writing. He argued that speech is associated with logos, or
thoughts; and writing is a derivative of speech. Unlike speakers, writers are often absent when readers interpret their
writing. This leaves the readers in search of the meaning of the writing without a first-hand clarification by the writer.
Consequently, making sense of the writer‘s meaning involved interpretation, psychological negotiation, and some degree
of translation; a process of deconstruction (Derrida, 1978).
Scholars like Martin (1990) and Boje (2001) integrated the concept of deconstruction into the study of critical theory
and organizational development and change. Martin (1990) defined deconstruction as:
―an analytic strategy that exposes in a systematic way multiple ways a text can be interpreted.
Deconstruction is able to reveal ideological assumptions in a way that is particularly sensitive
to the suppressed interest of members of disempowered, marginalized groups (1990:340).‖
CAI-HILLON • HILLON • BOJE
Page 32
Boje (2001) pointed out that:
―Deconstruction is antenarrative in action…Deconstruction points out the instability, complex
movements, process of change, and the play of differences and heterogeneity that make
stability, unity, structure, function and coherence one-sided reading (2001: 18),‖
According Boje (2001), ‗antenarrative‘ has dual meanings: as being before and as a bet, speculative stories not yet pa rt
of the narrative. Antenarratives are stories before living stories, future-projecting stories and stories that are unfolding in-
the-moment-of-Beingness (Bakhtin, 1990, 1993). These stories empower intra and inter-organizational characters and
their interests to aid in the transformation of an organization, therefore, feared by most dominant organizational narratives.
As antenarratives interact with their micro and macro environments, they contribute to the ‗instability‘ in the dominant
organizational narrative, a signal for change. Antenarratives are constantly in motion, some lives to become part of the
grand narrative of an organization while some die or reassembled to emerge at a later time.
An organization is like a living ‗stage‘, embedding a discourse of actors, spectators, scenes, and scripts that are
constantly regulating and re-regulating itself as a response to its environment. This living ‗stage‘ is filled with a collection
of alternative centered ideologies, in other words, stories (speeches and writings). Each story enlightens us of its
interpreted authoritative center that may or may not support the dominant narrative of the organization. Organizational
dominant narrative, a retrospective sensemaking commentary (Boje, 2001; & Weick, 1995), is ‗sold‘ to stakeholders
through strategic corporate documents such as annual reports, press releases, letter to the share holder, and so on. The
narration of the strategy discourse is a practical activity within itself with the intention to create controlled memories using
its own procedures and tactics (de Certeau, 1984).
As we walk through the eight moments of deconstruction (Boje, 2001): duality search, reinterpret the hierarchy, reveal
the rebel voices, find other sides of the story, deny the plot, find exceptions, trace what is between the lines, and resituate;
a strategy spectator would uncover a multitude of stories beyond the leading corporate narrative. Although these stories
are marginal, nonetheless, they are alive. Marginal stories and their relations to the leading narrative are strategy
antenarratives, important signals of strategic inflections. A strategic inflection occurs when there is a fundamental
difference between the dominant and marginal; when the collection of stories cannot respond to its environment
instability; or when the empowered marginal stories emerges into the dominant narrative. The process of deconstruction
guides our senses through these various stories to understand their relations, how each story is formulated, and how they
contribute to organizational change. The goal of deconstruction is not to conceal the center voice(s). Rather, it is to help
truly understand the intentions of the center voice(s) as well as the antenarratives to find a balanced presentation of
authenticity where every voice is heard and recognized (Boje, 2001).
Derrida‘s (1968/1983) analysis of Plato‟s Pharmacy shows that writing can only repeat itself, reflect itself, and it is a
‗game‘ with laws and rules (Derrida, 1968/1983). Writing is a woven texture constructed by envelops of story webs
centered on dominance (Derrida, 1968/1983). Dissimulation of the dominant center requires continuous critical reading
and patience to unveil as the web regenerates its own flesh and writes new centers. The truth of writing is the nontruth,
which ―cannot be discovered in ourselves by ourselves (Derrida, 1968/1983: p. 74)‖. Deconstruction, an understanding of
the unspoken stories hidden behind the dominant narrative and the antenarratives contributing to organizational
complexity, help reveal the masked center and true intentions of writing.
This paper demonstrates how strategy intentions and inflections can be deconstructed through studying imagery
embedded inside corporate documents with Motorola as our case study company.
Deconstructing Strategic Inflections through Imagery
Strategic inflections are due to both organization internal and external changes. These changes could be leadership
restructuring; competition, customer, and supplier changes; economic climate, technological, social environment, and
regulation changes. These changes approach us on little ―cat feet‖ (Grove, 1996, p.107), difficult to notice. However, they
can be revealed by deconstructing stories and narrative constructions of the organization. During a strategic inflection,
organizations often feel confused. They realize that ―things are different, something has changed (Grove, 1996, p.33)‖ but
not sure what and why. Such realization often results in reactive and non-strategic post-change emotional responses.
Therefore, it is a sustainable practice and strategically important to detect triggers for a strategic inflection prior to it s
occurrence.
Changes are constant. It is important to differentiate between ―triggers‖ and ―noise‖. When pieces of an organization‘s
fundamentals have changed, a ―trigger‖ for a future strategic inflection has most likely presented itself. Changes as a result
of a strategic shift can trigger ―the beginning of the end (Grove, 1996, p.3)‖, but it can be just as possible to create new
Deconstructing Strategic Inf lections by Imagery
Page 33
business opportunities for organizations to embark on its renewed lifecycle story. Deconstruction, the understanding of the
unspoken stories hidden behind the dominant corporate narrative, the antenarratives contributing to organizational
complexity, and the story plot transformations over time help us detect these triggers. A study of corporate documents has
been used by many strategy spectators and authors to understand strategic change trends. However, these studies have
mostly focused on the analysis of textual and financial information. It is the goal of this paper to demonstrate that the
study of strategic inflection triggers can also come from the study of corporate use of images in conjunction with text and
financial statements. Our case study of Motorola, founded in 1928, demonstrates this complementary new aesthetic
strategic approach.
Three inflection periods selected for this study are: 1966-1968, 2003-2005, and 2007-2009. Documents analyzed are:
Motorola1966-68 Annual Reports, 2003-09 Annual Reports, and 2003-09 Global Corporate Citizenship Reports. The
strategic inflection points of this study are:
1967: Motorola shifts its corporate success stories from heroic leadership driven to consumer
satisfaction driven.
2004: Motorola ‗Seamless Mobility‖ global market strategy launches.
2008: Significant leadership restructure occurs.
This study will deconstruct corporate stories, through the study of images, prior to and immediately after three
strategic inflection points to determine ‗triggers‘ that may have signaled organizational significant strategic changes.
McWilliams and Siegel (1997) stated that any study with an event window of more than two days needs to provide
validation of such selection. Keeping this in mind, we selected one year prior to and one year after each strategic inflection
to deconstruct the strategy storytelling changes of Motorola.
The strategy sense-making and marketing, presented by organizations, no longer merely depend on their guided logical
interpretations of the carefully crafted financial figures and persuasive writing. The use of image in strategy storytelling,
triggering both human psychological and emotional senses, has added a new level to strategy storytelling power and
complexity (Bakhtin, 1973, 1937/1981, 1990; Boulding, 1956; Boje, 2006).
It is important to recognize that this complexity originates from the use of diverse aesthetic of text, number, and image
that activates the various senses of the reader. It is not due to the multitude of voices heard in the corporate strategy
storytelling. The technique of using image to craft strategy and the strategy itself are two different notions. The author
may layer multiple parts of a monologue strategy to give it an appearance of higher complexity and dialogis m. Yet, the
strategy narrative origin is by one author and one author only; in our case, the executive team at Motorola Corporation, the
master strategy storytelling narrators. By using different imagery techniques to present Motorola‘s strategy narrative,
Motorola is creating an allusion of its higher complexities, openness, and dialogical nature, yet hiding its mono-voice
‗behind the curtains.‘ Adding images to the texts is adding plot and direction of interpretation of the mono-voiced strategy
narrative. It is not a higher level of complexity of story, but rather another way of framing and re-framing. By
deconstructing the mono-voiced strategy narrative, we can get to the bottom of Motorola‘s strategic intentions and
understand its future.
1966-1968 Strategic Inflection Deconstruction
Images in Motorola 1966 annual report are black and white photographs accompanied by black text on white pages.
Most of the photos presented are stories of the executive team (Figure 1) with limited images of their workers. A common
theme about these photos is that they sketch a charismatic leader image of the Motorola top management team, by
focusing on their professional businessman clothing, facial expressions, and physical language (Schumpeter, 1950; Cole,
1959). Strategic selection of these images expresses a strategic message: The success of Motorola is attributable to its
tremendous leadership, the engines of Motorola, which highlighted the heroes of Motorola and their important roles in
Motorola‘s success. Different images of different leaders frame a common message of coalition power and control. They
are leading Motorola to the future it envisioned.
CAI-HILLON • HILLON • BOJE
Page 34
Figure 1. Motorola 1966 Annual Report, cover page, p.4, p.5, and p.14
The images in Motorola 1967 annual report showcased the daily lives of the people sustained by Motorola‘s behind the
scenes product support (Schumpter, 1950; Cole, 1959; Hannan & Freeman, 1977; Selznick, 1957). These drawings
narrated Motorola‘s strategic message of: The success of Motorola is attributed to its ability to provide products and
services in need to sustain a peaceful and enjoyable society. This radical strategic storytelling shift demonstrated through
the use of images, from heroic-leadership to customer-orientation, signals Motorola‘s new strategic narrative – Motorola
expands its businesses to satisfy their customers and society‘s unfulfilled demands. Although seemingly behind the
scenes, Motorola frames its image and identity of a leader and a hero to the existence of society and people.
In 1967, Motorola expanded into 14 countries that required a large amount of investment. By understanding historical
events accompanied by these strategically selected images, we can better recognize the strategy narrative behind the
selection of the images used in the 1967 Annual Report and why the imagery strategic storytelling focus shifted from
coalition power and heroic leadership to product offering diversity to fulfill consumer safety/basic living needs. (Figure 2)
Figure 2. Motorola 1967 Annual Report, cover page, p.8, p.12, and p.16
Similar to 1967, the strategic narrative of the images in Motorola 1968 annual report was also related to product
diversity and the fulfillment of customer demands (Figure 3). However, different from 1967, products presented in 1968
images were showcased and no longer behind the scene. The strategic use of these images illustrated the happiness offered
by Motorola‘s products, a step beyond the satisfaction of consumers‘ basic means of life.
Deconstructing Strategic Inf lections by Imagery
Page 35
Figure 3. Motorola 1968 Annual Report, p.9
Motorola experienced a clear strategic inflection in 1967, a shift from leadership-focused to consumer-focused
strategic direction. This strategic shift increased Motorola‘s need to educate the population of the value their products and
services add to the quality of people‘s lives and their desires. Although this shift seemed democratic and dialogical, the
voices behind the storytelling were unchanged – Market expansion and control. They were only masked behind the
multiplicity and colorful images.
2003-2005 Strategic Inflection Deconstruction
Different from the 1960s, texts were added to images in the 21
st
century to direct and control readers‘ senses. Rather
than implicit, the meanings of these images are now explicit. Instead of being open for dialogical interpretation by
audiences, the interpretation is now linear and anticipatable.
In 2003, Motorola strategic storytelling was not centered on its past achievement, but rather the dominant voice
attempted to highlight its promising future. As Edward Zander stepped in as Motorola CEO in January, 2004, his first
strategic question was: ―Why Motorola? Why now? What‘s next? (2003 Annual Report cover)‖ Zander‘s vision for
Motorola was global market domination (Porter, 1980, 1985; Andrews, 1951). Motorola‘s logo was larger than the globe
demonstrates Motorola‘s strategic intention of global market domination (Figure 4). Choosing the color yellow for the
logo and black for the image of the earth transcends the relationship between Motorola and the global telecommunication
market as the relationship between the sun and the moon. Such an aggressive strategic direction sends a powerful and
intimidating message that could not be uncovered by only reading the text and financial of Motorola‘s corporate reports.
Figure 4. Motorola 2003 Annual Report, p.2, p.8, & Back Cover
CAI-HILLON • HILLON • BOJE
Page 36
In 2004, Motorola centered energy on narrating a strategic plan to accomplish its global market domination vision in
their use of images. As an Asian girl flying a kite without a string in the middle of nowhere, Motorola confirmed to us
that: Motorola‟s future target market will be connected seamlessly regardless of where they are. ―Seamless Mobility‖
became Motorola‘s new slogan that year. (Figure 5)
Figure 5. Motorola 2004 Global Corporate Citizenship Report, Front Cover
While delivering a message of world domination on one hand, Motorola did not omit its need to establish a sound
image of social responsibility. Having neighbors everywhere; helping Chinese children to restore schools and hopes;
investing in future generations; land a hand in to assist in recovery of natural disasters worldwide; and creating wellness at
work demonstrated Motorola‘s collaborative effort of protecting the world (Figure 6). The use of polyphonic dynamic
relationships among Motorola and its communities, customers, suppliers and internal employees
Such use of dialogical imagery storytelling attempts to disguise the true strategic intentions of the corporation:
domination.
Figure 6. Motorola 2004 Global Corporate Citizenship Report, p.28, p.29, p.32
Deconstructing Strategic Inf lections by Imagery
Page 37
Different from 2004, the images showcased in 2005 were graphically stitched and collectively, they re-emphasized a
collective strategic story: Seamless Mobility and Motorola Everywhere connect YOU to the rest of the world no matter
where you are (Figure 7). As this image developed into a product interface, a strategic vision transformed from an idea
into reality.
Figure 7. Motorola 2005 Annual Report, Front Cover
In contrast to the 1960s, Motorola uniquely created reports expressing their role in the global corporate community in
the 21
st
century. Therefore, Motorola is no longer just another company domestically or internationally, it is now a citizen
at its residence. As a citizen, Motorola is now identified as a member of the community and bears responsibilities beyond
being a ‗non-citizen‘. The entire 2003 and 2004 Global Corporate Citizenship reports embodied Selznick‘s (1957) social
behavior and structure strategy of thoughts; Hannan and Freeman‘s (1977) socio economical relation strategy of thoughts;
Allison (1971), Pfeffer and Salanick (1978) and Astley‘s (1984) strategy of gaining macro resource power through
partnership and alliances.
The audiences of Motorola Global Corporate Citizenship reports are: stakeholders – customers, consumers, suppliers,
non-government organizations, employees, investors, governments, community neighbors and the general public.
As a global corporate citizen, Motorola creates products and technologies that benefit society
by making things smarter and life better for people around the world. We are dedicated to
operating ethically, protecting the environment and supporting the communities in which we
do business. We are guided by our Code of Business Conduct, which is based on our key
beliefs of uncompromising integrity and constant respect for people. (Motorola, 2006)
Therefore, the strategic crafting of these reports is aimed towards these audiences with a mono -voiced direction and
control from Motorola.
2007-2009 Strategic Inflection Deconstruction
Carrying on with its maturing strategic adventure of ‗Seamless Mobility‘, Motorola continued to embrace this concept
in 2006 (Figure 8). However, in 2007, the direction of the strategic wind hinted its transitional shift.
CAI-HILLON • HILLON • BOJE
Page 38
Figure 8. Motorola 2006 Corporate Responsibility Report, p.3.
Prior to 2007, Motorola introduced its business functions of Connected Home Solutions, Mobile Devices, and Network
& Enterprise using three short paragraphs with no image attachments. As existing and new competitors posed increasing
threats to Motorola, especially in their Mobile Devices division, the company recognized the need to urgently find its
niche and retire that high resource absorbing and non-sustainable business segments. In 2007, the company completely
changed its introduction of the functional profile by not only inserting photographs but also the restructure of business
units (Figure 9). Instead of describing the business philosophy of the business units, specific products and services were
clearly spelled out with supporting easy to comprehend images of products or people using the products. The presentation
of this new structure was repeated in 2008 and consolidated once again in 2009. This significant change alluded to
Motorola‘s business split into Motorola Mobility and Motorola Solutions announced in 2008 and finalized in 2011.
Figure 9. Motorola 2007 Corporate Responsibility Report, p.3; 2008 Corporate
Responsibility Report, Index; and 2009 Corporate Responsibility Report, p.16
Deconstructing Strategic Inf lections by Imagery
Page 39
Prior to 2008, the letter to the shareholders was always coming from one individual, the chairman and CEO of
Motorola. Since 2008, duality of voices appeared (Figure 10). The message is now delivered by co-CEOs, Greg Brown
and Sanjay Jha. As we now know, they are the newly appointed CEOs of Motorola Solutions and Motorola Mobility. The
appearance of duality and change in business emphasis again suggested the strategic spilt announced in 2008 and finalized
in 2011.
Figure 10. Motorola 2008 Corporate Responsibility Report, p.1; Motorola 2009
Corporate Responsibility Report, p.1.
To successfully accomplish such a strategic shift, the company recognized that they needed to be even more innovative
and develop smarter business processes (Figure 11). Planting seeds business relations in corporate enterprises with
innovative products and reducing overhead by incorporating smarter technology into operational processes, the company
is demonstrating to its stakeholders that Motorola recognize the intense competition it faces but it is ready to fight back
with creativity and intelligence.
Figure 11. Innovating for a Smarter World (2009, GCCR, Cover, p.3)
Although the company was going through strategic changes, the company did not overlook the importance to stay
connected with its constituents. Motorola did not forget the significance of being an essential citizen is a key to sustainable
profitability. Reemphasizing Motorola‘s continued effort to fulfill their responsibilities to customers, employees,
environment, and society in a time of change, the company incorporated a variety of images into the 2007 annual
corporate responsibility report (Figure 12). A child from Africa talking on a cell phone with a big smile on his face
showed the joy and vivid future Motorola products have brought the next generation of developing countries. A
traditionally dressed working woman riding a bike, an essential means of transportation for most people in Vietnam, was
shadowed by a large Motorola advertising display of the means of communication for the future. A picture of a group of
happy, active, and seemingly healthy employees allows stakeholders to trust that Motorola is a fun and rewarding place in
which to invest your life and career. The choice of representing multiple races in the photo also demonstrated that
Motorola promotes diversity. A powerful image such as this signifies Motorola‘s heroic leadership in helping their
CAI-HILLON • HILLON • BOJE
Page 40
customers bridging the gap between tradition and future necessity. To demonstrate the company‘s commitment in
sustainable business practices, Motorola used multiple images to express their effort in waste reduction and consideration
in resource consumption. One device in place of twelve not only reduces raw material usage but also simplifies lives with
a trade of in hosting one‘s entire livelihood in a single tiny device.
Figure 12. Motorola 2007 Corporate Responsibility Report, Cover, p.4, p.16, p.21,
p.22, and p. 34.
A similar theme of responsibility was carried on in 2008 and 2009, including reduction of material use in packaging,
cell phones made from recycled water bottles, connecting the unconnected, and protecting the hope for our future
generations (Figures 13 & 14). By being a smarter business, reducing consumption, and giving back to society, Motorola
creates a image of a responsible citizen of the world.
Deconstructing Strategic Inf lections by Imagery
Page 41
Figure 13: Motorola 2008 Corporate Responsibility Report, p.6, p.10, Back cover.
Figure 14: Motorola 2009 Corporate Responsibility Report, p.5, p.11, p.14.
As we walked through Motorola‘s strategic transitions during the 60s and the 21
st
century by examining the company‘s
changing imagery storylines embedded in various corporate reports, we can now acknowledge that beyond the power of
text and numbers, we should pay closer attention to the carefully and strategically selected and placed images throughout
the documents. Some images, while being easily overlooked, carried tremendous amount of power and apparent strategic
intent. Over the years, the company has transitioned from using simply text and numbers in corporate strategy narration to
CAI-HILLON • HILLON • BOJE
Page 42
text and numbers with images embedded throughout. Today, companies like Motorola have taken one step beyond; adding
text to the images to guide and control stakeholders‘ perceptions. Who knew the power of storytelling through images
could be so captivating?
Conclusion
A dialogical presentation of strategy comes from the use of images beyond texts and carefully crafted financial
numbers, and the multiplicity of images used (size, color, photos, drawings, abstract art, and so on). Imagery strategy
storytelling, from a system perspective, can be recognized as Organic –Polyphonic, Image – Stylistic, and Network –
Architectonic (Bakhtin, 1937/1981; Boulding, 1956; & Boje, 2006). The dialogical presentation attribute of imagery
storytelling demonstrated the techniques used in crafting strategy and strategy changes. The use of multiple stylistic and
the incorporation of multiple characters may offer the illusion of dialogical voices represented in the storyline. However,
we must recognize the strategy narrative birthplace is in fact monological, the old and new Motorola executive team.
Motorola is the master narrator who celebrates its strategy and strategic changes at various levels of story complexities
(Ansoff, 1965; Andrews, 1951; Porter, 1980/1985; Hannan & Freeman, 1977; Selznick, 1957; Allison, 1971; Pfeffer &
Salanick, 1978; and Astley, 1984). Adding images to texts is adding plot and direction and control in the interpretation of
the mono-voiced strategy narrator. The images are considered tools in creating such a master narrative.
Understanding the voice(s) behind a strategy and the aesthetics used to convey the power of the voice(s) is an essential
key in exposing the hidden voices, the strategic intentions of an organization, and their antenarrative and a key to
deconstruction In the role of a strategy spectator, we hope our study of Motorola strategy change through the
deconstruction of corporate imagery storytelling has demonstrated its significance in embracing the dialogical nature of
organizational antenarrative sense-making and identifying strategy storytelling shifts. Deconstruction of imagery helps
strategy spectators understand the more abstract and less obvious sides of strategy authors‘ strategic intentions.
Incorporating imagery deconstruction into the strategic management curriculum will also help students recognize the art
and creative sides of strategy formulation and promotion.
Knowing our study is of one company, Motorola, which has embraced imagery into their strategy storytelling, we
recognize imagery deconstruction may not be suitable for learning of other organizations‘ strategic changes. However, we
hope this study will raise the awareness and interest among strategy scholars to discover dialogical and complementary
approaches to learn of and anticipate inflections. We also hope this study will change the perception that strategy change
and competitive intelligence research is mind-numbingly financial and textual.
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LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
LO1-1 Understand what is meant by a company’s strategy.
LO1-2 Explain why a company needs a creative, distinctive strategy that
sets it apart from rivals.
LO1-3 Explain why it is important for a company to have a viable business
model that outlines the company’s customer value proposition and
its profit formula.
LO1-4 Identify the five most dependable strategic approaches for setting
a company apart from rivals and winning a sustainable competitive
advantage.
LO1-5 Understand that a company’s strategy tends to evolve over time
because of changing circumstances and ongoing management
efforts to improve the company’s strategy.
LO1-6 Identify the three tests of a winning strategy.
1
c
h
a
p
te
r
Strategy, Business
Models, and
Competitive Advantage
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2 Part 1 Section A: Introduction and Overview
gam27636_ch01_001-012.indd 2 01/09/18 07:38 PM
According to The Economist, a leading publication on business, economics, and inter-
national affairs, “In business, strategy is king. Leadership and hard work are all very
well and luck is mighty useful, but it is strategy that makes or breaks a firm.”1 Luck
and circumstance can explain why some companies are blessed with initial, short-lived
success. But only a well-crafted, well-executed, constantly evolving strategy can explain
why an elite set of companies somehow manages to rise to the top and stay there, year
after year, pleasing their customers, shareholders, and other stakeholders alike in the
process. Companies such as Apple, Samsung, Disney, Emirates Airlines, Microsoft,
Alphabet (formerly Google), Berkshire Hathaway, General Electric, and Southwest
Airlines come to mind.
In this opening chapter, we define the concept of strategy and describe its many
facets. We explain what is meant by a competitive advantage, discuss the relationship
between a company’s strategy and its business model, and introduce you to the kinds
of competitive strategies that can give a company an advantage over rivals in attracting
customers and earning above-average profits. We look at what sets a winning strategy
apart from others and why the caliber of a company’s strategy determines whether the
company will enjoy a competitive advantage over other firms. By the end of this chap-
ter, you will have a clear idea of why the tasks of crafting and executing strategy are core
management functions and why excellent execution of an excellent strategy is the most
reliable recipe for turning a company into a standout performer over the long term.
Understand what is meant by a company’s strategy.LO1-1
A company’s strategy is the set of actions that its
managers take to outperform the company’s competi-
tors and achieve superior profitability. The objective
of a well-crafted strategy is not merely temporary com-
petitive success and profits in the short run, but rather
the sort of lasting success that can support growth and
secure the company’s future over the long term. Achieving this entails making a mana-
gerial commitment to a coherent array of well-considered choices about how to com-
pete.2 These include choices about:
• How to create products or services that attract and please customers.
• How to position the company in the industry.
• How to develop and deploy resources to build valuable competitive capabilities.
• How each functional piece of the business (R&D, supply chain activities, produc-
tion, sales and marketing, distribution, finance, and human resources) will be
operated.
• How to achieve the company’s performance targets.
In most industries, companies have considerable freedom in choosing the hows of
strategy. Thus some rivals strive to create superior value for customers by achieving
lower costs than rivals, while others pursue product superiority or personalized cus-
tomer service or the development of capabilities that rivals cannot match. Some com-
petitors position themselves in only one part of the industry’s chain of production/
distribution activities, while others are partially or fully integrated, with operations
CORE CONCEPT
A company’s strategy is the set of actions that
its managers take to outperform the company’s
competitors and achieve superior profitability.
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Chapter 1 Strategy, Business Models, and Competitive Advantage 3
gam27636_ch01_001-012.indd 3 01/09/18 07:38 PM
ranging from components production to manufacturing and assembly to wholesale dis-
tribution or retailing. Some competitors deliberately confine their operations to local or
regional markets; others opt to compete nationally, internationally (several countries),
or globally. Some companies decide to operate in only one industry, while others diver-
sify broadly or narrowly, into related or unrelated industries.
The Importance of a Distinctive Strategy
and Competitive Approach
Explain why a company needs a creative, distinctive strategy that sets it apart from rivals.LO1-
2
For a company to matter in the minds of customers, its strategy needs a distinctive
element that sets it apart from rivals and produces a competitive edge. A strategy must
tightly fit a company’s own particular situation, but there is no shortage of opportunity
to fashion a strategy that is discernibly different from the strategies of rivals. In fact, com-
petitive success requires a company’s managers to make strategic choices about the key
building blocks of its strategy that differ from the choices made by competitors—not 100
percent different but at least different in several important respects. A strategy stands
a chance of succeeding only when it is predicated on actions, business approaches,
and competitive moves aimed at appealing to buyers in
ways that set a company apart from rivals. Simply trying
to mimic the strategies of the industry’s successful com-
panies never works. Rather, every company’s strategy
needs to have some distinctive element that draws in
customers and produces a competitive edge. Strategy,
at its essence, is about competing differently—doing
what rival firms don’t do or, better yet, what rival firms
can’t do.3
The Relationship Between a Company’s Strategy
and Business Model
Explain why it is important for a company to have a viable business model that outlines the
company’s customer value proposition and its profit formula.
LO1-3
Closely related to the concept of strategy is the concept
of a company’s business model. While the company’s
strategy sets forth an approach to offering superior
value, a company’s business model is management’s
blueprint for delivering a valuable product or service
to customers in a manner that will yield an attractive
profit.4 The two elements of a company’s business
model are (1) its customer value proposition and (2)
its profit formula. The customer value proposition is
Mimicking the strategies of successful industry
rivals—with either copycat product offerings or
efforts to stake out the same market position—
rarely works. A creative, distinctive strategy that
sets a company apart from rivals and yields a
competitive advantage is a company’s most reli-
able ticket for earning above-average profits.
CORE CONCEPT
A company’s business model sets forth how its
strategy and operating approaches will create
value for customers, while at the same time gen-
erating ample revenues to cover costs and real-
izing a profit. The two elements of a company’s
business model are its (1) customer value proposi-
tion and (2) its profit formula.
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established by the company’s overall strategy and lays out the company’s approach
to satisfying buyer wants and needs at a price customers will consider a good value.
The greater the value provided and the lower the price, the more attractive the value
proposition is to customers. The profit formula describes the company’s approach to
determining a cost structure that will allow for acceptable profits given the pricing
tied to its customer value proposition. The lower the costs given the customer value
proposition, the greater the ability of the business model to be a moneymaker. The
nitty-gritty issue surrounding a company’s business model is whether it can execute its
customer value proposition profitably. Just because company managers have crafted
a strategy for competing and running the business does not automatically mean the
strategy will lead to profitability—it may or it may not.5
Cable television providers utilize a business model, keyed to delivering news and
entertainment that viewers will find valuable, to secure sufficient revenues from sub-
scriptions and advertising to cover operating expenses and allow for profits. Aircraft
engine manufacturer Rolls-Royce employs a “power-by-the-hour” business model that
charges airlines leasing fees for engine use, maintenance, and repairs based upon actual
hours flown. The company retains ownership of the engines and is able to minimize
engine maintenance costs through the use of sophisticated sensors that optimize
maintenance and repair schedules. Gillette’s business model in razor blades involves
achieving economies of scale in the production of its shaving products, selling razors
at an attractively low price, and then making money on repeat purchases of razor
blades. Concepts & Connections 1.1 discusses three contrasting business models in
radio broadcasting.
Strategy and the Quest for
Competitive Advantage
Identify the five most dependable strategic approaches for setting a company apart from rivals
and winning a sustainable competitive advantage.
LO1-4
The heart and soul of any strategy is the actions and moves in the marketplace that
managers are taking to gain a competitive edge over rivals.6 Five of the most frequently
used and dependable strategic approaches to setting a company apart from rivals and
winning a sustainable competitive advantage are:
1. A low-cost provider strategy—achieving a cost-based advantage over rivals. Walmart
and Southwest Airlines have earned strong market positions because of the low-
cost advantages they have achieved over their rivals. Low-cost provider strategies
can produce a durable competitive edge when rivals find it hard to match the low-
cost leader’s approach to driving costs out of the business.
2. A broad differentiation strategy—seeking to differentiate the company’s product or
service from rivals’ in ways that will appeal to a broad spectrum of buyers. Suc-
cessful adopters of broad differentiation strategies include Johnson & Johnson in
baby products (product reliability) and Apple (innovative products). Differentia-
tion strategies can be powerful so long as a company is sufficiently innovative to
thwart rivals’ attempts to copy or closely imitate its product offering.
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PANDORA, SIRIUS XM, AND OVER-THE-AIR BROADCAST RADIO:
THREE CONTRASTING BUSINESS MODELS
Pandora Sirius XM
Over-the-Air Radio
Broadcasters
Customer
value
proposition
• Through free-of-charge
Internet radio service,
allowed PC, tablet
computer, and smartphone
users to create up to 100
personalized music and
comedy stations
• Utilized algorithms to
generate playlists based
on users’ predicted music
preferences
• Offered programming
interrupted by brief,
occasional ads; eliminated
advertising for Pandora
One subscribers
• For a monthly subscription
fee, provided satellite-
based music, news, sports,
national and regional
weather, traffic reports
in limited areas, and talk
radio programming
• Also offered subscribers
streaming Internet
channels and the ability
to create personalized,
commercial-free stations
for online and mobile
listening
• Offered programming
interrupted only by brief,
occasional ads
• Provided free-of-charge
music, national and local
news, local traffic reports,
national and local weather,
and talk radio programming
• Included frequent programming
interruption for ads
Profit Formula Revenue generation: Display,
audio, and video ads targeted
to different audiences and sold
to local and national buyers;
subscription revenues generated
from an advertising-free option
called Pandora One
Cost structure: Fixed costs
associated with developing
software for computers, tablets,
and smartphones
Fixed and variable costs related
to operating data centers to sup-
port streaming network content
royalties, marketing, and support
activities
Revenue generation: Monthly
subscription fees, sales of satel-
lite radio equipment, and adver-
tising revenues
Cost structure: Fixed costs associated
with operating a satellite-based
music delivery service and
streaming Internet service
Fixed and variable costs related
to programming and content
royalties, marketing, and support
activities
Revenue generation: Advertis-
ing sales to national and local
businesses
Cost structure: Fixed costs associated
with terrestrial broadcasting
operations
Fixed and variable costs related to
local news reporting, advertising
sales operations, network affiliate
fees, programming and content roy-
alties, commercial production activi-
ties, and support activities
Profit margin: Profitability depen-
dent on generating sufficient
advertising revenues and sub-
scription revenues to cover costs
and provide attractive profits
Profit margin: Profitability depen-
dent on attracting a sufficiently
large number of subscribers to
cover costs and provide attractive
profits
Profit margin: Profitability dependent
on generating sufficient advertising
revenues to cover costs and provide
attractive profits
Sources: Company documents, 10-Ks, and information posted on their websites.
&Concepts Connections 1.1
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3. A focused low-cost strategy—concentrating on a narrow buyer segment (or market
niche) and outcompeting rivals by having lower costs than rivals and thus being
able to serve niche members at a lower price. Private-label manufacturers of food,
health and beauty products, and nutritional supplements use their low-cost advan-
tage to offer supermarket buyers lower prices than those demanded by producers
of branded products.
4. A focused differentiation strategy—concentrating on a narrow buyer segment (or
market niche) and outcompeting rivals by offering niche members customized
attributes that meet their tastes and requirements better than rivals’ prod-
ucts. Louis Vuitton and Rolex have sustained their advantage in the luxury
goods industry through a focus on aff luent consumers demanding luxury and
prestige.
5. A best-cost provider strategy—giving customers more value for the money by satisfy-
ing buyers’ expectations on key quality/features/performance/service attributes,
while beating their price expectations. This approach is a hybrid strategy that
blends elements of low-cost provider and differentiation strategies; the aim is to
have the lowest (best) costs and prices among sellers offering products with com-
parable differentiating attributes. Target’s best-cost advantage allows it to give dis-
count store shoppers more value for the money by offering an attractive product
lineup and an appealing shopping ambience at low prices.
In Concepts & Connections 1.2, it is evident that Starbucks has gained a com-
petitive advantage over rivals through its efforts to offer the highest quality coffee-
based beverages, create an emotional attachment with
customers, expand its global presence, expand the
product line, and ensure consistency in store opera-
tions. A creative, distinctive strategy such as that used
by Starbucks is a company’s most reliable ticket for
developing a sustainable competitive advantage and
earning above-average profits. A sustainable competi-
tive advantage allows a company to attract sufficiently
large numbers of buyers who have a lasting preference
for its products or services over those offered by rivals,
despite the efforts of competitors to offset that appeal and overcome the company’s
advantage. The bigger and more durable the competitive advantage, the better a com-
pany’s prospects for winning in the marketplace and earning superior long-term prof-
its relative to rivals.
The Importance of Capabilities in Building and
Sustaining Competitive Advantage
Winning a sustainable competitive edge over rivals with any of the previous five strat-
egies generally hinges as much on building competitively valuable capabilities that
rivals cannot readily match as it does on having a distinctive product offering. Clever
rivals can nearly always copy the attributes of a popular product or service, but it is
CORE CONCEPT
A company achieves sustainable competitive
advantage when an attractively large number
of buyers develop a durable preference for its
products or services over the offerings of com-
petitors, despite the efforts of competitors to
overcome or erode its advantage.
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&
Since its founding in 1985 as a modest nine-store operation in
Seattle, Washington, Starbucks had become the premier roaster
and retailer of specialty coffees in the world, with nearly 25,000
store locations in 70 countries as of April 2016 and annual sales
that exceed $21 billion in fiscal 2016. The key elements of Star-
bucks’ strategy in specialty coffees included:
• Train “baristas” to serve a wide variety of specialty coffee
drinks that allow customers to satisfy their individual pref-
erences in a customized way. Starbucks essentially brought
specialty coffees, such as cappuccinos, lattes, and macchiatos,
to the mass market in the United States, encouraging custom-
ers to personalize their coffee drinking habits. Requests for
such items as a “Smoked Butterscotch Latte with Soy Milk”
could be served up quickly with consistent quality.
• Emphasis on store ambience and elevating the customer
experience at Starbucks stores. Starbucks management
viewed each store as a billboard for the company and as
a contributor to building the company’s brand and image.
Each detail was scrutinized to enhance the mood and
ambiance of the store to make sure everything signaled
“best-of-class” and reflected the personality of the com-
munity and the neighborhood. The thesis was “everything
mattered.” The company went to great lengths to make
sure the store fixtures, the merchandise displays, the col-
ors, the artwork, the banners, the music, and the aromas all
blended to create a consistent, inviting, stimulating environ-
ment that evoked the romance of coffee, that signaled the
company’s passion for coffee, and that rewarded customers
with ceremony, stories, and surprise.
• Purchase and roast only top-quality coffee beans. The
company purchased only the highest quality arabica beans
and carefully roasted coffee to exacting standards of qual-
ity and flavor. Starbucks did not use chemicals or artificial
flavors when preparing its roasted coffees.
• Commitment to corporate responsibility. Starbucks was
protective of the environment and contributed positively to
the communities where Starbucks stores were located. In
addition, Starbucks promoted fair trade practices and paid
above-market prices for coffee beans to provide its grow-
ers/suppliers with sufficient funding to sustain their opera-
tions and provide for their families.
• Expansion of the number of Starbucks stores domesti-
cally and internationally. Starbucks operated stores in
high-traffic, high-visibility locations in the United States
and abroad. The company’s ability to vary store size and
format made it possible to locate stores in settings such
as downtown and suburban shopping areas, office build-
ings, and university campuses. Starbucks added 321 new
company-owned locations in the United States and another
155 company-owned stores internationally in fiscal 2016.
Starbucks also added 330 licensed store locations in the
United States and 1,236 licensed stores internationally in
2016. The company planned to open 12,000 new stores
globally by fiscal 2021, with 3,400 new units being opened
in the United States.
• Broaden and periodically refresh in-store product offer-
ings. Noncoffee products offered by Starbucks included
teas, fresh pastries and other food items, and coffee mugs
and coffee accessories. The company’s new Mercato stores
would extend food offerings to include grab-and-go salads
and sandwiches and novel health-conscious items such as
gluten-free smoked Canadian bacon breakfast sandwiches
and Sous Vide Egg Bites.
• Fully exploit the growing power of the Starbucks name
and brand image with out-of-store sales. Starbucks
consumer packaged goods division included domestic and
international sales of Frappuccino, coffee ice creams, and
Starbucks coffees.
Sources: Company documents, 10-Ks, and information posted on
Starbucks’ website.
STARBUCKS’ STRATEGY IN THE SPECIALTY COFFEE MARKET
Concepts Connections 1.2
substantially more difficult for rivals to match the know-how and specialized capabili-
ties a company has developed and perfected over a long period. FedEx, for example, has
superior capabilities in next-day delivery of small packages. And Hyundai has become
the world’s fastest-growing automaker as a result of its advanced manufacturing pro-
cesses and unparalleled quality control system. The capabilities of both of these com-
panies have proven difficult for competitors to imitate or best and have allowed each to
build and sustain competitive advantage.
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Why a Company’s Strategy Evolves over Time
Understand that a company’s strategy tends to evolve over time because of changing
circumstances and ongoing management efforts to improve the company’s strategy.
LO1-5
The appeal of a strategy that yields a sustainable competitive advantage is that it offers
the potential for an enduring edge over rivals. However, managers of every company
must be willing and ready to modify the strategy in response to the unexpected moves of
competitors, shifting buyer needs and preferences, emerging market opportunities, new
ideas for improving the strategy, and mounting evidence that the strategy is not work-
ing well. Most of the time, a company’s strategy evolves incrementally as management
fine-tunes various pieces of the strategy and adjusts the strategy to respond to unfold-
ing events. However, on occasion, major strategy shifts are called for, such as when the
strategy is clearly failing or when industry conditions change in dramatic ways.
Regardless of whether a company’s strategy changes gradually or swiftly, the important
point is that the task of crafting strategy is not a one-time event but is always a work in prog-
ress.7 The evolving nature of a company’s strategy means the
typical company strategy is a blend of (1) proactive moves to
improve the company’s financial performance and secure
a competitive edge and (2) adaptive reactions to unantici-
pated developments and fresh market conditions—see Fig-
ure 1.1.8 The biggest portion of a company’s current strategy
flows from ongoing actions that have proven themselves in
the marketplace and newly launched initiatives aimed at
building a larger lead over rivals and further boosting financial performance. This part of
management’s action plan for running the company is its proactive, deliberate strategy.
At times, certain components of a company’s deliberate strategy will fail in the mar-
ketplace and become abandoned strategy elements. Also, managers must always be
willing to supplement or modify planned, deliberate strategy elements with as-needed
Changing circumstances and ongoing manage-
ment efforts to improve the strategy cause a
company’s strategy to evolve over time—a con-
dition that makes the task of crafting a strategy
a work in progress, not a one-time event.
Deliberate Strategy Elements
Emergent Strategy ElementsEmergent Strategy Elements
Planned new initiatives plus
ongoing strategies continued
from prior periods
Unplanned reactive responses
to changing circumstances
by management
Abandoned
strategy elements
Realized
Business
Strategy
FIGURE 1.1
A Company’s Strategy Is a Blend of Planned Initiatives
and Unplanned Reactive Adjustments
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reactions to unanticipated developments. Inevitably, there will be occasions when mar-
ket and competitive conditions take unexpected turns that call for some kind of strate-
gic reaction. Novel strategic moves on the part of rival
firms, unexpected shifts in customer preferences, fast-
changing technological developments, and new market
opportunities call for unplanned, reactive adjustments
that form the company’s emergent strategy. As shown
in Figure 1.1, a company’s realized strategy tends to
be a combination of deliberate planned elements and
unplanned, emergent elements.
The Three Tests of a Winning Strategy
Identify the three tests of a winning strategy.LO1-6
Three questions can be used to distinguish a winning strategy from a so-so or flawed
strategy:
1. How well does the strategy fit the company’s situ-
ation? To qualify as a winner, a strategy has to
be well matched to the company’s external and
internal situations. The strategy must fit competi-
tive conditions in the industry and other aspects of
the enterprise’s external environment. At the same
time, it should be tailored to the company’s collection of competitively important
resources and capabilities. It’s unwise to build a strategy upon the company’s
weaknesses or pursue a strategic approach that requires resources that are defi-
cient in the company. Unless a strategy exhibits a tight fit with both the external
and internal aspects of a company’s overall situation, it is unlikely to produce
respectable, first-rate business results.
2. Is the strategy helping the company achieve a sustainable competitive advantage?
Strategies that fail to achieve a durable competitive advantage over rivals are
unlikely to produce superior performance for more than a brief period of time.
Winning strategies enable a company to achieve a competitive advantage over key
rivals that is long lasting. The bigger and more durable the competitive edge that
the strategy helps build, the more powerful it is.
3. Is the strategy producing good company performance? The mark of a winning strat-
egy is strong company performance. Two kinds of performance improvements tell
the most about the caliber of a company’s strategy: (1) gains in profitability and
financial strength and (2) advances in the company’s competitive strength and
market standing.
Strategies that come up short on one or more of these tests are plainly less appealing
than strategies passing all three tests with flying colors. Managers should use the same
questions when evaluating either proposed or existing strategies. New initiatives that
don’t seem to match the company’s internal and external situation should be scrapped
before they come to fruition, while existing strategies must be scrutinized on a regular
CORE CONCEPT
A company’s realized strategy is a combination
deliberate planned elements and unplanned
emergent elements. Some components of a com-
pany’s deliberate strategy will fail in the market-
place and become abandoned strategy elements.
A winning strategy must fit the company’s exter-
nal and internal situation, build sustainable
competitive advantage, and improve company
performance.
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basis to ensure they have a good fit, offer a competitive advantage, and have contributed
to above-average performance or performance improvements.
Why Crafting and Executing
Strategy Are Important Tasks
High-achieving enterprises are nearly always the product of astute, creative, and proac-
tive strategy making. Companies don’t get to the top of the industry rankings or stay
there with illogical strategies, copycat strategies, or timid attempts to try to do better.
Among all the things managers do, nothing affects a company’s ultimate success or
failure more fundamentally than how well its management team charts the company’s
direction, develops competitively effective strategic moves and business approaches,
and pursues what needs to be done internally to produce good day-in, day-out strategy
execution and operating excellence. Indeed, good strategy and good strategy execution
are the most telling signs of good management. The rationale for using the twin stan-
dards of good strategy making and good strategy execution to determine whether a
company is well managed is therefore compelling: The better conceived a company’s
strategy and the more competently it is executed, the more likely that the company will be
a standout performer in the marketplace. In stark contrast, a company that lacks clear-
cut direction, has a flawed strategy, or cannot execute
its strategy competently is a company whose financial
performance is probably suffering, whose business
is at long-term risk, and whose management is sorely
lacking.
The Road Ahead
Throughout the chapters to come and the accompanying case collection, the spotlight
is trained on the foremost question in running a business enterprise: What must man-
agers do, and do well, to make a company a winner in the marketplace? The answer that
emerges is that doing a good job of managing inherently requires good strategic think-
ing and good management of the strategy-making, strategy-executing process.
The mission of this book is to provide a solid overview of what every business stu-
dent and aspiring manager needs to know about crafting and executing strategy. We will
explore what good strategic thinking entails, describe the core concepts and tools of
strategic analysis, and examine the ins and outs of crafting and executing strategy. The
accompanying cases will help build your skills in both diagnosing how well the strategy-
making, strategy-executing task is being performed and prescribing actions for how the
strategy in question or its execution can be improved. The strategic management course
that you are enrolled in may also include a strategy simulation exercise where you will
run a company in head-to-head competition with companies run by your classmates.
Your mastery of the strategic management concepts presented in the following chapters
will put you in a strong position to craft a winning strategy for your company and figure
out how to execute it in a cost-effective and profitable manner. As you progress through
the chapters of the text and the activities assigned during the term, we hope to convince
you that first-rate capabilities in crafting and executing strategy are essential to good
management.
How well a company performs is directly attrib-
utable to the caliber of its strategy and the pro-
ficiency with which the strategy is executed.
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KEY POINTS
1. A company’s strategy is the set of actions that its managers take to outperform the com-
pany’s competitors and achieve superior profitability.
2. Closely related to the concept of strategy is the concept of a company’s business model. A com-
pany’s business model is management’s blueprint for delivering customer value in a manner that
will generate revenues sufficient to cover costs and yield an attractive profit. The two elements of
a company’s business model are its (1) customer value proposition and (2) its profit formula.
3. The central thrust of a company’s strategy is undertaking moves to build and strengthen
the company’s long-term competitive position and financial performance by competing
differently from rivals and gaining a sustainable competitive advantage over them.
4. A company’s strategy typically evolves over time, arising from a blend of (1) proactive and
deliberate actions on the part of company managers and (2) adaptive emergent responses
to unanticipated developments and fresh market conditions.
5. A winning strategy fits the circumstances of a company’s external and internal situations,
builds competitive advantage, and boosts company performance.
ASSURANCE OF LEARNING EXERCISES
1. Based on your experiences as a coffee consumer, does Starbucks’ strategy as described in
Concepts & Connections 1.2 seem to set it apart from rivals? Does the strategy seem to
be keyed to a cost-based advantage, differentiating features, serving the unique needs of a
niche, or some combination of these? What is there about Starbucks’ strategy that can lead
to sustainable competitive advantage?
2. Go to investor.siriusxm.com and check whether SiriusXM’s recent financial reports indicate
that its business model is working. Are its subscription fees increasing or declining? Is its
revenue stream from advertising and equipment sales growing or declining? Does its cost
structure allow for acceptable profit margins?
3. Elements of eBay’s strategy have evolved in meaningful ways since the company’s founding in
1995. After reviewing the company’s history at www.ebayinc.com/our-company/our-history/
and all of the links at the company’s investor relations site (investors.ebayinc.com/), prepare
a one- to two-page report that discusses how its strategy has evolved. Your report should also
assess how well eBay’s strategy passes the three tests of a winning strategy.
EXERCISES FOR SIMULATION PARTICIPANTS
After you have read the Participant’s Guide or Player’s Manual for the strategy simulation exer-
cise that you will participate in this academic term, you and your co-managers should come up
with brief one- or two-paragraph answers to the questions that follow before entering your first
set of decisions. While your answers to the first of the four questions can be developed from your
reading of the manual, the remaining questions will require a collaborative discussion among the
members of your company’s management team about how you intend to manage the company
you have been assigned to run.
1. What is our company’s current situation? A substantive answer to this question should
cover the following issues:
• Does your company appear to be in sound financial condition?
• What problems does your company have that need to be addressed?
LO1-1, LO1-2,
LO1-4
LO1-5,
LO1-6
LO1-3
LO1-6
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12 Part 1 Section A: Introduction and Overview
2. Why will our company matter to customers? A complete answer to this question should
say something about each of the following:
• How will you create customer value?
• What will be distinctive about the company’s products or services?
• How will capabilities and resources be deployed to deliver customer value?
3. What are the primary elements of your company’s business model?
• Describe your customer value proposition.
• Discuss the profit formula tied to your business model.
• What level of revenues is required for your company’s business model to become a
moneymaker?
4. How will you build and sustain competitive advantage?
• Which of the basic strategic and competitive approaches discussed in this chapter do
you think makes the most sense to pursue?
• What kind of competitive advantage over rivals will you try to achieve?
• How do you envision that your strategy might evolve as you react to the competitive
moves of rival firms?
• Does your strategy have the ability to pass the three tests of a winning strategy?
Explain.
LO1-2, LO1-4
LO1-3
LO1-4, LO1-5,
LO1-6
1. B. R., “Strategy,” The Economist, October
19, 2012, www.economist.com/blogs/
schumpeter/2012/10/z-business-
quotations-1 (accessed January 4, 2014).
2. Jan Rivkin, “An Alternative Approach
to Making Strategic Choices,” Harvard
Business School case 9-702-433, 2001.
3. Michael E. Porter, “What Is Strategy?”
Harvard Business Review 74, no. 6
(November–December 1996).
4. Mark W. Johnson, Clayton M.
Christensen, and Henning Kagermann,
“Reinventing Your Business Model,”
Harvard Business Review 86, no. 12
(December 2008); and Joan Magretta,
“Why Business Models Matter,” Harvard
Business Review 80, no. 5 (May 2002).
5. W. Chan Kim and Renée Mauborgne,
“How Strategy Shapes Structure,”
Harvard Business Review 87, no. 9
(September 2009).
6. Porter, “What Is Strategy?”
7. Cynthia A. Montgomery, “Putting
Leadership Back into Strategy,”
Harvard Business Review 86, no. 1
(January 2008).
8. Henry Mintzberg and Joseph Lampel,
“Reflecting on the Strategy Process,”
Sloan Management Review 40, no. 3
(Spring 1999); Henry Mintzberg and
J. A. Waters, “Of Strategies, Deliberate
and Emergent,” Strategic Management
Journal 6 (1985); Costas Markides,
“Strategy as Balance: From ‘Either-Or’ to
‘And,’” Business Strategy Review 12, no.
3 (September 2001); Henry Mintzberg,
Bruce Ahlstrand, and Joseph Lampel,
Strategy Safari: A Guided Tour Through
the Wilds of Strategic Management (New
York: Free Press, 1998); C. K. Prahalad
and Gary Hamel, “The Core Competence
of the Corporation,” Harvard Business
Review 70, no. 3 (May–June 1990).
ENDNOTES
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13
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LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
LO2-1 Understand why it is critical for company managers to have a clear
strategic vision of where a company needs to head and why.
LO2-2 Explain the importance of setting both strategic and financial
objectives.
LO2-3 Explain why the strategic initiatives taken at various organizational
levels must be tightly coordinated to achieve companywide
performance targets.
LO2-4 Recognize what a company must do to achieve operating excellence
and to execute its strategy proficiently.
LO2-5 Identify the role and responsibility of a company’s board of directors
in overseeing the strategic management process.
2
c
h
a
p
te
r
Strategy Formulation,
Execution, and
Governance
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14 Part 1 Section A: Introduction and Overview
Crafting and executing strategy are the heart and soul of managing a business enterprise.
But exactly what is involved in developing a strategy and executing it proficiently? What
are the various components of the strategy formulation, strategy execution process, and
to what extent are company personnel—aside from senior management—involved in the
process? This chapter presents an overview of the ins and outs of crafting and executing
company strategies. Special attention will be given to management’s direction-setting
responsibilities—charting a strategic course, setting performance targets, and choosing
a strategy capable of producing the desired outcomes. We will also explain why strategy
formulation is a task for a company’s entire management team and discuss which kinds
of strategic decisions tend to be made at which levels of management. The chapter
concludes with a look at the roles and responsibilities of a company’s board of directors
and how good corporate governance protects shareholder interests and promotes good
management.
The Strategy Formulation,
Strategy Execution Process
The managerial process of crafting and executing a company’s strategy is an ongoing,
continuous process consisting of five integrated stages:
1. Developing a strategic vision that charts the company’s long-term direction, a mis-
sion statement that describes the company’s business, and a set of core values to
guide the pursuit of the strategic vision and mission.
2. Setting objectives for measuring the company’s performance and tracking its prog-
ress in moving in the intended long-term direction.
3. Crafting a strategy for advancing the company along the path to management’s
envisioned future and achieving its performance objectives.
4. Implementing and executing the chosen strategy efficiently and effectively.
5. Evaluating and analyzing the external environment and the company’s internal situa-
tion and performance to identify corrective adjustments that are needed in the com-
pany’s long-term direction, objectives, strategy, or approach to strategy execution.
Figure 2.1 displays this five-stage process. The model illustrates the need for manage-
ment to evaluate a number of external and internal factors in deciding upon a strate-
gic direction, appropriate objectives, and approaches to crafting and executing strategy
(see Table 2.1). Management’s decisions that are made in the strategic management
process must be shaped by the prevailing economic conditions and competitive envi-
ronment and the company’s own internal resources and competitive capabilities. These
strategy-shaping conditions will be the focus of Chapters 3 and 4.
The model shown in Figure 2.1 also illustrates the need for management to evaluate
the company’s performance on an ongoing basis. Any indication that the company is
failing to achieve its objectives calls for corrective adjustments in one of the first four
stages of the process. The company’s implementation efforts might have fallen short,
and new tactics must be devised to fully exploit the potential of the company’s strategy.
If management determines that the company’s execution efforts are sufficient, it should
challenge the assumptions underlying the company’s business strategy and alter the
strategy to better fit competitive conditions and the company’s internal capabilities. If
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TABLE 2.1
Factors Shaping Decisions in the Strategy Formulation,
Strategy Execution Process
External Considerations
• Does sticking with the company’s present strategic course present attractive opportunities for
growth and profitability?
• What kind of competitive forces are industry members facing, and are they acting to enhance or
weaken the company’s prospects for growth and profitability?
• What factors are driving industry change, and what impact on the company’s prospects will they
have?
• How are industry rivals positioned, and what strategic moves are they likely to make next?
• What are the key factors of future competitive success, and does the industry offer good prospects
for attractive profits for companies possessing those capabilities?
Internal Considerations
• Does the company have an appealing customer value proposition?
• What are the company’s competitively important resources and capabilities, and are they potent
enough to produce a sustainable competitive advantage?
• Does the company have sufficient business and competitive strength to seize market opportunities
and nullify external threats?
• Are the company’s costs competitive with those of key rivals?
• Is the company competitively stronger or weaker than key rivals?
the company’s strategic approach to competition is rated as sound, then perhaps man-
agement set overly ambitious targets for the company’s performance.
The evaluation stage of the strategic management process shown in Figure 2.1 also
allows for a change in the company’s vision, but this should be necessary only when it
Stage 5Stage 1
Developing a
strategic
vision, mission,
and values
Stage 2
Setting
objectives
Stage 3
Crafting a
strategy to
achieve the
objectives
and move the
company along
the intended
path
Stage 4
Executing
the strategy
External and Internal Factors Shaping Strategic and Operating Decisions
Evaluating and
analyzing the
external
environment
and the company’s
internal situation
to identify
corrective
adjustments
FIGURE 2.1 The Strategy Formulation, Strategy Execution Process
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16 Part 1 Section A: Introduction and Overview
becomes evident to management that the industry has changed in a significant way that
renders the vision obsolete. Such occasions can be referred to as strategic inflection
points. When a company reaches a strategic inflection point, management has tough
decisions to make about the company’s direction because abandoning an established
course carries considerable risk. However, responding to unfolding changes in the mar-
ketplace in a timely fashion lessens a company’s chances of becoming trapped in a
stagnant or declining business or letting attractive new growth opportunities slip away.
The first three stages of the strategic management process make up a strategic plan.
A strategic plan maps out where a company is headed, establishes strategic and finan-
cial targets, and outlines the competitive moves and approaches to be used in achieving
the desired business results.1
Stage 1: Developing a Strategic
Vision, a Mission, and Core Values
Understand why it is critical for company managers to have a clear strategic vision of where a
company needs to head and why.
LO2-1
At the outset of the strategy formulation, strategy execution process, a company’s
senior managers must wrestle with the issue of what directional path the company
should take and whether its market positioning and future performance prospects
could be improved by changing the company’s product offerings and/or the markets in
which it participates and/or the customers it caters to and/or the technologies it
employs. Top management’s views about the compa-
ny’s direction and future product-customer-market-
technology focus constitute a strategic vision for the
company. A clearly articulated strategic vision commu-
nicates management’s aspirations to stakeholders
about “where we are going” and helps steer the ener-
gies of company personnel in a common direction. For
instance, the vision of Google’s co-founders Larry
Page and Sergey Brin “to organize the world’s informa-
tion and make it universally accessible and useful” captured the imagination of Google
employees, served as the basis for crafting the company’s strategic actions, and aided
internal efforts to mobilize and direct the company’s resources.
Well-conceived visions are distinctive and specific to a particular organization; they
avoid generic, feel-good statements such as “We will become a global leader and the
first choice of customers in every market we choose to serve”—which could apply to any
of hundreds of organizations.2 And they are not the product of a committee charged
with coming up with an innocuous but well-meaning one-sentence vision that wins con-
sensus approval from various stakeholders. Nicely worded vision statements with no
specifics about the company’s product-market-customer-technology focus fall well short
of what it takes for a vision to measure up.
For a strategic vision to function as a valuable managerial tool, it must provide under-
standing of what management wants its business to look like and provide managers
with a reference point in making strategic decisions. It must say something definitive
CORE CONCEPT
A strategic vision describes “where we are
going”—the course and direction management
has charted and the company’s future product-
customer-market-technology focus.
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about how the company’s leaders intend to position the company beyond where it is
today. Table 2.2 lists some characteristics of effective vision statements.
A surprising number of the vision statements found on company websites and in
annual reports are vague and unrevealing, saying very little about the company’s future
product-market-customer-technology focus. Some could apply to most any company in
any industry. Many read like a public relations statement—lofty words that someone
came up with because it is fashionable for companies to have an official vision state-
ment.3 Table 2.3 provides a list of the most common shortcomings in company vision
statements. Like any tool, vision statements can be used properly or improperly, either
clearly conveying a company’s strategic course or not. Concepts & Connections 2.1
provides a critique of the strategic visions of several prominent companies.
TABLE 2.2
Characteristics of Effectively Worded Vision Statements
Graphic—Paints a picture of the kind of company that management is trying to create and the market
position(s) the company is striving to stake out
Directional—Is forward-looking; describes the strategic course that management has charted and the
kinds of product-market-customer-technology changes that will help the company prepare for the future
Focused—Is specific enough to provide managers with guidance in making decisions and allocating resources
Flexible—Is not so focused that it makes it difficult for management to adjust to changing circumstances
in markets, customer preferences, or technology
Feasible—Is within the realm of what the company can reasonably expect to achieve
Desirable—Indicates why the directional path makes good business sense
Easy to communicate—Is explainable in 5 to 10 minutes and, ideally, can be reduced to a simple,
memorable “slogan” (like Henry Ford’s famous vision of “a car in every garage”)
Source: Based partly on John P. Kotter, Leading Change (Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 1996), p. 72.
TABLE 2.3
Common Shortcomings in Company Vision Statements
Vague or incomplete—Short on specifics about where the company is headed or what the company is
doing to prepare for the future
Not forward-looking—Does not indicate whether or how management intends to alter the company’s
current product-market-customer-technology focus
Too broad—So all-inclusive that the company could head in most any direction, pursue most any oppor-
tunity, or enter most any business
Bland or uninspiring—Lacks the power to motivate company personnel or inspire shareholder confi-
dence about the company’s direction
Not distinctive—Provides no unique company identity; could apply to companies in any of several
industries (including rivals operating in the same market arena)
Too reliant on superlatives—Does not say anything specific about the company’s strategic course
beyond the pursuit of such distinctions as being a recognized leader, a global or worldwide leader, or
the first choice of customers
Sources: Based on information in Hugh Davidson, The Committed Enterprise (Oxford: Butterworth Heinemann, 2002), chapter 2;
and Michel Robert, Strategy Pure and Simple II (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1998), chapters 2, 3, and 6.
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18 Part 1 Section A: Introduction and Overview
EXAMPLES OF STRATEGIC VISIONS—HOW WELL DO THEY MEASURE UP?
Vision Statement Effective Elements Shortcomings
Whole Foods
Whole Foods Market is a dynamic leader in the quality food busi-
ness. We are a mission-driven company that aims to set the stan-
dards of excellence for food retailers. We are building a business in
which high standards permeate all aspects of our company. Quality
is a state of mind at Whole Foods Market.
Our motto—Whole Foods, Whole People, Whole Planet—emphasizes
that our vision reaches far beyond just being a food retailer. Our
success in fulfilling our vision is measured by customer satisfaction,
team member happiness and excellence, return on capital invest-
ment, improvement in the state of the environment and local and
larger community support.
Our ability to instill a clear sense of interdependence among our
various stakeholders (the people who are interested and benefit
from the success of our company) is contingent upon our efforts to
communicate more often, more openly, and more compassionately.
Better communication equals better understanding and more trust.
• Forward-looking
• Graphic
• Focused
• Desirable
• Long
• Not memorable
Keurig
Become the world’s leading personal beverage systems company. • Focused
• Flexible
• Desirable
• Vague
• Not graphic
• Not forward-looking
Caterpillar
Our vision is a world in which all people’s basic needs—such as
shelter, clean water, sanitation, food and reliable power—are ful-
filled in an environmentally sustainable way and a company that
improves the quality of the environment and the communities
where we live and work.
• Graphic
• Desirable
• Too broad
• Too reliant on
superlatives
• Not distinctive
Nike
NIKE, Inc., fosters a culture of invention. We create products, ser-
vices and experiences for today’s athlete* while solving problems
for the next generation.
*If you have a body, you are an athlete.
• Forward-looking
• Flexible
• Vague
• Not focused
• Too reliant on
superlatives
Sources: Company documents and websites.
&Concepts Connections 2.1
The Importance of Communicating the Strategic Vision
A strategic vision has little value to the organization unless it’s effectively communi-
cated down the line to lower-level managers and employees. It would be difficult for a
vision statement to provide direction to decision makers and energize employees toward
achieving long-term strategic intent unless they know of the vision and observe manage-
ment’s commitment to that vision. Communicating the vision to organization members
nearly always means putting “where we are going and why” in writing, distributing the
statement organization-wide, and having executives personally explain the vision and its
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rationale to as many people as feasible. Ideally, executives should present their vision
for the company in a manner that reaches out and grabs people’s attention. An engag-
ing and convincing strategic vision has enormous motivational value—for the same rea-
son that a stonemason is inspired by building a great cathedral for the ages. Therefore,
an executive’s ability to paint a convincing and inspiring picture of a company’s journey
to a future destination is an important element of effective strategic leadership.4
Expressing the Essence of the Vision in a Slogan The task of effectively convey-
ing the vision to company personnel is assisted when management can capture the vision
of where to head in a catchy or easily remembered slogan. A number of organizations have
summed up their vision in a brief phrase. Disney’s overarching vision for its five business
groups—theme parks, movie studios, television channels,
consumer products, and interactive media entertainment—
is to “create happiness by providing the finest in entertain-
ment for people of all ages, everywhere.” The Mayo Clinic’s
vision is to provide “The best care to every patient every
day,” while Greenpeace’s envisioned future is “To halt envi-
ronmental abuse and promote environmental solutions.”
Creating a short slogan to illuminate an organization’s direction and then using it repeatedly
as a reminder of “where we are headed and why” helps rally organization members to hurdle
whatever obstacles lie in the company’s path and maintain their focus.
Why a Sound, Well-Communicated Strategic Vision Matters A well-
thought-out, forcefully communicated strategic vision pays off in several respects: (1)
it crystallizes senior executives’ own views about the firm’s long-term direction; (2) it
reduces the risk of rudderless decision making by management at all levels; (3) it is a
tool for winning the support of employees to help make the vision a reality; (4) it pro-
vides a beacon for lower-level managers in forming departmental missions; and (5) it
helps an organization prepare for the future.
Developing a Company Mission Statement
The defining characteristic of a well-conceived strategic
vision is what it says about the company’s future strategic
course—“where we are headed and what our future product-
customer-market-technology focus will be.” In contrast, a mis-
sion statement describes the enterprise’s present business
scope and purpose—“who we are, what we do, and why we
are here.” It is purely descriptive. Ideally, a company mis-
sion statement (1) identifies the company’s products and/
or services, (2) specifies the buyer needs that the company
seeks to satisfy and the customer groups or markets that
it serves, and (3) gives the company its own identity. Con-
sider, for example, the mission statement of Singapore Air-
lines, which is consistently rated among the world’s best
airlines in terms of passenger safety and comfort:
Singapore Airlines is a global company dedicated to pro-
viding air transportation services of the highest quality
and to maximizing returns for the benefit of its shareholders and employees.
An effectively communicated vision is a valuable
management tool for enlisting the commitment
of company personnel to engage in actions that
move the company in the intended direction.
The distinction between a strategic vision and a
mission statement is fairly clear-cut: A strategic
vision portrays a company’s future business scope
(“where we are going”), whereas a company’s mis-
sion statement typically describes its present busi-
ness and purpose (“who we are, what we do, and
why we are here”).
CORE CONCEPT
A well-conceived mission statement conveys a
company’s purpose in language specific enough
to give the company its own identity.
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20 Part 1 Section A: Introduction and Overview
Note that Singapore Airlines’ mission statement does a good job of conveying “who we
are, what we do, and why we are here,” but it provides no sense of “where we are headed.”
An example of a well-stated mission statement with ample specifics about what the
organization does is that of St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital: “to advance cures, and
means of prevention, for pediatric catastrophic diseases through research and treatment.
Consistent with the vision of our founder Danny Thomas, no child is denied treatment
based on race, religion or a family’s ability to pay.” Twitter’s mission statement, while
short, still captures the essence of what the company is about: “to give everyone the power
to create and share ideas and information instantly, without barriers.” An example of a
not-so-revealing mission statement is that of Microsoft. “To empower every person and
every organization on the planet to achieve more” says nothing about its products or busi-
ness and does not give the company its own identity. A mission statement that provides
scant indication of “who we are and what we do” has no apparent value.
Occasionally, companies state that their mission is to simply earn a profit. This is
misguided. Profit is more correctly an objective and a result of what a company does.
Moreover, earning a profit is the obvious intent of every commercial enterprise. Such
companies as BMW, Netflix, Shell Oil, Procter & Gamble, and Citigroup are each striv-
ing to earn a profit for shareholders, but the fundamentals of their businesses are sub-
stantially different when it comes to “who we are and what we do.” It is management’s
answer to “make a profit doing what and for whom?” that reveals the substance of a
company’s true mission and business purpose.
Linking the Strategic Vision and Mission with Company Values
Many companies have developed a statement of values (sometimes called core values)
to guide the actions and behavior of company personnel in conducting the company’s
business and pursuing its strategic vision and mission. These values are the designated
beliefs and desired ways of doing things at the company
and frequently relate to such things as fair treatment,
honor and integrity, ethical behavior, innovativeness,
teamwork, a passion for excellence, social responsibility,
and community citizenship.
Most companies normally have four to eight core
values. At Samsung, five core values are linked to its
philosophy of devoting its talent and technology to cre-
ate superior products and services that contribute to a
better global society: (1) giving people opportunities to reach their full potential, (2)
developing the best products and services on the market, (3) embracing change, (4)
operating in an ethical way, and (5) dedication to social and environmental respon-
sibility. L. L. Bean’s two core values are encompassed in a quote from founder Leon
Leonwood Bean—“Sell good merchandise at a reasonable profit, treat your customers
like human beings, and they will always come back for more.”
Do companies practice what they preach when it comes to their professed values?
Sometimes no, sometimes yes—it runs the gamut. At one extreme are companies with
window-dressing values; the professed values are given lip service by top executives
but have little discernible impact on either how company personnel behave or how the
company operates. At the other extreme are companies whose executives are commit-
ted to grounding company operations on sound values and principled ways of doing
CORE CONCEPT
A company’s values are the beliefs, traits, and
behavioral norms that company personnel are
expected to display in conducting the compa-
ny’s business and pursuing its strategic vision
and mission.
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PATAGONIA, INC.: A VALUES-DRIVEN COMPANY
PATAGONIA’S MISSION STATEMENT
Build the best product, cause no unnecessary harm, use
business to inspire, and implement solutions to the envi-
ronmental crisis.
PATAGONIA’S CORE VALUES
Quality: Pursuit of ever-greater quality in everything we do.
Integrity: Relationships built on integrity and respect.
Environmentalism: Serve as a catalyst for personal and
corporate action.
Not Bound by Convention: Our success—and much of
the fun—lies in developing innovative ways to do things.
Patagonia, Inc., is an American outdoor clothing and gear
company that clearly “walks the talk” with respect to its mis-
sion and values. While its mission is relatively vague about
the types of products Patagonia offers, it clearly states the
foundational “how” and “why” of the company. The four core
values individually reinforce the mission in distinct ways,
charting a defined path for employees to follow. At the same
time, each value is reliant on the others for maximum effect.
The values’ combined impact on internal operations and
public perception has made Patagonia a strong leader in the
outdoor gear world.
While many companies espouse the pursuit of quality as
part of their strategy, at Patagonia quality must come through
honorable practices or not at all. Routinely, the company opts for
more expensive materials and labor to maintain internal consis-
tency with the mission. Patagonia learned early on that it could
not make good products in bad factories, so it holds its manu-
facturers accountable through a variety of auditing partnerships
and alliances. In this way, the company maintains relationships
built on integrity and respect. In addition to keeping faith with
those who make its products, Patagonia relentlessly pursues
integrity in sourcing production inputs. Central to its environ-
mental mission and core values, it targets for use sustainable
and recyclable materials, ethically procured. Demonstrating
leadership in environmentalism, Patagonia established founda-
tions to support ecological causes, even defying convention by
giving one percent of profits to conservation causes. These are
but a few examples of the ways in which Patagonia’s core values
fortify each other and support the mission.
For Patagonia, quality would not be possible without integ-
rity, unflinching environmentalism, and the company’s uncon-
ventional approach. Since its founding in 1973
by rock climber Yvon Chouinard, Patagonia has
remained remarkably consistent to the spirit of
these values. This has endeared the company to
legions of loyal customers while leading other
businesses in protecting the environment. More
than an apparel and gear company, Patagonia
inspires everyone it touches to do their best for the
planet and each other, in line with its mission and
core values.
Note: Developed with Nicholas J. Ziemba.
Sources: Patagonia, Inc., “Corporate Social Responsibil-
ity,” The Footprint Chronicles, 2007, and “Becoming a
Responsible Company,” www.patagonia.com/us/
patagonia.go?assetid=2329 (accessed February 28,
2014).
&Concepts Connections 2.2
©George Frey/Getty Images
business. Executives at these companies deliberately seek to ingrain the designated
core values into the corporate culture—the core values thus become an integral part
of the company’s DNA and what makes it tick. At such values-driven companies,
executives “walk the talk” and company personnel are held accountable for displaying
the stated values. Concepts & Connections 2.2 describes how core values drive the
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22 Part 1 Section A: Introduction and Overview
company’s mission at Patagonia, a widely known and quite successful outdoor cloth-
ing and gear company.
Stage 2: Setting Objectives
Explain the importance of setting both strategic and financial objectives.
LO2-2
The managerial purpose of setting objectives is to convert the strategic vision into spe-
cific performance targets. Objectives reflect management’s aspirations for company
performance in light of the industry’s prevailing economic and competitive conditions
and the company’s internal capabilities. Well-stated objectives are quantifiable, or mea-
surable, and contain a deadline for achievement. Concrete, measurable objectives are
managerially valuable for three reasons: (1) They focus organizational attention and
align actions throughout the organization, (2) they serve as yardsticks for tracking
a company’s performance and progress, and (3) they motivate employees to expend
greater effort and perform at a high level.
The Imperative of Setting Stretch Objectives
The experiences of countless companies teach that one of the best ways to promote
outstanding company performance is for managers to deliberately set performance tar-
gets high enough to stretch an organization to perform at its full potential. Challenging
company personnel to go all out and deliver “stretch” gains in performance pushes an
enterprise to be more inventive and to exhibit more urgency in improving its financial
performance and business position. Stretch objectives spur exceptional performance
and help build a firewall against contentment with modest gains in organizational
performance.
A company exhibits strategic intent when it relentlessly pursues an ambitious strate-
gic objective, concentrating the full force of its resources and competitive actions on
achieving that objective. Both Google (now Alphabet) and Amazon have had the stra-
tegic intent of developing drones, Amazon’s for delivery and Google’s for both delivery
and high-speed Internet delivery from the skies. Elon
Musk, CEO of both Tesla Motors and SpaceX, is well-
known for his ambitious stretch goals and strategic
intent. In 2016, he said that his commercial flight pro-
gram, SpaceX, should be ready to send people to Mars
in 10 years.
What Kinds of Objectives to Set
Two very distinct types of performance yardsticks are
required: those relating to financial performance and
those relating to strategic performance. Financial objec-
tives communicate management’s targets for financial
performance. Common financial objectives relate to
revenue growth, profitability, and return on invest-
ment. Strategic objectives are related to a company’s
CORE CONCEPT
Objectives are an organization’s performance
targets—the results management wants to
achieve.
Stretch objectives set performance targets
high enough to stretch an organization to per-
form at its full potential and deliver the best
possible results.
A company exhibits strategic intent when it
relentlessly pursues an ambitious strategic
objective, concentrating the full force of its
resources and competitive actions on achiev-
ing that objective.
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marketing standing and competitive vitality. The impor-
tance of attaining financial objectives is intuitive.
Without adequate profitability and financial strength,
a company’s long-term health and ultimate survival is
jeopardized. Furthermore, subpar earnings and a weak
balance sheet alarm shareholders and creditors and
put the jobs of senior executives at risk. However, good
financial performance, by itself, is not enough.
A company’s financial objectives are really lagging
indicators that reflect the results of past decisions and
organizational activities.5 The results of past deci-
sions and organizational activities are not reliable
indicators of a company’s future prospects. Companies that have been poor financial
performers are sometimes able to turn things around, and good financial performers
on occasion fall upon hard times. Hence, the best and most reliable predictors of a
company’s success in the marketplace and future financial performance are strategic
objectives. Strategic outcomes are leading indicators of a company’s future financial
performance and business prospects. The accomplishment of strategic objectives
signals the company is well positioned to sustain or improve its performance. For
instance, if a company is achieving ambitious strategic objectives, then there’s reason
to expect that its future financial performance will be better than its current or past
performance. If a company begins to lose competitive strength and fails to achieve
important strategic objectives, then its ability to maintain its present profitability is
highly suspect.
Consequently, utilizing a performance measurement system that strikes a balance
between financial objectives and strategic objectives is optimal.6 Just tracking a com-
pany’s financial performance overlooks the fact that what ultimately enables a company
to deliver better financial results is the achievement
of strategic objectives that improve its competitive-
ness and market strength. Representative examples of
financial and strategic objectives that companies often
include in a balanced scorecard approach to measuring
their performance are displayed in Table 2.4.7
In 2015, nearly 50 percent of global companies used
a balanced scorecard approach to measuring strategic
and financial performance.8 Examples of organizations
that have adopted a balanced scorecard approach to
setting objectives and measuring performance include
Siemens AG, Wells Fargo Bank, Ann Taylor Stores,
Ford Motor Company, Hilton Hotels, and over 30 colleges and universities.9 Concepts
& Connections 2.3 provides selected strategic and financial objectives of three promi-
nent companies.
Short-Term and Long-Term Objectives A company’s set of financial and
strategic objectives should include both near-term and long-term performance tar-
gets. Short-term objectives focus attention on delivering performance improvements
in the current period, whereas long-term targets force the organization to consider
CORE CONCEPT
Financial objectives relate to the financial perfor-
mance targets management has established for
the organization to achieve.
Strategic objectives relate to target outcomes
that indicate a company is strengthening its mar-
ket standing, competitive vitality, and future busi-
ness prospects.
CORE CONCEPT
The balanced scorecard is a widely used method
for combining the use of both strategic and
financial objectives, tracking their achievement,
and giving management a more complete and
balanced view of how well an organization is
performing.
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24 Part 1 Section A: Introduction and Overview
TABLE 2.4
The Balanced Scorecard Approach to Performance Measurement
Financial Objectives
• An x percent increase in annual revenues
• Annual increases in earnings per share of x percent
• An x percent return on capital employed (ROCE) or shareholder investment (ROE)
• Bond and credit ratings of x
• Internal cash flows of x to fund new capital investment
Strategic Objectives
• Win an x percent market share
• Achieve customer satisfaction rates of x percent
• Achieve a customer retention rate of x percent
• Acquire x number of new customers
• Introduce x number of new products in the next three years
• Reduce product development times to x months
• Increase percentage of sales coming from new products to x percent
• Improve information systems capabilities to give frontline managers defect information in x
minutes
• Improve teamwork by increasing the number of projects involving more than one business unit
to x
EXAMPLES OF COMPANY OBJECTIVES
UPS
Increase percentage of business-to-consumer package deliver-
ies from 46 percent of domestic deliveries in 2014 to 51 percent
of domestic deliveries in 2019; increase intraregional export
shipments from 66 percent of exported packages in 2014 to
70 percent of exported packages in 2019; lower U.S. domes-
tic average cost per package by 40 basis points between 2014
and 2019; increase total revenue from $58.2 billion in 2014 to
$74.3–$81.6 billion in 2019; increase total operating profit from
$4.95 billion in 2014 to $7.62–$9.12 billion by 2019; increase
capital expenditures from 4 percent of revenues in 2014 to
5 percent of revenues in 2019.
FIAT CHRYSLER AUTOMOBILES
Localize production of Jeep vehicles in all geographic regions
by 2018; revive Alfa Romeo distinctive brand with new models;
increase platform sharing between Chrysler and Fiat brands;
increase total vehicle sales in the U.S. and NAFTA region from 19.9
million in 2014 to 21.1 million in 2018; increase total vehicle sales
in Asia Pacific and China from 27.6 million in 2014 to 33.4 million
in 2018; increase total vehicle sales in Europe, Middle East and
Africa from 21.4 million in 2014 to 24.2 million in 2018; increase
adjusted EBIT from €3.2 billion in 2013 to €8.7 billion–€9.8 billion
in 2018; increase adjusted net profit from €0.7 billion in 2013 to
€4.7 billion–€5.5 billion in 2018.
YUM! BRANDS (KFC, PIZZA HUT,
TACO BELL)
Decrease unit ownership by 70 percent from 2016 to achieve
98 percent franchise ownership by 2018; reduce annual capital
expenditures from $973 million in 2015 to $100 million by 2019;
achieve 70 percent increase in EPS from $2.20 in 2015 to $3.75 in
2019; add 1,000 new Taco Bell units in the United States by 2020;
increase Taco Bell revenues from $7 billion in 2012 to $14 billion
in 2022; achieve #2 ranking in quick service chicken in Western
Europe, the United Kingdom, and Australia; expand the number
of Pizza Hut locations in China by 300 percent by 2020; expand
digital ordering options in all quick service concepts; increase the
number of restaurant locations in India from 705 in 2013 to 2,000
by 2020.
Source: Information posted on company websites.
&Concepts Connections 2.3
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how actions currently under way will affect the company later. Specifically, long-term
objectives stand as a barrier to an undue focus on short-term results by nearsighted
management. When trade-offs have to be made between achieving long-run and short-
run objectives, long-run objectives should take precedence (unless the achievement of
one or more short-run performance targets has unique importance).
The Need for Objectives at All Organizational Levels Objective setting
should not stop with the establishment of companywide performance targets. Com-
pany objectives need to be broken into performance targets for each of the organiza-
tion’s separate businesses, product lines, functional departments, and individual work
units. Employees within various functional areas and operating levels will be guided
much better by narrow objectives relating directly to their departmental activities than
broad organizational-level goals. Objective setting is thus a top-down process that must
extend to the lowest organizational levels. And it means that each organizational unit
must take care to set performance targets that support—rather than conflict with or
negate—the achievement of companywide strategic and financial objectives.
Stage 3: Crafting a Strategy
Explain why the strategic initiatives taken at various organizational levels must be tightly
coordinated to achieve companywide performance targets.
LO2-3
As indicated earlier, the task of stitching a strategy together entails addressing a series
of hows: how to attract and please customers, how to compete against rivals, how to
position the company in the marketplace and capitalize on attractive opportunities to
grow the business, how best to respond to changing economic and market conditions,
how to manage each functional piece of the business, and how to achieve the company’s
performance targets. It also means choosing among the various strategic alternatives
and proactively searching for opportunities to do new things or to do existing things in
new or better ways.10
In choosing among opportunities and addressing the hows of strategy, strategists
must embrace the risks of uncertainty and the discomfort that naturally accompanies
such risks. Bold strategies involve making difficult choices and placing bets on the
future. Good strategic planning is not about eliminating risks, but increasing the odds
of success. In sorting through the possibilities of what the company should and should
not do, managers may conclude some opportunities are unrealistic or not sufficiently
attractive to pursue. However, innovative strategy making that results in a powerful cus-
tomer value proposition or pushes the company into new markets will likely require
the development of new resources and capabilities and force the company outside its
comfort zone.11
Strategy Formulation Involves Managers
at All Organizational Levels
In some enterprises, the CEO or owner functions as strategic visionary and chief archi-
tect of the strategy, personally deciding what the key elements of the company’s strat-
egy will be, although the CEO may seek the advice of key subordinates in fashioning
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26 Part 1 Section A: Introduction and Overview
In most companies, crafting strategy is a collab-
orative team effort that includes managers in
various positions and at various organizational
levels. Crafting strategy is rarely something only
high-level executives do.
Corporate strategy establishes an overall
game plan for managing a set of businesses in
a diversified, multibusiness company.
Business strategy is primarily concerned with
strengthening the company’s market position
and building competitive advantage in a single-
business company or a single business unit of a
diversified multibusiness corporation.
an overall strategy and deciding on important strategic
moves. However, it is a mistake to view strategy making
as a top management function—the exclusive province
of owner-entrepreneurs, CEOs, high-ranking executives,
and board members. The more a company’s operations
cut across different products, industries, and geographi-
cal areas, the more that headquarters executives have
little option but to delegate considerable strategy-making authority to down-the-line
managers. On-the-scene managers who oversee specific operating units are likely to
have a more detailed command of the strategic issues and choices for the particular
operating unit under their supervision—knowing the prevailing market and competitive
conditions, customer requirements and expectations, and all the other relevant aspects
affecting the several strategic options available.
A Company’s Strategy-Making Hierarchy
The larger and more diverse the operations of an enterprise, the more points of stra-
tegic initiative it will have and the more managers at different organizational levels
will have a relevant strategy-making role. In diversified companies, where multiple and
sometimes strikingly different businesses have to be managed, crafting a full-fledged
strategy involves four distinct types of strategic actions and initiatives, each undertaken
at different levels of the organization and partially or wholly crafted by managers at
different organizational levels, as shown in Figure 2.2. A company’s overall strategy
is therefore a collection of strategic initiatives and actions devised by managers up and
down the whole organizational hierarchy. Ideally, the pieces of a company’s strategy up
and down the strategy hierarchy should be cohesive and mutually reinforcing, fitting
together like a jigsaw puzzle.
As shown in Figure 2.2, corporate strategy is orchestrated by the CEO and other
senior executives and establishes an overall game plan for managing a set of businesses
in a diversified, multibusiness company. Corporate strategy addresses the questions of
how to capture cross-business synergies, what businesses to hold or divest, which new
markets to enter, and how to best enter new markets—by acquisition, by creation of a
strategic alliance, or through internal development. Corporate strategy and business
diversification are the subject of Chapter 8, where they are discussed in detail.
Business strategy is primarily concerned with building competitive advantage in
a single business unit of a diversified company or strengthening the market position
of a nondiversified single business company. Business strategy is also the responsibil-
ity of the CEO and other senior executives, but key business-unit heads may also be
influential, especially in strategic decisions affecting the
businesses they lead. In single-business companies, the
corporate and business levels of the strategy-making hier-
archy merge into a single level—business strategy—because
the strategy for the entire enterprise involves only one
distinct business. So, a single-business company has
three levels of strategy: business strategy, functional-area
strategies, and operating strategies.
Functional-area strategies concern the actions related
to particular functions or processes within a business.
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A company’s product development strategy, for example, represents the managerial
game plan for creating new products that are in tune with what buyers are looking for.
Lead responsibility for functional strategies within a business is normally delegated to
the heads of the respective functions, with the general manager of the business hav-
ing final approval over functional strategies. For the overall business strategy to have
maximum impact, a company’s marketing strategy, production strategy, finance strat-
egy, customer service strategy, product development strategy, and human resources
strategy should be compatible and mutually reinforcing rather than each serving its
own narrower purpose.
Operating strategies concern the relatively narrow strategic initiatives and
approaches for managing key operating units (plants, distribution centers, geographic
units) and specific operating activities such as materials purchasing or Internet sales.
Operating strategies are limited in scope but add further detail to functional-area
strategies and the overall business strategy. Lead responsibility for operating strate-
gies is usually delegated to frontline managers, subject to review and approval by
higher-ranking managers.
Two-Way Influence
Two-Way Influence
Orchestrated by the CEO
and senior executives of a
business, often with advice
and input from the heads
of functional-area activities
within the business and
other key people
Orchestrated by brand
managers; the operating managers
of plants, distribution centers, and
geographic units; and the
managers of strategically
important activities such as
advertising and website
operations, often in
collaboration with other
key people
Orchestrated by the heads
of major functional
activities within a business,
often in collaboration with
other key people
Business Strategy
• How to strengthen market position and
gain competitive advantage
• Actions to build competitive capabilities
Functional-Area Strategies
• Add relevant detail to the hows of overall business
strategy
• Provide a game plan for managing a particular
activity in ways that support the overall business
strategy
Operating Strategies
• Add detail and completeness to business and functional strategy
• Provide a game plan for managing specific lower-echelon
activities with strategic significance
Orchestrated by the
CEO and other
senior executives
In the case of a
single-business
company, these
two levels of the
strategy-making
pyramid merge
into one level—
business
strategy—that is
orchestrated by the
company’s CEO and other
top executives
The overall companywide
game plan for a managing a
set of businesses
Corporate Strategy
Two-Way Influence
FIGURE 2.2 A Company’s Strategy-Making Hierarchy
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28 Part 1 Section A: Introduction and Overview
Stage 4: Implementing and Executing
the Chosen Strategy
Recognize what a company must do to achieve operating excellence and to execute its strategy
proficiently.
LO2-4
Managing the implementation and execution of strategy is easily the most demanding
and time-consuming part of the strategic management process. Good strategy execution
entails that managers pay careful attention to how key internal business processes are
performed and see to it that employees’ efforts are directed toward the accomplishment
of desired operational outcomes. The task of implementing and executing the strategy
also necessitates an ongoing analysis of the efficiency and effectiveness of a company’s
internal activities and a managerial awareness of new technological developments that
might improve business processes. In most situations, managing the strategy execution
process includes the following principal aspects:
• Staffing the organization to provide needed skills and expertise.
• Allocating ample resources to activities critical to good strategy execution.
• Ensuring that policies and procedures facilitate rather than impede effective
execution.
• Installing information and operating systems that enable company personnel to
perform essential activities.
• Pushing for continuous improvement in how value chain activities are performed.
• Tying rewards and incentives directly to the achievement of performance
objectives.
• Creating a company culture and work climate conducive to successful strategy
execution.
• Exerting the internal leadership needed to propel implementation forward.
Stage 5: Evaluating Performance and Initiating
Corrective Adjustments
The fifth stage of the strategy management process—evaluating and analyzing the exter-
nal environment and the company’s internal situation and performance to identify
needed corrective adjustments—is the trigger point for deciding whether to continue
or change the company’s vision, objectives, strategy, and/or strategy execution meth-
ods. So long as the company’s direction and strategy seem well matched to industry
and competitive conditions and performance targets are being met, company execu-
tives may well decide to stay the course. Simply fine-
tuning the strategic plan and continuing with efforts to
improve strategy execution are sufficient.
But whenever a company encounters disruptive
changes in its environment, questions need to be raised
about the appropriateness of its direction and strategy.
A company’s vision, objectives, strategy, and
approach to strategy execution are never final;
managing strategy is an ongoing process, not
an every-now-and-then task.
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If a company experiences a downturn in its market position or persistent shortfalls in
performance, then company managers are obligated to ferret out the causes—do they
relate to poor strategy, poor strategy execution, or both?—and take timely corrective
action. A company’s direction, objectives, and strategy have to be revisited any time
external or internal conditions warrant.
Also, it is not unusual for a company to find that one or more aspects of its strategy
implementation and execution are not going as well as intended. Proficient strategy exe-
cution is always the product of much organizational learning. It is achieved unevenly—
coming quickly in some areas and proving nettlesome in others. Successful strategy
execution entails vigilantly searching for ways to improve and then making corrective
adjustments whenever and wherever it is useful to do so.
Corporate Governance: The Role of the Board of
Directors in the Strategy Formulation, Strategy
Execution Process
Although senior managers have lead responsibility for crafting and executing a com-
pany’s strategy, it is the duty of the board of directors to exercise strong oversight and
see that the five tasks of strategic management are done in a manner that benefits
shareholders (in the case of investor-owned enterprises) or stakeholders (in the case
of not-for-profit organizations). In watching over management’s strategy formulation,
strategy execution actions, a company’s board of directors has four important corporate
governance obligations to fulfill:
Identify the role and responsibility of a company’s board of directors in overseeing the strategic
management process.
LO2-5
1. Oversee the company’s financial accounting and financial reporting practices. While
top management, particularly the company’s CEO and CFO (chief financial offi-
cer), is primarily responsible for seeing that the company’s financial statements
accurately report the results of the company’s operations, board members have
a fiduciary duty to protect shareholders by exercising oversight of the company’s
financial practices. In addition, corporate boards must ensure that generally
acceptable accounting principles (GAAP) are properly used in preparing the
company’s financial statements and determine whether proper financial controls
are in place to prevent fraud and misuse of funds. Virtually all boards of directors
monitor the financial reporting activities by appointing an audit committee, always
composed entirely of outside directors (inside directors hold management positions
in the company and either directly or indirectly report to the CEO). The members
of the audit committee have lead responsibility for overseeing the decisions of the
company’s financial officers and consulting with both internal and external audi-
tors to ensure that financial reports are accurate and adequate financial controls
are in place.
2. Diligently critique and oversee the company’s direction, strategy, and business
approaches. Even though board members have a legal obligation to warrant the
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30 Part 1 Section A: Introduction and Overview
accuracy of the company’s financial reports, directors must set aside time to guide
management in choosing a strategic direction and to make independent judgments
about the validity and wisdom of management’s proposed strategic actions. Many
boards have found that meeting agendas become consumed by compliance matters
and little time is left to discuss matters of strategic importance. The board of direc-
tors and management at Philips Electronics hold annual two- to three-day retreats
devoted to evaluating the company’s long-term direction and various strategic
proposals. The company’s exit from the semiconductor business and its increased
focus on medical technology and home health care resulted from management–
board discussions during such retreats.12
3. Evaluate the caliber of senior executives’ strategy formulation and strategy execution
skills. The board is always responsible for determining whether the current CEO
is doing a good job of strategic leadership and whether senior management is
actively creating a pool of potential successors to the CEO and other top execu-
tives.13 Evaluation of senior executives’ strategy formulation and strategy execution
skills is enhanced when outside directors go into the field to personally evalu-
ate how well the strategy is being executed. Independent board members at GE
visit operating executives at each major business unit once per year to assess the
company’s talent pool and stay abreast of emerging strategic and operating issues
affecting the company’s divisions. Home Depot board members visit a store once
per quarter to determine the health of the company’s operations.14
4. Institute a compensation plan for top executives that rewards them for actions and
results that serve shareholder interests. A basic principle of corporate governance
is that the owners of a corporation delegate operating authority and managerial
control to top management in return for compensation. In their role as an agent of
shareholders, top executives have a clear and unequivocal duty to make decisions
and operate the company in accord with shareholder interests (but this does not
mean disregarding the interests of other stakeholders, particularly those of employ-
ees, with whom they also have an agency relationship). Most boards of directors
have a compensation committee, composed entirely of directors from outside the
company, to develop a salary and incentive compensation plan that rewards senior
executives for boosting the company’s long-term performance and growing the eco-
nomic value of the enterprise on behalf of shareholders; the compensation com-
mittee’s recommendations are presented to the full board for approval.
But during the past 10 to 15 years, many boards of directors have done a poor
job of ensuring that executive salary increases, bonuses, and stock option awards are
tied tightly to performance measures that are truly in the long-term interests of share-
holders. Rather, compensation packages at many companies have rewarded execu-
tives for short-term performance improvements—most notably, achieving quarterly and
annual earnings targets and boosting the stock price by specified percentages. This
has had the perverse effect of causing company managers to become preoccupied
with actions to improve a company’s near-term performance, even if excessively risky
and damaging to long-term company performance. As a consequence, the need to
overhaul and reform executive compensation has become a hot topic in both pub-
lic circles and corporate boardrooms. Concepts & Connections 2.4 discusses how
weak governance at Volkswagen contributed to the 2015 emissions cheating scandal,
which cost the company billions of dollars and the trust of its stakeholders.
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Every corporation should have a strong, independent board of directors that (1)
is well informed about the company’s performance, (2) guides and judges the CEO
and other top executives, (3) has the courage to curb management actions it believes
are inappropriate or unduly risky, (4) certifies to shareholders that the CEO is doing
CORPORATE GOVERNANCE FAILURES AT VOLKSWAGEN
In 2015, Volkswagen admitted to installing “defeat devices” on
at least 11 million vehicles with diesel engines. These devices
enabled the cars to pass emission tests, even though the engines
actually emitted pollutants up to 40 times above what is allowed
in the United States. Current estimates are that it will cost the com-
pany at least €7 billion to cover the cost of repairs and lawsuits.
Although management must have been involved in approving the
use of cheating devices, the Volkswagen supervisory board has
been unwilling to accept any responsibility. Some board members
even questioned whether it was the board’s responsibility to be
aware of such problems, stating “matters of technical expertise
were not for us” and “the scandal had nothing, not one iota, to do
with the advisory board.” Yet governing boards do have a respon-
sibility to be well informed, to provide oversight, and to become
involved in key decisions and actions. So what caused this corpo-
rate governance failure? Why is this the third time in the past 20
years that Volkswagen has been embroiled in scandal?
The key feature of Volkswagen’s board that appears to have
led to these issues is a lack of independent directors. However,
before explaining this in more detail it is important to understand
the German governance model. German corporations operate
two-tier governance structures, with a management board and
a separate supervisory board that does not contain any current
executives. In addition, German law requires large companies
to have at least 50 percent supervisory board representation
from workers. This structure is meant to provide more oversight
by independent board members and greater involvement by a
wider set of stakeholders.
In Volkswagen’s case, these objectives have been effectively
circumvented. Although Volkswagen’s supervisory board does
not include any current management, the chairmanship appears
to be a revolving door of former senior executives. Ferdinand
Piëch, the chair during the scandal, was CEO for nine years prior
to becoming chair in 2002. Martin Winterkorn, the recently
ousted CEO, was expected to become supervisory board chair
prior to the scandal. The company continues to elevate manage-
ment to the supervisory board even though they have presided
over past scandals. Hans Dieter Poetsch, the newly appointed
chair, was part of the management team that did not inform the
supervisory board of the EPA investigation for two weeks.
VW also has a unique ownership structure where a single
family, Porsche, controls more than 50 percent of voting shares.
Piëch, a family member and chair until 2015, forced out CEOs and
installed unqualified family members on the board, such as his
former nanny and current wife. He also pushed out independent-
minded board members, such as Gerhard Cromme, author of
Germany’s corporate governance code. The company has lost
numerous independent directors over the past 10 years, leav-
ing it with only one non-shareholder, non-labor repre-
sentative. Although Piëch has now been removed, it is
unclear that Volkswagen’s board has solved the under-
lying problem. Shareholders have seen billions of dol-
lars wiped away and the Volkswagen brand tarnished.
As long as the board continues to lack independent
directors, change will likely be slow.
Note: Developed with Jacob M. Crandall.
Sources: “Piëch under Fire,” The Economist, December 8,
2005; Chris Bryant and Richard Milne, “Boardroom Politics
at Heart of VW Scandal,” Financial Times, October 4, 2015;
Andreas Cremer and Jan Schwartz, “Volkswagen Mired in
Crisis as Board Members Criticize Piech,” Reuters, April 24,
2015; Richard Milne, “Volkswagen: System Failure,” Finan-
cial Times, November 4, 2015.
R&P: ©AR Pictures/Shutterstock
&Concepts Connections 2.4
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32 Part 1 Section A: Introduction and Overview
KEY POINTS
The strategic management process consists of five interrelated and integrated stages:
1. Developing a strategic vision of the company’s future, a mission statement that defines the
company’s current purpose, and a set of core values to guide the pursuit of the vision and
mission. This stage of strategy making provides direction for the company, motivates and
inspires company personnel, aligns and guides actions throughout the organization, and com-
municates to stakeholders management’s aspirations for the company’s future.
2. Setting objectives and using the targeted results as yardsticks for measuring the company’s
performance. Objectives need to spell out how much of what kind of performance by when.
A balanced scorecard approach for measuring company performance entails setting both
financial objectives and strategic objectives. Stretch objectives spur exceptional performance
and help build a firewall against complacency and mediocre performance. A company
exhibits strategic intent when it relentlessly pursues an ambitious strategic objective,
concentrating the full force of its resources and competitive actions on achieving that
objective.
3. Crafting a strategy to achieve the objectives and move the company along the strategic course
that management has charted. The total strategy that emerges is really a collection of
strategic actions and business approaches initiated partly by senior company executives,
partly by the heads of major business divisions, partly by functional-area managers, and
partly by operating managers on the front lines. A single business enterprise has three lev-
els of strategy—business strategy for the company as a whole, functional-area strategies for
each main area within the business, and operating strategies undertaken by lower-echelon
managers. In diversified, multibusiness companies, the strategy-making task involves four
distinct types or levels of strategy: corporate strategy for the company as a whole, business
strategy (one for each business the company has diversified into), functional-area strategies
within each business, and operating strategies. Typically, the strategy-making task is more
top-down than bottom-up, with higher-level strategies serving as the guide for developing
lower-level strategies.
4. Implementing and executing the chosen strategy efficiently and effectively. Managing the
implementation and execution of strategy is an operations-oriented, make-things-happen
activity aimed at shaping the performance of core business activities in a strategy support-
ive manner. Management’s handling of the strategy implementation process can be consid-
ered successful if things go smoothly enough that the company meets or beats its strategic
and financial performance targets and shows good progress in achieving management’s
strategic vision.
5. Evaluating and analyzing the external environment and the company’s internal situation and
performance to identify corrective adjustments in vision, objectives, strategy, or execution.
This stage of the strategy management process is the trigger point for deciding whether to
what the board expects, (5) provides insight and advice to management, and (6) is
intensely involved in debating the pros and cons of key decisions and actions.15 Boards
of directors that lack the backbone to challenge a strong-willed or “imperial” CEO or
that rubber-stamp most anything the CEO recommends without probing inquiry and
debate abandon their duty to represent and protect shareholder interests.
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2. Go to the company investor relations websites for Starbucks (investor.starbucks.com),
Pfizer (www.pfizer.com/investors), and Salesforce (investor.salesforce.com) to find
examples of strategic and financial objectives. List four objectives for each company, and
indicate which of these are strategic and which are financial.
3. Boeing has been recognized by Forbes and other business publications as one of
the world’s best managed companies. The company discusses how its people and
LO2-2
LO2-3
continue or change the company’s vision, objectives, strategy, and/or strategy execution
methods.
The sum of a company’s strategic vision, objectives, and strategy constitutes a strategic plan.
Boards of directors have a duty to shareholders to play a vigilant role in overseeing management’s
handling of a company’s strategy formulation, strategy execution process. A company’s board
is obligated to (1) ensure that the company issues accurate financial reports and has adequate
financial controls, (2) critically appraise and ultimately approve strategic action plans, (3) evalu-
ate the strategic leadership skills of the CEO, and (4) institute a compensation plan for top
executives that rewards them for actions and results that serve stakeholder interests, most espe-
cially those of shareholders.
ASSURANCE OF LEARNING EXERCISES
1. Using the information in Tables 2.2 and 2.3, critique the adequacy and merit of the follow
ing vision statements, listing effective elements and shortcomings. Rank the vision state-
ments from best to worst once you complete your evaluation.
LO2-1
VISION STATEMENT Effective Elements Shortcomings
American Express
We work hard every day to make American Express the world’s most respected service brand.
Hilton Hotels Corporation
Our vision is to be the first choice of the world’s travelers. Hilton intends to build on the rich heritage and
strength of our brands by:
• Consistently delighting our customers
• Investing in our team members
• Delivering innovative products and services
• Continuously improving performance
• Increasing shareholder value
• Creating a culture of pride
• Strengthening the loyalty of our constituents
MasterCard
A world beyond cash.
BASF
We are “The Chemical Company” successfully operating in all major markets.
• Our customers view BASF as their partner of choice.
• Our innovative products, intelligent solutions and services make us the most competent world-
wide supplier in the chemical industry.
• We generate a high return on assets.
• We strive for sustainable development.
• We welcome change as an opportunity.
• We, the employees of BASF, together ensure our success.
Source: Company websites and annual reports.
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34 Part 1 Section A: Introduction and Overview
organizational units bring to bear the “best of Boeing” to its customers in 150 countries at
www.boeing.com/company. Prepare a one- to two-page report that explains how the com-
pany has become a leader in commercial aviation through tight coordination of strategic
initiatives at various organizational levels and functional areas.
4. Go to the investor relations website for Walmart Stores, Inc., (http://investors.walmartstores.
com) and review past presentations it has made during various investor conferences by click-
ing on the Events option in the navigation bar. Prepare a one- to two-page report that outlines
what Walmart has said to investors about its approach to strategy execution. Specifically,
what has management discussed concerning staffing, resource allocation, policies and proce-
dures, information and operating systems, continuous improvement, rewards and incentives,
corporate culture, and internal leadership at the company?
5. Based on the information provided in Concepts & Connections 2.4, describe the ways in
which Volkswagen did not fulfill the requirements of effective corporate governance. In
what ways did the board of directors sidestep its obligations to protect shareholder inter-
ests? How could Volkswagen better select its board of directors to avoid mistakes such as
the emissions scandal in 2015?
EXERCISES FOR SIMULATION PARTICIPANTS
1. Meet with your co-managers and prepare a strategic vision statement for your company.
It should be at least one sentence long and no longer than a brief paragraph. When you
are finished, check to see if your vision statement meets the conditions for an effectively
worded strategic vision set forth in Table 2.2 and avoids the shortcomings set forth in
Table 2.3. If not, then revise it accordingly. What would be a good slogan that captures the
essence of your strategic vision and that could be used to help communicate the vision to
company personnel, shareholders, and other stakeholders?
2. What are your company’s financial objectives? What are your company’s strategic
objectives?
3. What are the three or four key elements of your company’s strategy?
LO2-4
LO2-5
LO2-2
LO2-3
LO2-1
1. Gordon Shaw, Robert Brown, and Philip
Bromiley, “Strategic Stories: How 3M Is
Rewriting Business Planning,” Harvard
Business Review 76, no. 3 (May–June
1998); David J. Collins and Michael
G. Rukstad, “Can You Say What Your
Strategy Is?” Harvard Business Review
86, no. 4 (April 2008).
2. Hugh Davidson, The Committed Enter-
prise: How to Make Vision and Values
Work (Oxford: Butterworth Heine-
mann, 2002); W. Chan Kim and Renée
Mauborgne, “Charting Your Company’s
Future,” Harvard Business Review 80,
no. 6 (June 2002); James C. Collins and
Jerry I. Porras, “Building Your Com-
pany’s Vision,” Harvard Business Review
74, no. 5 (September–October 1996);
Jim Collins and Jerry Porras, Built
to Last: Successful Habits of Visionary
Companies (New York: HarperCollins,
1994); Michel Robert, Strategy Pure
and Simple II: How Winning Companies
Dominate Their Competitors (New York:
McGraw-Hill, 1998).
3. Hugh Davidson, The Committed Enter-
prise (Oxford: Butterworth Heinemann,
2002).
4. Ibid.
5. Robert S. Kaplan and David P. Norton,
The Strategy-Focused Organization
(Boston: Harvard Business School
Press, 2001).
6. Ibid. Also, see Robert S. Kaplan
and David P. Norton, The Balanced
Scorecard: Translating Strategy into Action
(Boston: Harvard Business School
Press, 1996); Kevin B. Hendricks, Larry
Menor, and Christine Wiedman, “The
Balanced Scorecard: To Adopt or Not
to Adopt,” Ivey Business Journal 69, no.
2 (November–December 2004); Sandy
Richardson, “The Key Elements of
Balanced Scorecard Success,” Ivey
Business Journal 69, no. 2 (November–
December 2004).
7. Kaplan and Norton, The Balanced Score-
card: Translating Strategy into Action,
pp. 25–29. Kaplan and Norton classify
strategic objectives under the categories
of customer-related, business processes,
and learning and growth. In practice,
companies using the balanced scorecard
ENDNOTES
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Chapter 2 Strategy Formulation, Execution, and Governance 35
gam27636_ch02_013-035.indd 35 01/09/18 07:39 PM
may choose categories of strategic objec-
tives that best reflect the organization’s
value-creating activities and processes.
8. Information posted on the web-
site of Bain and Company,
www.bain.com (accessed May 27, 2011).
9. Information posted on the website of
Balanced Scorecard Institute (accessed
May 27, 2011).
10. Henry Mintzberg, Bruce Ahlstrand,
and Joseph Lampel, Strategy Safari: A
Guided Tour Through the Wilds of Strate-
gic Management (New York: Free Press,
1998); Bruce Barringer and Allen C.
Bluedorn, “The Relationship Between
Corporate Entrepreneurship and Strate-
gic Management,” Strategic Management
Journal 20 (1999); Jeffrey G. Covin and
Morgan P. Miles, “Corporate Entre-
preneurship and the Pursuit of Com-
petitive Advantage,” Entrepreneurship:
Theory and Practice 23, no. 3 (Spring
1999); David A. Garvin and Lynne C.
Levesque, “Meeting the Challenge of
Corporate Entrepreneurship,” Harvard
Business Review 84, no. 10 (October
2006).
11. Roger L. Martin, “The Big Lie of
Strategic Planning,” Harvard Business
Review 92, no. 1/2 (January–February
2014), pp. 78–84.
12. Jay W. Lorsch and Robert C. Clark,
“Leading from the Boardroom,” Harvard
Business Review 86, no. 4 (April 2008).
13. Ibid., p. 110.
14. Stephen P. Kaufman, “Evaluating the
CEO,” Harvard Business Review 86, no.
10 (October 2008).
15. David A. Nadler, “Building Better
Boards,” Harvard Business Review 82,
no. 5 (May 2004); Cynthia A. Mont-
gomery and Rhonda Kaufman, “The
Board’s Missing Link,” Harvard Business
Review 81, no. 3 (March 2003); John
Carver, “What Continues to Be Wrong
with Corporate Governance and How to
Fix It,” Ivey Business Journal 68, no. 1
(September/October 2003); Gordon
Donaldson, “A New Tool for Boards:
The Strategic Audit,” Harvard Business
Review 73, no. 4 (July–August 1995).
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