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ASSIGNMENT 1: Word Journal (Chapters 5, 6)

10 points

Word Journal – Select one concept or theory from Chapter 5 and one concept or theory from Chapter 6 and summarize each concept or theory using one word. Please include the page #.

Next, explain in a short paragraph why you selected the word to describe the concept or theory you selected from each of the 2 chapters.

Your final work would be the word you selected and a short paragraph explaining why you selected the word to describe the concept or theory for each of the 2 chapters (two short paragraphs).

Copyright © 2018 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Copyright © 2018 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

ESSENTIALS OF LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT, 5e
JOHN W. SANTROCK
SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY
4

Chapter Outline
Emotional and personality development
Social orientation and attachment
Social contexts

Emotional and Personality Development
Emotions: Feeling, or affect, that occurs when a person is in a state or interaction that is important to him or her
Play important roles in:
Communication with others
Behavioral organization
Range of positive and negative emotions

Emotional and Personality Development
Biological and environmental influences
Facial expressions of basic emotions same across cultures
Emotion-linked interchange provides foundation for the infant’s developing attachment to the parent
Social relationships
Provide the setting for the development of a rich variety of emotions
Display rules are not universal
Govern when, where, and how emotions should be expressed

Figure 4.1 – Expression of Different Emotions in Infants

Emotional and Personality Development
Early emotions
Emotions expressed during first 6 months of life
Surprise, interest, joy, anger, sadness, fear, disgust
Self-conscious emotions develop later in infancy
Jealousy, empathy, embarrassment, pride, shame, guilt
Emotional expressions and relationships
Infants’ emotional communications permit coordinated interactions with caregivers
Beginnings of emotional bonds

Emotional and Personality Development
Crying
Basic cry: Rhythmic pattern usually consisting of:
A cry
Briefer silence
Shorter inspiratory whistle that is higher pitched than the main cry
Brief rest before the next cry
Anger cry: Variation of the basic cry, with more excess air forced through the vocal cords
Pain cry: Sudden long, initial loud cry followed by breath holding

Emotional and Personality Development
Smiling
Reflexive smile: Smile that does not occur in response to external stimuli
Social smile: Smile in response to an external stimulus
Fear
Stranger anxiety: Fear and wariness of strangers
Separation protest: Distressed crying when the caregiver leaves
Social referencing
“Reading” emotional cues in others to help determine how to act in a particular situation
Helps infants interpret ambiguous situations more accurately

Emotional and Personality Development
Emotion regulation and coping
Infants gradually develop an ability to inhibit, or minimize, the intensity and duration of emotional reactions
Caregivers’ actions and contexts can influence emotional regulation
Soothing modulates emotions, reduces level of stress hormones
Later, infants redirect or distract themselves to reduce arousal levels

Emotional and Personality Development
Temperament: Individual differences in behavioral styles, emotions, and characteristic ways of responding
How quickly emotion is shown, how strong it is, how long it lasts, how quickly it fades away
Emotional reactivity and self-regulation
Speed and intensity, positive or negative emotions
Extent or effectiveness of an individual’s control over emotions

Emotional and Personality Development
Chess and Thomas’ classifications
Easy child
Generally in a positive mood
Quickly establishes regular routines in infancy
Adapts easily to new experiences
Difficult child
Reacts negatively and cries frequently
Engages in irregular daily routines
Slow to accept change
Slow-to-warm-up child
Low activity level
Somewhat negative
Displays a low intensity of mood

Emotional and Personality Development
Kagan’s Behavioral Inhibition
Inhibition to the unfamiliar – shyness with strangers (peers or adults)
Rothbart & Bates’ Classification
Effortful control (Self-Regulation)
Bates & Pettit
Development of temperament such as effortful control allows individual differences to emerge

Emotional and Personality Development
Biological foundations and experience
Physiological influences
Gender and cultural influences
Parents may react differently to an infant’s temperament depending on gender
Cultural differences in temperament were linked to parental attitude and behaviors
Goodness of fit: Match between a child’s temperament and the environmental demands the child must cope with
Lack of fit may produce adjustment problems

Emotional and Personality Development
Trust
Erikson’s trust vs mistrust stage
Developing sense of self
Self-recognition
Self-awareness – emerging sense of “me”
Independence
Erikson’s autonomy versus shame and doubt stage

Social Orientation and Attachment
Social orientation
Face-to-face play
Increasing levels of interaction with peers
Locomotion
As infants develop ability to crawl, walk, and run, they are able to explore and expand their social world
Intention, goal-directed behavior, and cooperation
Joint attention
Gaze-following

Social Orientation and Attachment
Attachment: Close emotional bond between two people
Freud – Infants become attached to the person that provides oral satisfaction
Harlow – Contact comfort preferred over food
Erikson – Trust arises from physical comfort and sensitive care
Bowlby – Four phases of attachment
Phase 1: From birth to 2 months – Attachment to human figures
Phase 2: From 2 to 7 months – Focus on one figure
Phase 3: From 7 to 24 months – Specific attachments develop
Phase 4: From 24 months on – Become aware of others’ feelings

Social Orientation and Attachment
Strange Situation
Observational measure of infant attachment
Infant move through a series of:
Introductions
Separations
Reunions with the caregiver and an adult stranger in a prescribed order
Provides information about infant’s motivation to be near caregiver and degree to which caregiver’s presence provides security and confidence

Social Orientation and Attachment
Attachment styles:
Securely attached babies: Use the caregiver as a secure base from which to explore the environment
Insecure avoidant babies: Avoid the caregiver
Insecure resistant babies: Cling to the caregiver, then resist the caregiver by fighting against the closeness
Insecure disorganized babies: Appear dazed, confused, and fearful

Social Orientation and Attachment
Developmental cascade model
Connections across domains over time that influence developmental pathways and outcomes
Biological, cognitive, and socioemotional processes
Involve social contexts like families, peers, schools, culture
Can produce positive or negative outcomes at different points of development

Social Orientation and Attachment
Caregiving styles and attachment
Caregiver sensitivity linked to secure attachment
Caregivers of insecurely attached infants (avoidant, resistant, and disorganized) tend to be rejecting, inconsistent, or abusive

Social Contexts
The family
Constellation of subsystems defined by generation, gender, and role
Subsystems have reciprocal influences on each other
Transition to parenthood
New parents face disequilibrium and must adapt to it
Developing strong attachment to infant, maintaining connections with partner and friends, careers

Figure 4.6 – Interaction Between Children and Their Parents: Direct and Indirect Effects

Social Contexts
Reciprocal socialization
Bidirectional – children socialize parents, just as parents socialize children
Scaffolding: Parents time interactions so that infants receive support when it is needed to advance a skill
Used to support children’s efforts at any age

Social Contexts
Managing and guiding infants’ behavior
Attempts to reduce or eliminate undesirable behaviors, include:
Being proactive and childproofing the environment
Engaging in corrective methods
Use of discipline and corrective methods
Special concerns that corrective discipline does not become abusive

Figure 4.7 – Parents’ Methods for Managing and Correcting Infants’ Undesirable Behavior

Social Contexts
Maternal and paternal caregiving
Mothers still spend considerably more time in caregiving than fathers
More likely to engage in managerial role with children
Paternal interactions tend to be play-centered
Increasing number of full-time stay-at-home fathers in U.S.
Stay-at-home fathers as satisfied with marriage as traditional parents
But do miss daily workplace life
Tend to be ostracized, excluded from play groups

Social Contexts
Child care
Many children in the U.S. experience multiple caregivers
Includes child care provided by others
Parental leave
Many U.S. adults do not receive paid leave to care for young children
Child care policies vary across the world
European Union mandated 14 week paid maternity leave in 1992
U.S. currently allows up to 12 weeks of unpaid leave for parents who are caring for a newborn

Social Contexts
Variations in child care
Factors that influence the effects of child care include:
Age of the child
Type of child care
Quality of the program
Type of child care varies extensively
Large centers
Private homes
Commercial operations and nonprofit centers
Child care providers can be professionals or untrained adults

Figure 4.8 – Primary Care Arrangements in the U.S. for Children Under 5 Years of Age with Employed Mothers

Social Contexts
High-quality child care includes:
Active engagement in variety of activities
Frequent, positive interactions with child
Encouraging child to talk about experiences, feelings, and ideas
Safe environment
Age-appropriate toys and activities
Low caregiver-child ratio

Social Contexts
Strategies parents can follow in regard to child care:
Recognize that the quality of your parenting is a key factor in your child’s development
Make decisions that will improve the likelihood that you will be good parents
Monitor your child’s development
Take time to find the best child care

ESSENTIALS OF LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT, 5e
JOHN W. SANTROCK
Physical and Cognitive Development in Early Childhood
5

Chapter Outline
Physical changes
Cognitive changes
Language development
Early childhood education

Physical Changes
Body growth and change
Average growth is 2½ inches and 5-7 pounds per year
Gender differences
Girls are slightly smaller and lighter than boys
Girls have more fatty tissue, boys have more muscle tissue
Trunk of the body lengths
Body fat shows a slow, steady decline

Physical Changes
The brain
Continuing development of brain and nervous system
Increasing brain maturation linked to emerging cognitive abilities
Rapid, distinct growth spurts
Most rapid growth in the prefrontal cortex from 3-6 years

Physical Changes
Myelination: Process through which axons are covered with a layer of fat cells
Increases speed and efficiency of information traveling through the nervous system
Linked to attention, hand-eye coordination, higher-level thinking skills
Children with higher cognitive ability showed increased myelination by 3 years of age
Poverty and parenting are linked to the development of the brain
Higher levels of maternal sensitivity in early childhood associated with higher total brain volume

Figure 5.1 – The Prefrontal Cortex

Physical Changes
Gross motor skills
Simple movements at age 3
More adventurous at age 4
Hair-raising risks at age 5
Fine motor skills
Still clumsy at 3 years
More precise fine motor coordination at 4 years
Coordination continues to improve by 5 years

Physical Changes
Overweight young children
Serious health problems in early childhood
Strongly influenced by caregivers’ behavior
Determined by body mass index
U.S. has second highest rate of childhood obesity
Viewing as little as one hour of television daily was associated with an increase in body mass index (BMI) between kindergarten and first grade
Malnutrition
When mothers participate in prenatal and early childhood WIC programs, young children showed short-term cognitive benefits
Children showed longer-term reading and math benefits

Physical Changes
Exercise
Guideline: young children get average of 15 or more minutes physical activity per hour over a 12-hour period
Or about 3 hours per day total
Vigorous physical activity linked to lower probability of being overweight or obese
Sixty minutes of physical activity per day in preschool academic contexts improved early literacy

Physical Changes
Illness and death
Leading causes of death in early childhood in U.S. are:
Accidents
Cancer
Cardiovascular disease
Safety influenced by:
Children’s own skills and safety-related behaviors
Characteristics of their family, home, school, peers, and community
Parental smoking is a major danger to children’s health

Figure 5.2 – Characteristics That Enhance Young Children’s Safety

Cognitive Changes
Piaget’s Preoperational Stage (ages 2-7)
Children represent the world with words, images, and drawings
Children form stable concepts and begin to reason
Cognitions are dominated by egocentrism and magical beliefs
Children do not yet perform operations – reversible mental actions

Cognitive Changes
Symbolic function substage (ages 2-4): Child gains the ability to mentally represent an object that is not present
Two important limitations:
Egocentrism: Inability to distinguish one’s own perspective from someone else’s
Animism: Belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities and are capable of action

Figure 5.3 – The Three Mountains Task

Cognitive Changes
Intuitive thought substage (ages 4-7): Children use primitive reasoning and want to know the answers to questions
“Why?” questions signify an interest in reasoning
Two important limitations:
Centration: Centering attention on one characteristic to the exclusion of all others
Conservation: Altering a substance’s appearance does not change its basic properties

Figure 5.4 – Piaget’s Conservation Task

Figure 5.5 – Some Dimensions of Conservation: Number, Matter, and Length

Cognitive Changes
Vygotsky’s social constructivist approach
Emphasizes social contexts of learning
Construction of knowledge through social interaction
Zone of proximal development (ZPD): Range of tasks that are too difficult for the child alone but that can be learned with guidance
Scaffolding – Changing the level of support
More-skilled person adjusts amount of support to fit child’s current performance level

Cognitive Changes
Language and thought
Children use speech to communicate socially and to help them solve tasks
Private speech – Use of language for self-regulation
Important tool of thought during early childhood
Children internalize inner speech, which becomes their thoughts
More private speech = more social competence

Figure 5.7 – Comparison of Vygotsky’s and Piaget’s Theories

Cognitive Changes
Evaluating Vygotsky’s theory
Vygotsky was not specific enough about age-related changes
Overemphasized the role of language in thinking
How much is too much collaboration and guidance?

Cognitive Changes
Attention – Focusing of mental resources on select information
Executive attention:
Action planning
Allocating attention to goals
Error detection and compensation
Monitoring progress on tasks
Dealing with novel or difficult circumstances
Sustained attention: Focused and extended engagement with object, task, event, or other aspect of the environment
Children make advances in both forms of attention
Greatest increase in sustained attention during early childhood

Cognitive Changes
Deficiencies in attention
Salient versus relevant dimensions
Planfulness
Ability to control and sustain attention is related to school readiness

Cognitive Changes
Memory – Retention of information over time
Short-term memory: Individuals can retain information up to 30 seconds with no rehearsal
Increases during early childhood
Assessed with memory span task
Myelination in a number of brain areas was linked to young children’s processing speed
Memory span increases with age
Rehearsal – repeating information after it has been presented
Used more often as a memory strategy among older children
Speed and efficiency of processing also increases memory span

Figure 5.8 – Developmental Changes in Memory Span

Cognitive Changes
How accurate are young children’s long-term memories?
Age differences in children’s susceptibility to suggestion
Individual differences in susceptibility
Interviewing techniques can produce substantial distortions in children’s reports about highly salient events
Autobiographical memory
Memory of significant events and experiences in one’s life
Young children’s memories take on more autobiographical characteristics

Cognitive Changes
Executive function (EF):
Umbrella-like concept that encompasses higher-level cognitive processes:
Managing one’s thoughts to engage in goal-directed behavior and self control
Secure attachment to mother during toddler years linked to higher levels of EF at 5 to 6 years of age
High levels of control by fathers predicted a lower level of EF in 3-year-olds
Peer problems in early childhood was linked to lower EF later in adulthood

Cognitive Changes
In early childhood, there are developmental advances in:
Cognitive inhibition
Cognitive flexibility
Goal-setting
Delay of gratification
Emergent literacy and vocabulary development
Advances in executive function linked to school readiness

Cognitive Changes
Sustained Attention: involves focused and extended engagement with an object, task, event, or other aspect of the environment
Preschool sustained attention was liked to a greater linked to a greater likelihood of completing college at 25 years of age

Cognitive Changes
Theory of mind: Awareness of one’s own mental process and the mental processes of others
Ages 2 to 3 – Children begin to understand the following three mental states:
Perceptions
Emotions
Desires
Ages 4-5
Realization that others have false beliefs
Individual differences
Prefrontal cortex function and various aspects of social interaction
Secure attachment
Mental state talk
Having older siblings
Friends who engage in mental state talk

Figure 5.10 – Developmental Changes in False-Belief Performance

Cognitive Changes
Individual differences in ages in which children reach milestones of theory of mind
Parents who talk to children about feelings frequently
Children with autism
Symbolic skills
Language development

Language Development
Phonology: Sound system of a language, including the sounds used and how they may be combined
During preschool years, children:
Become sensitive to the sounds of spoken words
Produce all the sounds of their language
Demonstrate a knowledge of morphology rules
Use plurals, possessives, prepositions, articles, and verb forms
Morphology: Units of meaning involved in word formation

Language Development
Learn and apply rules of syntax
Syntax: Involves the way words are combined to form acceptable phrases and sentences
Growing mastery of complex rules for how words should be ordered
Semantics: Meaning of words and sentences
Pragmatics: Appropriate use of language in different contexts

Language Development
Young children’s literacy
Parents and teachers provide supportive atmosphere for developing literacy skills
Children should participate in a wide range of listening, talking, writing, and reading experiences
Instruction should be built on what children already know about language, reading, and writing
Strategies for using books effectively with preschool children
Use books to initiate conversation
Use what and why questions
Encourage children to ask questions about stories
Choose some books that play with language

Early Childhood Education
Child-centered kindergarten
Emphasizes education of the whole child and promoting physical, cognitive, and socioemotional development
Principles of child-centered kindergarten:
Each child follows unique developmental pattern
Learn best through firsthand experiences with people and materials
Play is important in child’s total development

Early Childhood Education
Montessori approach
Child is given freedom and spontaneity in choosing activities
Seeks to develop “self-regulated problem solvers who can make choices and manage time effectively”
Deemphasizes verbal interactions in socioemotional development
Developmentally appropriate practice (DAP)
Based on typical developmental patterns of children within a particular age span (age-appropriateness)
Uniqueness of each child (individual-appropriateness)

Early Childhood Education
Education for young children who are disadvantaged
Project Head Start
Compensatory program designed to provide children from low-income families opportunity to acquire the skills and experiences important for success in school
Represents the largest federally-funded program for U.S. children
Improved parenting engagement and skills in the success of Head Start Program

Early Childhood Education
Controversies in early childhood education
Early childhood curriculum
Child-centered, constructivist approach, along the lines of developmentally appropriate practice
Academic, direct instruction approach
Universal preschool education

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