PSYC
At least two original thinking problem clues will be published according to the specified reading materials, and at least four posts from other students will be answered. Two original posts must not be on the same topic (although they may come from the same chapter). Posts must be well thought out, well developed, and relevant to chapter reading that week. Simply saying “I agree” or “Wow, that’s interesting” is not a post. Your post must show your thoughts on the topics and issues we are discussing. It’s all right for your posts to reflect your real life experiences, but you must know how your shared experiences are related to classroom materials and textbook reading.
In short, you need to write two original thinking problem clues and reply to four posts (please clearly divide the original thinking problem clues into two paragraphs, and the contents of the reply to four posts also need to be clearly divided into four paragraphs)
PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers C. Nathan DeWall Twelfth Edition
Chapter 16
Introduction to Therapy and the Psychological
Therapi
es
Evaluating Psychotherapies
and Preventing
Psychological Disorders
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Visitors to eighteenth-century mental hospitals paid to gawk at patients, as though they were viewing zoo animals. William Hogarth’s (1697–1764) painting captured one of these visits to London’s St. Mary of Bethlehem hospital (commonly called Bedlam).
Psychotherapy
Psychological techniques derived from psychological
perspectives
Trained therapist uses psychological techniques to assist
someone overcome difficulties or achieve personal growth
Biomedical therapy
Treatment with medical procedures
Trained therapist, most often a medical doctor, offers
medications and other biological treatments
Eclectic approach
Uses techniques from various forms of therapy
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Psychoanalysis
Goals: To bring patients’ repressed feelings into
conscious awareness; to help patients release energy
devoted to internal conflicts so they may achieve
healthier, less anxious lives.
Techniques: Historical reconstruction, initially
through hypnosis and later through free association;
interpretation of resistance, transference
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Psychoanalysis
Sigmund Freud’s therapeutic technique. Freud believed the patient’s free associations, resistances, dreams, and transferences—and the therapist’s interpretations of them—released previously repressed feelings, allowing the patient to gain self – insight.
Resistance
In psychoanalysis, the blocking from consciousness of anxiety- laden material.
Interpretation
In psychoanalysis, the analyst’s noting supposed dream meanings, resistances, and other significant behaviors and events in order to promote insight.
Transference
In psychoanalysis, the patient’s transfer to the analyst of emotions linked with other relationships (such as love or hatred for a parent).
Goals: Help people
understand current symptoms;
explore and gain perspective
on defended-against thoughts
and feelings
Techniques: Client-centered
face-to-face meetings;
exploration of past relationship
troubles to understand origins
of current difficulties
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Psychodynamic therapy
Therapy derived from the psychoanalytic tradition
Views individuals as responding to unconscious forces and childhood experiences, and seeks to enhance self-insight
Psychoanalysis and Psychodynamic
Therapies
Psychodynamic therapy
Influenced by traditional psychoanalysis but differs from it in
many ways
Differences
Lack of belief in id, ego, and superego
Briefer, less expensive, and more focused on helping clients find
relief from their current symptoms
Helps clients understand how past relationships create themes
that may be acted out in present relationships
Interpersonal therapy
Brief 12- to 16-session form of psychodynamic therapy that has
been effective in treating depression
Humanistic perspective
Theme: Emphasis on people’s potential for self-
fulfillment; to give people new insights
Goals: Reduce inner conflicts that interfere with
natural development and growth; help clients grow in
self-awareness and self-acceptance promoting
personal growth
Techniques: Client-centered therapy; focus on taking
responsibility for feelings and actions, and on present
and future rather than past
Both psychodynamic and humanistic therapies
are insight therapies.
They attempt to improve functioning by increasing
clients’ awareness of motives and defenses.
Behavior therapies are not insight therapies.
Their goal is to apply learning principles to modify
problem behaviors.
Rogers
Person-centered therapy
that focuses on person’s
conscious self-
perceptions; non-directive;
active listening;
unconditional positive
regard
Most people possess
resources for growth.
Therapists foster growth
by exhibiting genuineness,
acceptance, and empathy.
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Strengthening communication (Rogers):
Paraphrase
Invite clarification
Reflect feelings
Classical conditioning techniques
Counterconditioning: Uses classical conditioning to
evoke new responses to stimuli that are triggering
unwanted behaviors
Exposure therapies: Treat anxieties by exposing
people (in imaginary or actual situations) to the things
they fear and avoid
Systematic desensitization: Associates a pleasant,
relaxed state with gradually increasing, anxiety-
triggering stimuli
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Exposure therapies: Behavioral techniques, such as systematic desensitization and virtual reality exposure therapy, that treat anxieties by exposing people (in imaginary or actual situations) to the things they fear and avoid.
Systematic desensitization: Type of exposure therapy that associates a pleasant, relaxed state with gradually increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli. Commonly used to treat phobias.
Treats anxiety by creative electronic simulations
in which people can safely face their greatest
fears, such as airplane flying, spiders, or public
speaking
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Within the confines of a room, virtual reality technology exposes people to vivid simulations of feared stimuli, such as walking across a rickety bridge high off the ground.
Aversive conditioning
Goals:
Substitute a negative response for a positive response to a
harmful stimulus
Condition an aversion to something the person should avoid
Techniques:
Unwanted behavior is associated with unpleasant feelings
Ability to discriminate between aversive conditioning situation
in therapy and other situations can limit treatment
effectiveness
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Therapists gave people with a history of alcohol abuse a mixed drink containing alcohol and a drug that produces severe nausea. After repeated treatments, some people developed at least a temporary conditioned aversion to alcohol. (Classical conditioning terms: US is unconditioned stimulus, UR is unconditioned response, NS is neutral stimulus, CS is conditioned stimulus, and CR is conditioned response.)
Problem: Thoughts can override conditioning processes.
Operant conditioning therapy: Consequences
drive behavior; voluntary behaviors are strongly
influenced by their consequences.
Behavior modification: Desired behavior is
reinforced; undesired behavior is not reinforced,
and sometimes punished.
Token economy: People earn a token for
exhibiting a desired behavior and can later
exchange the tokens for privileges or treats.
Critics:
How durable are the behaviors? Will people become
so dependent on extrinsic rewards that the desired
behaviors will stop when reinforcers stop?
Is it right for one human to control another’s
behavior?
Proponents:
Treatment with positive rewards is more humane than
punishing people or institutionalizing them for
undesired behaviors.
Teaches people new, more adaptive ways of thinking; based
on the assumption that thoughts intervene between events
and our emotional reactions
Beck’s therapy for depression
Gentle questioning seeks to reveal irrational thinking and
then to persuade people to change their perceptions of their
own and others’ actions as dark, negative, and pessimistic
People trained to recognize and modify negative self-talk
Cognitive Therapies
The person’s emotional
reactions are produced not
directly by the event but by the
person’s thoughts in response
to the event.
Cognitive Therapies
Integrative therapy that
combines cognitive therapy
(changing self-defeating
thinking) with behavior
therapy (changing
behavior)
Aims to alter the way one
acts AND they way one
thinks
Helps people learn to make
more realistic appraisals
Cognitive Therapies
Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT)
Conducted with groups,
rather than individuals
Benefits:
Saves therapists’ time and clients’
money
Offers a social laboratory for
exploring social behaviors and
developing social skills
Enables clients to see that others
share their problems
Provides feedback as clients try
out new ways of behaving
Group Therapy
Treats the family as a
system
Views an individual’s
unwanted behaviors as
influenced by, or
directed at, other family
members
Acts as a preventive
mental health strategy
Family Therapy
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Therapist helps family members understand how their ways of relating to one another create problems.
Changes the brain’s
chemistry with drugs
Affects the brain’s
circuitry with electrical
stimulation, magnetic
impulses, or
psychosurgery
Influences the brain’s
responses with lifestyle
changes
Myers/DeWall, Psychology in Everyday Life, 4e, © 2017 Worth Publishers
Biomedical Therapy
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Every thought and feeling depends on the functioning of the brain.
Every creative idea, every moment of joy or anger, every period of depression emerges from the electrochemical activity of the living brain.
Therapy Presumed Problem Therapy Aim Therapy Technique
Psychodynamic Unconscious conflicts from
childhood experiences
Reduce anxiety through self-
insight.
Interpret patients’ memories and
feelings.
Client-centered Barriers to self-
understanding and self-
acceptance
Enable growth via unconditional
positive regard, acceptance,
genuineness, and empathy.
Listen actively and reflect clients’
feelings.
Behavior Dysfunctional behaviors Learn adaptive behaviors;
extinguish problem ones.
Use classical conditioning (via
exposure or aversion therapy) or
operant conditioning (as in token
economies).
Cognitive Negative, self-defeating
thinking
Promote healthier thinking and
self-talk.
Train people to dispute negative
thoughts and attributions.
Cognitive-
behavioral
Self-harmful thoughts and
behaviors
Promote healthier thinking and
adaptive behaviors.
Train people to counter self-harmful
thoughts and to act out their new ways
of thinking.
Group and family Stressful relationships Heal relationships. Develop an understanding of family and
other social systems, explore roles, and
improve communication.
Clients’ and therapists’ positive testimonials cannot
prove that psychotherapy is actually effective.
The placebo effect makes it difficult to judge
whether improvement occurred because of the
treatment.
Research indicates that those persons who do not
undergo treatment often improve, but those
undergoing psychotherapy are more likely to
improve more quickly, and with less chance of
relapse.
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Using meta-analyses to statistically combine the results of hundreds of randomized psychotherapy outcome studies, researchers have found that those individuals who do not undergo treatment often improve, but those who participate in psychotherapy are more likely to improve more quickly, and with less chance of relapse.
Presenter
Presentation Notes
These two normal distribution curves, which are based on data from 475 studies, show the improvement of untreated people and psychotherapy clients. The outcome for the average therapy client surpassed the outcome for 80 percent of the untreated people. (Data from Smith et al., 1980.)
Some forms of psychotherapy work best for
particular problems.
Cognitive and cognitive-behavioral therapies:
anxiety, depression, and posttraumatic stress
disorder
Behavioral conditioning therapies: bed-wetting,
phobias, compulsions, marital problems, and sexual
dysfunctions
Psychodynamic therapy: depression and anxiety
Nondirective (client-centered) counseling: mild to
moderate depression
Psychotherapists’
personal beliefs and
values influence their
practice.
Differences in cultural and
moral diversity and
religious values can
create a mismatch.
A person seeking therapy is encouraged to ask
about
Treatment approach
Values
Credentials
Fees
An important consideration is whether the
potential client feels comfortable and able to
establish a bond with the therapist.
Type Therapy Description
Clinical psychologists Most are psychologists with a Ph.D. (includes research training) or Psy.D. (focuses on
therapy) supplemented by a supervised internship and, often, post-doctoral training.
About half work in agencies and institutions, half in private practice.
Psychiatrists Psychiatrists are physicians who specialize in the treatment of psychological disorders.
Not all psychiatrists have had extensive training in psychotherapy, but as M.D.s or D.O.s
they can prescribe medications. Thus, they tend to see those with the most serious
problems. Many have their own private practice.
Clinical or psychiatric
social workers
A two-year master of social work graduate program plus postgraduate supervision
prepares some social workers to offer psychotherapy, mostly to people with everyday
personal and family problems. About half have earned the National Association of Social
Workers’ designation of clinical social worker.
Counselors Marriage and family counselors specialize in problems arising from family relations. Clergy
provide counseling to countless people. Abuse counselors work with substance abusers
and with spouse and child abusers and their victims. Mental health and other counselors
may be required to have a two-year master’s degree.
The Biomedical Therapies and Preventing
Psychological Disorders
Psychopharmacology
Study of drug effects on mind and behavior
Has helped make drug therapy the most widely used
biomedical therapy
Drug therapies
The most widely used biomedical treatments
27 million Americans take prescribed antidepressants
Placebo and double-blind techniques are used to
evaluate drug effectiveness
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Biomedical therapy: Prescribed medications or procedures that act directly on the person’s physiology
The Biomedical Therapies
Most common drug treatments for
psychological disorders
Antipsychotic drugs
Antianxiety drugs
Antidepressant drugs
Mood-stabilizing medications
Let’s take a closer look at each of these.
Antipsychotic drugs
Mimic certain neurotransmitters (e.g., block or increase activity of
dopamine); reduce overreaction to irrelevant stimuli
May produce sluggishness, tremors, twitches, and tardive
dyskinesia; Thorazine
Successfully used with life-skills programs and family support to
treat schizophrenia
Antianxiety drugs
Depress CNS activity; Xanax, Ativan
Used in combination with psychological therapy
May reduce symptoms without resolving underlying problems;
withdrawal linked to increased anxiety and insomnia
Antidepressant drugs
Increase availability of norepinephrine or serotonin;
promote birth of new brain cells
Slow synaptic vacuuming up of serotonin (SSRIs)
Effectiveness sometimes questioned due to spontaneous
recovery and placebo effect
Mood-stabilizing medications
Depakote: Controls manic episodes
Lithium: Levels out the emotional highs and lows of bipolar
disorder
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Shown here is the action of Prozac, which partially blocks the reuptake of serotonin.
Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)
Manipulates brain by shocking it
Involves administration of general
anesthetic and muscle relaxation
to prevent convulsions
Causes less memory disruption
than earlier versions
AMA concluded that ECT
methods among most positive
treatment effects; reduces
suicidal thoughts
Involves several theories about
reason for effectiveness
Deep
Brain Stimulation
Brain Stimulation
Presenter
Presentation Notes
14-14 How are brain stimulation and psychosurgery used in treating specific disorders?
Preventing Psychological Disorders and
Building Resilience
Preventive mental health programs work to build
resilience.
Based on the idea that many psychological disorders could
be prevented by changing oppressive, esteem-destroying
environments into more benevolent, nurturing
environments that foster growth and self-confidence
Resilience
Personal strength that helps most people cope with stress
and recover from adversity and trauma
Can be seen in New Yorkers after 9/11, patients who
experience spinal cord injury, and Holocaust survivors,
among others
- Therapy
- �Psychoanalysis �
- Psychoanalysis and Psychodynamic Therapies
- Slide Number 17
- Slide Number 19
- Slide Number 20
- Slide Number 21
- Slide Number 22
- The Biomedical Therapies and Preventing�Psychological Disorders
- Slide Number 35
- Preventing Psychological Disorders and Building Resilience
Chapter Overview
The History of Treatment
Approach Differences
Psychodynamic Therapy
Humanistic Therapies (part 1)
Understanding Differences
Humanistic Therapies (part 2)
Behavior Therapies (part 1)
Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy
Behavior Therapies (part 2)
Aversion Therapy for Alcohol Abuse
Behavior Therapies (part 3)
Behavior Therapies (part 4)
A COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE ON PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS
Comparing Modern Psychotherapies
Is Psychotherapy Effective?
Treatment Versus No Treatment
Which Psychotherapies Work Best?
Culture and Values in Psychotherapy
Finding a Mental Health Professional
Therapists and Their Training
The Biomedical Therapies
Drug Therapies (part 1)
Drug Therapies (part 2)
Biology of Antidepressants
PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers C. Nathan DeWall Twelfth Edition
Chapter 15
Introduction to Psychological Disorders
Depressive Disorders,
, Suicide,
and Self-Injury
Introduction to Psychological Disorders
(part 1)
According to psychologists and psychiatrists,
psychological disorders are marked by a
clinically significant disturbance in an
individual’s cognition, emotion regulation, or
behavior (APA, 2013).
Disturbed or dysfunctional thoughts, emotions,
or behaviors are maladaptive.
Through the ages,
psychologically disordered
people have received brutal
treatments, including the
trephination evident in this
Stone Age skull.
Drilling skull holes like these
may have been an attempt to
release evil spirits and cure
those with mental disorders.
Did this patient survive the
“cure”?
Introduction to Psychological Disorders
(part 2)
The medical model
1800s: Search for physical cause of mental disorders and for
curative treatments
Mental illness diagnosed on basis of symptoms and treated
through therapy
Credibility gained from recent research in genetically influenced
brain abnormalities in brain structure and biochemistry
The biopsychosocial approach
General approach positing that biological, psychological, and
social-cultural factors play significant roles in human functioning
in the context of disease or illness
Epigenetics also informs our understanding of disorders
Presenter
Presentation Not
es
Medical model: The concept that diseases (in this case, psychological disorders) have physical
causes
that can be diagnosed, treated, and, in most cases, cured, often through treatment in a hospital.
Biopsychosocial Approach to Psychological
Disorders
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Today’s psychology studies how biological, psychological, and social-cultural factors interact to produce specific psychological disorders.
Introduction to Psychological Disorders
(part 3)
Diagnostic
classification in
psychiatry and
psychology
Predicts the disorder’s
future course
Suggests appropriate
treatment
Prompts research into its
causes
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Diagnostic and Statistical Manual
of Mental Disorders (DSM-5)
DSM-5
American Psychiatric Association-Fifth edition
Describes disorders and estimates their occurrence
Presenter
Presentation Notes
DSM has all the criteria needed to diagnose a disorder. Doctors and psychologists use it to do so.
Some diagnosis have changed – autism and Asperger – now ASD; mental retardation – intellectual disability; hoarding disorder and binge eating disorder
The danger of labeling – once we label someone as having disorder we look at them differently – bipolar patient example;
Labels can be self fulfilling as well – watching people labeled JOB applicants or Psychiatric patients – made observer report different things
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders (DSM-5) (part 2)
DSM-5 criticism
Antisocial personality disorder and generalized
anxiety disorder did poorly on field trials.
DSM-5 contributes to pathologizing of everyday life.
System labels are society’s value judgments.
DSM-5 benefits
System helps mental health professionals
communicate and is useful in research
Mental disorders seldom lead to violence and
clinical prediction of violence is unreliable.
When they do, moral and ethical questions are raised
about whether society should hold people with
disorders responsible for their violent actions?
Most people with disorders are nonviolent and are
more likely to be victims than attackers.
Psychological disorder rates
vary, depending on the time
and place of the survey.
Poverty is a risk factor.
Conditions and experiences
associated with poverty contribute to
the development of psychological
disorders.
Some disorders, such as
schizophrenia, can drive people into
poverty.
Percentage of Americans Reporting Selected
Psychological Disorders in the Past Year
Psychological Disorder Percentage
Depressive disorders or bipolar disorder 9.3
Phobia of specific object or situation 8.7
Social anxiety disorder 6.8
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder
(ADHD)
4.1
Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) 3.5
Generalized anxiety disorder 3.1
Schizophrenia 1.1
Obsessive-compulsive disorder 1.0
What
Increases
Vulnerability
to Mental
Disorders?
Risk Factors Protective Factors
Academic failure
Birth complications
Caring for those who are
chronically ill or who have a
neurocognitive disorder
Child abuse and neglect
Chronic insomnia
Chronic pain
Family disorganization or
conflict
Low birth weight
Low socioeconomic status
Medical illness
Neurochemical imbalance
Parental mental illness
Parental substance abuse
Personal loss and bereavement
Poor work skills and habits
Reading disabilities
Sensory disabilities
Social incompetence
Stressful life events
Substance abuse
Trauma experiences
Aerobic exercise
Community offering
empowerment, opportunity, and
security
Economic independence
Effective parenting
Feelings of mastery and control
Feelings of security
High self-esteem
Literacy
Positive attachment and early
bonding
Positive parent-child
relationships
Problem-solving skills
Resilient coping with stress and
adversity
Social and work skills
Social support from family and
friends
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es Anxiety Disorders, OCD, and PTSD
Phobias
Persistent,
irrational fear and
avoidance of a
specific object,
activity, or
situation
Anxiety disorders are marked by distressing, persistent
anxiety or maladaptive behaviors that reduce anxiety.
Panic disorder
Sudden episodes
of intense dread
and often lives in
fear of when the
next attack might
strike
GAD (General
Anxiety Disorder)
Excessive Anxiety
and pervasive
worry about
everyday life
events
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Anxiety is part of life, right? Talking in front of strangers, climbing a high ladder – we experience a sense of fear or anxiety but it doesn’t interfere w our lives, we don’t feel it all the time.
GAD – excessive and uncontrolled worry; cant concentrate, hard time sleeping, high blood pressure; women more susceptible – 9/11 example; emotions tend to mellow as we age– rare after 50
Panic – anxiety suddenly escalates – symptoms; they come and go but they are not forgotten; avoidance behavior; agoraphobia
Phobias – we all have some fears but people wit phobias are consumed – irrational fear and avoidance – specific phobias or social anxiety disorder – speaking, eating out – potentially embarrassed
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Specific Phobias
irrational fear toward something specific
Social Anxiety Disorder
Fear & anxiety of being judged or evaluated by others
Eating or drinking in front of others
Writing or working in front of others
Being the center of attention
Dating or going to parties
Some Common and Uncommon Specific
Fears
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Researchers surveyed Dutch people to identify the most common events or objects they feared. A strong fear becomes a phobia if it provokes a compelling but irrational desire to avoid the dreaded object or situation. (Data from Depla et al., 2008.)
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Characterized by unwanted repetitive thoughts
(obsessions), actions (compulsions), or both
Compulsive behaviors are responses to obsessive
thoughts.
Become a disorder when obsessive thoughts:
Persistently interfere with everyday life
Cause distress
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Obsessive-Compulsive
Disorder (OCD)
Characterized by persistent
and repetitive thoughts
(obsessions), actions
(compulsions), or both
Thought or Behavior
Percentag
e
Reporting
Symptom
Obsessions (repetitive
thoughts)
Concern with dirt,
germs, or toxins
Something terrible
happening (fire, death,
illness)
Symmetry, order, or
exactness
40
24
17
Compulsions (repetitive
behaviors)
Excessive hand
washing, bathing,
toothbrushing, or
grooming
Repeating rituals
(in/out of a door,
up/down from a chair)
Checking doors, locks,
appliances, car
brakes, homework
85
51
46
Presenter
Presentation Notes
We all can have some of this – obsess over something – somebody is away and you obsess something bad happened to them; compulsive – alphabetize books or CDs for example; peel potato or cut exact same size cubes – at some point they cross the line and interfere with one’s life – wash hands, check,
People realize their obsessions are irrational but they cause anxiety and the compulsion is the only relief.
– OCD check turn off stuff, check for dead body on road, OCD – germs – wash wash raw hands hours of the same OCD praying – OCD –
Posttraumatic stress disorder
Characterized by haunting memories, nightmares,
social withdrawal, jumpy anxiety, numbness of
feeling, and/or insomnia lingering for four weeks or
more after a traumatic experience
Often affects battle-scarred veterans (7.6 percent of
combatants; 1.4 percent of noncombatants) and
survivors of accidents, disasters, and violent and
sexual assaults (two-thirds of prostitutes)
Women are at higher risk
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Typical symptoms include recurring haunting memories and nightmares, laser-focused attention to possible threats, social withdrawal, jumpy anxiety, and trouble sleeping (Germain, 2013; Hoge et al., 2007; Yuval et al., 2017).
Understanding Anxiety Disorders, OCD, and
PTSD (part 1)
Conditioning
Classical conditioning research helps explain how
panic-prone people associate anxiety with certain
cues.
Stimulus generalization research demonstrates how
a fearful event can later become a fear of similar
events.
Reinforcement (operant conditioning) can help
maintain a developed and generalized phobia.
Understanding Anxiety Disorders, OCD, and
PTSD (part 2)
Cognition
Observing others can contribute to
development of some fears.
Olsson and colleagues: Wild monkey research
findings
Interpretations and expectations shape
reactions.
Hypervigilance
Understanding Anxiety Disorders, OCD, and
PTSD (part 3)
Biology
Genes: Genetic predisposition to anxiety, OCD, and
PTSD
The brain: Trauma linked to new fear pathways,
hyperactive danger detection, impulse control, and
habitual behavior areas of brain
Natural selection: Biological preparedness to fear
threats; easily conditioned and difficult to extinguish
Presenter
Presentation Notes
The biological perspective considers the role that fears of life-threatening animals, objects, or situations played in natural selection and evolution; genetic predispositions for high levels of emotional reactivity and neurotransmitter production; and abnormal responses in the brain’s fear circuits.
Researchers have found genes associated with OCD (Dodman et al., 2010; Hu et al., 2006) and with typical anxiety disorder symptoms (Hovatta et al., 2005).
Presenter
Presentation Notes
In research in which people engaged in a challenging cognitive task, those with OCD showed the most activity in the anterior cingulate cortex in the brain’s frontal area (Maltby et al., 2005).
Major depressive disorder
Person experiences, in the absence of drugs or another
medical condition, two or more weeks with five or more
symptoms, at least one of which must be either (1)
depressed mood or (2) loss of interest or pleasure
Persistent depressive disorder
Person experiences mildly depressed mood more often
than not for at least two years, along with at least two other
symptoms.
For some people, depressive symptoms may have a
seasonal pattern.
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Adults diagnosed with persistent depressive disorder (also called dysthymia) have experienced a mildly depressed mood more often than not for two years or more (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). They also display at least two of the following symptoms:
Difficulty with decision making and concentration
Feeling hopeless
Poor self-esteem
Reduced energy levels
Problems regulating sleep
Problems regulating appetite
Bipolar Disorder
Bipolar disorder
Disorder in which a person alternates between the
hopelessness and lethargy of depression and the
overexcited state of mania; formerly called manic-
depressive disorder
Mania
A hyperactive, wildly optimistic state in which dangerously
poor judgment is common
Bipolar disorder is much less common than major
depressive disorder, but is often more dysfunctional
Potent predictor of suicide
Understanding Depressive Disorders and
Bipolar Disorder (part 1)
Findings that any theory of depression must
explain:
Behavioral and cognitive changes accompany depression.
Depression is widespread.
Women’s risk of major depression is nearly double men’s.
Most major depressive episodes end on their own.
Stressful events related to work, marriage, and close
relationships often precede depression.
With each new generation, depression is striking earlier in
life and affecting more people.
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Interviews with 89,037 adults in 18 countries (10 of which are shown here) confirm what many smaller studies have found: Women’s risk of major depressive disorder is nearly double men’s risk. (Data from Bromet et al., 2011.)
Risk increases if family
member has disorder
Twin studies: Estimated
heritability of major
depression as 37 percent
Linkage analysis points to
“chromosome
neighborhood”
Many genes work together
and produce interacting
small effects that increase
risk for depression
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Using aggregated data from studies of identical and fraternal twins, researchers estimated the heritability of bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, anorexia nervosa, major depressive disorder, and generalized anxiety disorder (Bienvenu et al., 2011). Heritability was calculated by a formula that compares the extent of similarity among identical versus fraternal twins.
Understanding Depressive Disorders and
Bipolar Disorder (part 2)
The depressed brain
Brain activity slows during depression
Left frontal lobe is less active
Norepinephrine and serotonin levels decline
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Diminished brain activity occurs during depression and is more active during manic periods; other brain differences have been found.
Neurotransmitter systems influence depressive and bipolar disorder, perhaps through a norepinephrine and serotonin gene.
Diets associated with inflammation and excessive alcohol use are correlated with depression risk.
The Ups and Downs of Bipolar Disorder
(part 1)
PET scans show that brain energy consumption
rises and falls with the patient’s emotional
switches. Red areas show where the brain is
using energy most rapidly.
During depression:
Slowed brain activity
Less active left frontal lobe
Scarcity of norepinephrine and serotonin
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The depressed brain
Brain activity slows during depression
Left frontal lobe less active
Scarcity of norepinephrine and serotonin
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Depressive disorders and bipolar disorder run in families. Heritability estimated at 37 percent; linkage analysis suggests many genes work together to produce a mosaic of small effect which interact with other factors and increase risk.
Diminished brain activity occurs during depression and is more active during manic periods; other brain differences have been found.
Neurotransmitter systems influence depressive and biopolar disorder: norepinephrine and serotonin gene
Diets associated with inflammation and excessive alcohol use correlates with depression.
Understanding Depressive Disorders and
Bipolar Disorder (part 3)
Nutritional effects
People who eat a heart-healthy “Mediterranean diet”
(heavy on vegetables, fish, and olive oil) have a
comparatively low risk of developing heart disease,
stroke, late-life cognitive decline, and depression—all
of which are associated with inflammation (Kaplan et
al., 2015; Psaltopoulou et al., 2013; Rechenberg,
2016).
Excessive alcohol use is correlated with depression
risk.
Understanding Depressive Disorders and
Bipolar Disorder (part 4)
Psychological and social
influences: social-
cognitive perspective
Depressed people view self
and world negatively
Learned helplessness may
coexist with self-defeating
beliefs, self-focused
rumination, and self-blaming
and pessimistic explanatory
style
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Social-cognitive perspective explores how people’s assumptions and expectations influence their perceptions:
Self-defeating beliefs and a negative explanatory style contribute to the cycle of depression.
Depression is an ongoing cycle of stressful experiences (interpreted through negative beliefs, attributions, and memories), leading to negative moods and actions and fueling new stressful experiences.
It’s normal to think about our flaws. But dwelling constantly on negative thoughts—particularly negative thoughts about ourselves—makes it difficult to believe in ourselves and solve problems. People sometimes seek therapy to reduce their rumination.
Understanding Depressive Disorders and
Bipolar Disorder (part 5)
Social-cognitive perspective
Explores how people’s assumptions and expectations
influence their perceptions
Self-defeating beliefs and a negative explanatory
style contribute to the cycle of depression
Views depression as an ongoing cycle of stressful
experiences (interpreted through negative beliefs,
attributions, and memories) which lead to negative
moods and actions and fuel new stressful
experiences
Presenter
Presentation Notes
After a negative experience, a depression-prone person may respond with a negative explanatory style.
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Therapists recognize this cycle, and they work to help depressed people break out of it by changing their negative thinking, turning their attention outward, and engaging them in more pleasant and competent behavior.
Suicide
Affects 1 million people worldwide
Higher risk with diagnosis of depression but may
occur with rebound
More likely to occur when people feel disconnected
from or as if they are a burden to others
Nonsuicidal self-injury (NSSI)
Cutting, burning, hitting oneself, pulling out hair,
inserting objects under nails or skin, self-administered
tattooing
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Only 1 in 25 suicide attempts is successful.
Reasons for engaging in NSSI:
• Gain relief from intense negative thoughts through the distraction of pain
• Ask for help and gain attention
• Relieve guilt by self-punishment
• Get others to change their negative behavior (bullying, criticism)
• Fit in with a peer group
Research into the suicide rates of different
groups shows:
National differences
Racial differences
Gender differences
Age differences and trends
Other group differences
Day of the week differences
Why Do People Who Engage in Nonsuicidal
Self-Injury Hurt Themselves?
Reasons for engaging in NSSI
Gain relief from intense negative thoughts through the
distraction of pain
Ask for help and gain attention
Relieve guilt by self-punishment
Get others to change their negative behavior
(bullying, criticism)
Fit in with a peer group
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Self-injury rates peak higher for females than for males (CDC, 2009).
Schizophrenia
Psychological disorder characterized by delusions,
hallucinations, disorganized speech, and/or diminished,
inappropriate emotional expression
Symptoms – positive and negative
Positive – presence of something undesirable
Negative – the absence of something desirable
Disturbed perceptions (hallucinations)
Disorganized thinking and speech
DELUSION of GRANDURE PARANOIA
Diminished and inappropriate emotions and actions
FLAT AFFECT CATATONIA SENSLESS ACTS
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Hallucinations – taste, sounds, visual
Delusions – false beliefs – of grandeur of paranoia; chopped thoughts – word salad
Emotions are inappropriate – laughing at death, crying when other laugh, angry for no reason ; flat affective state – no emotion and no feeling; inappropriate motor behavior – senseless compulsive acts – rocking, rubbing; other may be motionless for hours – catatonia
People live in a inner world with disrupted social relations and work relations.
Schizophrenia: Onset and Development
Chronic schizophrenia (also called process
schizophrenia)
Form of schizophrenia in which symptoms usually appear by late
adolescence or early adulthood
As people age, psychotic episodes last longer and recovery
periods shorten.
Acute schizophrenia (also called reactive schizophrenia)
Form of schizophrenia that can begin at any age, frequently
occurs in response to an emotionally traumatic event, and has
extended recovery periods
Dissociative, Personality, and Eating
Disorders
Dissociative disorder
Conscious awareness becomes separated
(dissociated) from previous memories, thoughts, and
feelings
Dissociative identity disorder (DID)
Rare dissociative disorder in which a person exhibits
two or more distinct and alternating personalities
Formerly called multiple personality disorder
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Skeptics note that dissociative identity disorder, formerly known as multiple personality disorder, increased dramatically in the late twentieth century, is rarely found outside North America, and may reflect role playing by people who are vulnerable to therapists’ suggestions. Others view this disorder as a manifestation of feelings of anxiety, or as a response learned when behaviors are reinforced by anxiety reduction.
Personality disorder
Disruptive, inflexible, and enduring behavior patterns
that impair social functioning.
Disorder forms three clusters, characterized by:
Anxiety
Eccentric or odd behaviors
Dramatic or impulsive behaviors
Antisocial personality disorder
Lack of conscience for wrongdoing, even toward
friends and family members; impulsive, fearless,
irresponsible; some genetic tendencies, including low
arousal
Genetic predispositions may interact with the
environment to produce the altered brain activity
associated with antisocial personality disorder
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Researchers have found reduced activation in a murderer’s frontal lobes. This brain area (shown in a left-facing brain) helps put the brakes on impulsive, aggressive behavior (Raine, 1999).
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Eating Disorders
• Anorexia nervosa
– Characterized by self-starvation to being 85% or less
of healthy body weight
• Starvation can destroy body organs and cause death.
• Medical emergencies require hospitalization (2/3 of ideal
weight or less).
– Menstruation ceases
– Distorted body image
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When
was deep in her
eating disorder, she thought
“being hungry to the point of
feeling almost faint was a
positive thing. The worse it got,
the more positive feedback I was
getting. Inside I was really
unhappy, but outside, people
were like, ‘Wow, you look great.’”
When her therapist helped her
realize how big of a problem it
was, she called her mom and
went to rehab where she learned
how food is a great thing—not
something to fear.
Kesha
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Troian Bellisario, who starred
in Pretty Little Liars, used the
eating disorder she had as a
teenager as a way to punish
herself. “I started self-harming
when I was a junior. I would
withhold food or withhold going
out with my friends, based on
how well I did that day in school,”
“I didn’t know what was right and
what was wrong, so I think I
created this bizarre system of
checks and balances to create
order in my world. But it really
backfired.”
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Eating Disorders
• Bulimia nervosa
– Characterized by at least biweekly cycles of binging
and purging
• In addition to forced vomiting, purging may include taking
laxatives and/or diuretics, fasting, and excess exercise.
– Major consequences
• Mouth sores, loss of tooth enamel (gray teeth), esophageal
ulcers, esophageal cancer
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“I used to throw up all the time
in high school. So I’m not that
confident,” she said. “I wanted
to be a skinny little ballerina
but I was a voluptuous little
Italian girl whose dad had
meatballs on the table every
night.” At one point, her
bulimia started to affect her
singing. “It made my voice
bad, so I had to stop.”
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• Strong hereditary
component, especially
in girls
• Temperamental
tendency
– to be anxious,
– to have low self-efficacy,
– to have a great need for
approval,
– and an inability to
express legitimate
needs.
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People with anorexia nervosa continue to diet and exercise
excessively because they view themselves as fat.
People with bulimia nervosa secretly binge and then
compensate by purging, fasting, or excessive exercise.
People with binge-eating disorder binge but do not follow
with purging, fasting, and exercise.
Cultural pressures, low self-esteem, and negative emotions
interact with stressful life experiences and genetics to
produce eating disorders.
- Psychological Disorders
- Introduction to Psychological Disorders �(part 1)
- Introduction to Psychological Disorders�(part 2)
- Biopsychosocial Approach to Psychological Disorders
- Introduction to Psychological Disorders�(part 3)
- Diagnostic and Statistical Manual�of Mental Disorders (DSM-5)
- Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) (part 2)
- Percentage of Americans Reporting Selected Psychological Disorders in the Past Year
- What Increases Vulnerability to Mental Disorders?
- Slide Number 15
- Some Common and Uncommon Specific Fears
- Understanding Anxiety Disorders, OCD, and PTSD (part 1)
- Understanding Anxiety Disorders, OCD, and PTSD (part 2)
- Understanding Anxiety Disorders, OCD, and�PTSD (part 3)
- Understanding Depressive Disorders and Bipolar Disorder (part 1)
- Understanding Depressive Disorders and Bipolar Disorder (part 2)
- The Ups and Downs of Bipolar Disorder�(part 1)
- Understanding Depressive Disorders and Bipolar Disorder (part 3)
- Understanding Depressive Disorders and Bipolar Disorder (part 4)
- Understanding Depressive Disorders and Bipolar Disorder (part 5)
- Why Do People Who Engage in Nonsuicidal Self-Injury Hurt Themselves?
- �Schizophrenia: Onset and Development�
Chapter Overview
Yesterday’s “Therapy”
Does Disorder Equal Danger?
Rates of Psychological Disorders
Anxiety Disorders, OCD, and PTSD
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
An Obsessive-Compulsive Brain
Depressive Disorders
Bipolar Disorder
Gender and Major Depressive Disorder
Genetic Influences
Depressive Disorders and Bipolar Disorder
Explanatory Style and Depression
The Vicious Cycle of Depressed Thinking
Suicide and Self-Injury (part 1)
Suicide and Self-Injury (part 2)
U.S. Rates of Nonfatal Self-Injury
Schizophrenia
Risk of Developing Schizophrenia
Dissociative, Personality, and Eating Disorders
Personality Disorders (part 1)
Personality Disorders (part 2)
Murderous Minds
Eating Disorders
Kesha
Troian Bellisario
Eating Disorders
Lady Gaga
What causes these conditions?
Understanding Eating Disorders
Julian Menon
Chapter 13
COLLAPSE
窗体顶端
We have been trying to control our emotions and stress level since the year 400, allow a moment to let this sink in – we are now closer as we find even scales to counter our emotions, however this took a turn for the worst in March when the pandemic started and now were almost at a stage where we start all over and add a new anomaly to the mix, COVID 19 has caused a whirlwind of new disorders from anxiety, to stress to depression and worst of all suicide. We must learn the delicate nature of brain structure and be both conscious of the current situation and not allow ourselves to be caught up in the unfortunate events that hold us all hostage at the moment. Understanding that stress can cause disease is one that should not be taken lightly and should practice self care and be open to everything once. Chapter 13 allows a chance to delve in to the social aspect of psychology and this is the topic you can not escape at the moment, we find ways to self-medicate and not end up in another Milgram type encounter since this pandemic is nurturing many positive aspects of wellbeing as well as some radical ways to cope.
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Julian Menon
Capter 15
COLLAPSE
窗体顶端
Chapter 15 delves in to a very serious topic and what we are all here for to learn more about is psychological disorders, what actually construes a disorder, repetitious, unnatural, violent based, and or any mental thought that ruins the wellness of being alive. Now, with the pandemic raging we have seen a new classification(s) of disorders and they are yet to be studied, agoraphobia is rampant, how did these disorders manifest themselves to the extreme they are now, those that have OCD are now even more compromised due to the COVID-19 pandemic, we need to constantly expand our database and her sub categories to constantly keep vigilance on the wellbeing of our fellow man.
Anjelica Garduno
Chapter 13
COLLAPSE
窗体顶端
Chapter 13
What I found interesting was the four types of attribution, including the internal and external. It’s essential to understand one another, and not to project judgment—the fundamental attribution error. Just proves humans were not might to be perfect. I think that’s one of the things that social psychology struggles with is being a perfectionist. I enjoyed all the videos that we had watched in this chapter. I learned more new vocabulary. The danger of conformity. I can see how attribution error can also lead to dangerous conformity to lack of responsibility, incorrect judgment, and irrational thoughts. I like how the professor said “Attitude can follow the action, attitude can predict behavior. I used it all the time with my client. I can tell what kind of day was going to have. By the tone, body language, and movement. With Coivd-19 I can tell behavior will have. when the camera zoom is away or turn off.
Hannah Bickel
Module 3 Discussion 1
COLLAPSE
窗体顶端
From this weeks module, I found that chapter 16 was an interesting chapter to learn about because it deals with therapy. When I was in high school, I had to go to therapy for my anxiety disorder, but I have always found group therapy very interesting. I have always wanted to try group therapy because if you’re in an environment with people that have shared experiences, you are more likely to have better self esteem knowing that you’re not alone. As someone who has anxiety, my biggest fear was no one understanding the way I was feeling, which made me even more anxious. If I had gone to group therapy back in high school, I know that I would have had a better experience knowing that I was not alone in overcoming a mental illness. I wish school districts had more programs like this at their high schools because there are a countless number of teenagers who struggle with mental illnesses.
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PSYCHOLOGY David G. Myers C. Nathan DeWall Twelfth Edition
Chapter 13
Antisocial Relations
Prosocial Relations
Social Thinking
Social psychology
The scientific study of how we think about, influence,
and relate to one another
Social psychologists
Use scientific methods to study how people think
about, influence, and relate to one another
Study the social influences that explain why the same
person will act differently in different situations
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Social Psychology
Scientific study of how individuals think about,
influence, and relate to one another
▪ Personality
psychologists
▪ Study personal traits and
processes that explain
why different people may
act differently in a given
situation
▪ Social psychologists
▪ Study social forces that
explain why the same
person may act differently
in different situations
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A student in our class got an F on Exam 2.
You happen to see their score…
What are your thoughts?
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§
§
underestimate situational influences and
overestimate personality influences
You need to
Attribute Cause
(what explains the grade?)
Personality
(Internal Disposition)
Situation
(External)
When we observe others’ behavior, we tend to:
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When explaining behavior of others, we tend to:
Underestimate
the influence of
the situation
Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE)
overestimate
the effects of
personality
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overestimate the
effects of
personality
When explaining behavior of others, we tend to:
underestimate
the influence of
the situation
Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE)
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Overestimate
the effects of
personality
Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE)
When explaining behavior of others, we tend to:
Underestimate
the influence of
the situation
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overestimate
situational
factors
When explaining our own behavior, we tend to:
Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE)
Underestimate
the influence of
the situation
Social Thinking
When explaining others’ behavior, especially
from an individualist Western cultural
perspective:
Fundamental attribution error is committed by
underestimating the influence of the situation and
overestimating the effects of stable, enduring traits.
Behavior is more readily attributed to the influence of
the situation.
Explaining and attributing actions can have important
real-life social and economic effects.
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distributing funds
that can impact
homeless people.
What would committing
the FAE sound like if
you were to explain why
someone might be
homeless?
AN ATTRIBUTION QUESTION
Poverty and homelessness
▪ Personal traits (drug addict, irresponsible, lazy)
▪ Social circumstances (no low-cost housing, poor economic
conditions, and insufficient mental health services)
Could this affect how you might distribute those funds?
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▪ Driving to school one snowy
day, Marco narrowly misses a
car that slides through a red
light.
▪ “Slow down! What a terrible
driver,” he thinks to himself.
▪ Moments later, Marco himself
slips through an intersection
and yelps, “Wow! These roads
are awful. The city plows need
to get out here.”
▪ What social psychology
principle has Marco just
demonstrated?
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Affect Attitudes
Attitudes are feelings influenced by beliefs, that
predispose reactions to objects, people, and events.
Actions are our behaviors toward objects, people,
and events.
You stand up for
what you believe
in.
You believe
more in
something
you’ve stood up
for.
Attitude
Action
Action
Attitude
Positive Neutral Negative
Attitudes Affect Actions
Attitudes are feelings influenced by beliefs,
which predispose people to have specific
reactions to objects, people, and events.
Peripheral route persuasion occurs when people
are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker’s
attractiveness
Central route persuasion occurs when interested
people focus on the arguments and respond with
favorable thoughts
Presenter
Presentation Notes
When other influences are minimal, attitudes that are stable, specific, and easily recalled can affect our actions.
Actions can modify attitudes
Foot-in-the-door phenomenon: The tendency for people
who have first agreed to a small request to comply later
with a larger request
Role: A set of expectations (norms) about a social
position, defining how those in the position ought to
behave
Attitudes follow behavior
Cooperative actions, such as those performed by people
on sports teams, feed mutual liking. Such attitudes, in turn,
promote positive behavior.
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▪ Foot-in-the-door phenomenon involves compliance
with a large request after having agreed to a small
request
When attitudes do not fit with actions,
tensions are often reduced by changing
attitudes to match actions (cognitive
dissonance theory).
We act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel
when two of our thoughts (cognitions) clash.
Brain regions become active when people experience
cognitive dissonance.
Through cognitive dissonance, we often bring
attitudes into line with our actions (Festinger).
Presenter
Presentation Notes
For example, when we become aware that our attitudes and our actions don’t match, we may change our attitudes so that we feel more comfortable.
Changing our behavior can change how we think about others and how we feel about ourselves.
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▪ Cognitive Dissonance inconsistency between
actions and attitudes resulting in feeling of frustration
and being uncomfortable.
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Zimbardo’s Prison Experiment
The Power of Situation
▪ Role playing
▪ Guards
▪ Justified their actions with the need to maintain order
▪ Gained power from uniform, mirror glasses and baton
▪
▪ Prisoners
▪ Isolated
▪ Humiliated
▪ Dehumanized
▪ Learned to be helpless
▪ Ethical Concerns
Social Influence
Social contagion
Chartrand and colleagues
(1999)
Demonstrated the chameleon
effect with college students
Automatic mimicry helps people to
empathize and feel what others
feel.
The more we mimic, the greater
our empathy, and the more people
tend to like us.
This is a form of conformity.
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You start laughing
exactly like your
friend
You are likely to buy something
from a salesperson who wears a
hat with the logo of a team you
like
▪ Humans are natural mimics, unconsciously imitating others’
expressions, postures, and voice tones.
▪ Automatic mimicry helps people empathize and feel what
others feel. The more the mimicry, greater the empathy
People heard that an accident occurred
because some car brand’s breaks were
faulty. All of a sudden everybody with
that car brand started experiencing
”faulty breaks” until it was discovered
that the original accident was due to
something else…
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Change in behavior or belief as
the result of real or imagined
group pressure
Positive or Negative?
Acceptance Compliance Obedience
Solomon Asch and others have found that people are most
likely to adjust their behavior or thinking to coincide with a
group standard in the following circumstances:
They feel incompetent or insecure.
Their group has at least three people.
Everyone else agrees.
They admire the group’s status and attractiveness.
They have not already committed to another response.
They know they are being observed.
Their culture encourages respect for
social standards
.
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?
Asch’s Studies of Group Pressure
Test of perceptual judgment
7-9 people in a group
All confederates exceptYOU
All confederates give thesame
wrong answer
What answer would YOU give?
33% of the timeYOU will go
along with thegroup
cd
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Asch’s Studies of Group Pressure
In what city can you find Hollywood?
San Francisco 78%
This was in the 1950. What about us, today?
Los Angeles 22%
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People are more likely to conform when they:
• Are made to feel incompetent or insecure
• Are in a group with at least three people
• Are in a group in which everyone else agrees
• Admire the group’s status and attractiveness
• Have not already committed themselves to any response
• Know that others in the group will observe their behavior
• Are from a culture that strongly encourages respect for
social standards
Normative social
influence: Influence
resulting from a person’s
desire to gain approval or
avoid disapproval
Informational social
influence: Influence
resulting from one’s
willingness to accept
others’ opinions about
reality
Presenter
Presentation Notes
As tattoos become perceived as fashion conformity, their popularity may wane
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Based on a person’s
desire to fulfill the
expectations of others
▪ “I don’t want tobe
different”
▪ to gain acceptance
▪ Produced by social
image
Occurring when
people accept
evidence about reality
provided by other
people
to appear correct
“You must be right!”
Produced by
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Normative Influence Informational Influence
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Classic Conformity and Obedience Studies
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Copyright 2016 © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.
What happens when the demands of authority • Te
clash with the demands of conscience…
What did Nazi soldiers did during WWII?
They were
evil.
Followed
orders.
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Figure 6.4 – Milgram’s Obedience Experiment
Milgram’s Obedience Experiments
Assigned to be “teacher” or “student”
A “mock” study of punishment on memory.
Teacher administers shock after every
wrong answer. Shocks increase in intensity.
Student is in a different room but his voice
could be heard.
Teachers are told by experimenter they must
continue with stronger and stronger shock.
Milgram’s Obedience Experiments
Stanley Milgram’s
experiments
People obeyed orders even when
they thought they were harming
another person.
Strong social influences can make
ordinary people conform to
falsehoods or exhibit cruel
behavior.
In any society, great evil acts often
grow out of people’s compliance
with lesser evils.
Presenter
Presentation Notes
In a repeat of the earlier experiment, 65 percent of the adult male “teachers” fully obeyed the experimenter’s commands to continue. They did so despite the “learner’s” earlier mention of a heart condition and despite hearing cries of protest after they administered what they thought were 150 volts and after hearing agonized protests after they supposedly administered a shock of 330 volts. (Data from Milgram, 1974.)
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What Are the Classic
Conformity and
Obedience Studies?
Copyright 2016 © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.
110 surveyed adults said they
would disobey at 135 volts.
How about others?
Maybe 1 in 1000 would go to the
XXX level of shock. 65% went all
the way to 450
volts
Prod 1: Please continue.
Prod 2: The experiment requires that you continue.
Prod 3: It is absolutely essential that you continue.
Prod 4: You have no other choice. You must go on.
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Copyright 2016 © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Milgram’s Obedience Experiments
What breeds obedience?
DISTANCE
CLOSENESS AND LIGITIMACY
OF AUTHORITY
INSTITUTIONLAUTHORITY
LIBERATING EFFECT OF
GROUP INFLUENCE
Social facilitation (Triplett): The presence of
others arouses people, improving performance
on easy or well-learned tasks but decreasing
performance on difficult tasks.
Performance can also be hindered because the most
likely, but not necessarily the correct, response
occurs.
Home town advantage
Crowding effect
Home team advantage
When others observe us, we perform well-learned
tasks more quickly and accurately.
On new and difficult tasks, performance is slower and
less accurate.
Presenter
Presentation Notes
When others observe us, we become aroused, and this arousal amplifies our other reactions.
When you do well, you are likely to do even better in front of an audience, especially a friendly audience. What you normally find difficult may seem all but impossible when you are being watched.
Sport Years
Percentage of
home games won
Nippon League Baseball 1998–2009 53.6
Major League Baseball 1903–2009 53.9
National Hockey League 1917–2009 55.7
International Rugby 1871–2009 56.9
National Football League 1966–2009 57.3
International Cricket 1877–2009 57.4
National Basketball Association 1946–2009 60.5
Women’s National Basketball
Association
2003–2009 61.7
English Premier League Soccer 1993–2009 63.0
NCAA Men’s Basketball 1947–2009 68.8
Major League Soccer 2002–2009 69.1
Social loafing
Tendency for people in a group to exert less effort
when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common
goal than when individually accountable
Causes
Acting as part of group and feeling less accountable
Feeling individual contribution does not matter
Taking advantage when there is lack of identification
with the group
Deindividuation
A loss of self-awareness and self-restraint that occurs
in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity
Thrives in many different settings
Phenomenon Social context
Psychological effect of
others’ presence Behavioral effect
Social facilitation Individual being observed Increased arousal Amplified dominant behavior,
such as doing better what one
does well (or doing worse what
is difficult)
Social loafing Group projects Diminished feelings of
responsibility when not
individually accountable
Decreased effort
Deindividuation Group setting that fosters
arousal and anonymity
Reduced self-awareness Lowered self-restraint
Behavior in the Presence of Others: Three
Phenomena
Deindividuation
During England’s
2011 riots and
looting, rioters were
disinhibited by
social arousal and
by the anonymity
provided by
darkness and their
hoods and masks.
Later, some of
those arrested
expressed
bewilderment over
their own behavior.
and Groupthink
Group polarization
Group discussions with like-minded others strengthen members’
prevailing beliefs and attitudes.
Internet communication magnifies this effect, for better or for worse.
Groupthink
People are driven by a desire for harmony within a decision-making
group, with this desire overriding realistic appraisal of alternatives.
Individual power
The power of the individual and the power of the situation interact.
A small minority that consistently expresses its views may sway the
majority.
Group Polarization
If group members are
like-minded, discussion
strengthens the
prevailing opinions.
Talking over racial
issues increased
prejudice in a high-
prejudice group of high
school students and
decreased it in a low-
prejudice group (Myers
& Bishop, 1970).
Prejudice: An unjustifiable (and usually
negative) attitude toward a group and its
members. Prejudice generally involves
stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings, and a
predisposition to discriminatory action.
Stereotype: A generalized (sometimes accurate
but often overgeneralized) belief about a group
of people.
Discrimination: unjustifiable negative behavior
toward a group and its members.
Prejudice
“Prejudgment”
An unjustified negative attitude
toward some group and its
members
Often targets a different cultural,
ethnic, or gender group
Components
Beliefs
Emotions
Predispositions to action
(to discriminate)
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Important distinctions:
Prejudice is a negative attitude.
Discrimination is a negative behavior.
Implicit prejudice
Implicit racial associations
Implicit association tests results: Even people who deny
racial prejudice may carry negative associations.
Unconscious patronization
Lower expectations, inflated praise, and insufficient criticism
for minority student achievement
Implicit prejudice
Race-influenced perceptions
Automatic racial bias
Reflexive bodily responses
Unconscious, selective responses when looking at faces
Our prejudice is more often implicit—an
unthinking knee-jerk response operating below
the radar, leaving us unaware of how our
attitudes are influencing our behavior.
Psychologists study implicit prejudice in several
ways:
Testing for unconscious group associations
Considering unconscious patronization
Monitoring reflexive bodily responses
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Over the last quarter-century, Americans have increasingly approved of interracial dating, with each successive generation expressing more approval. (Data from Pew, 2012.)
Racial and ethnic prejudice
People with darker skin tones experience greater
criticism and accusations of immoral behavior (Alter
et al., 2016).
Our perceptions can reflect implicit bias.
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Race primes perceptions. In experiments by Keith Payne (2006), people viewed (1) a White or Black face, immediately followed by (2) a flashed gun or hand tool, which was then followed by (3) a visual mask. Participants were more likely to misperceive a tool as a gun when it was preceded by a Black face rather than a White face.
Gender prejudice
Overt gender prejudice has declined sharply, but both
implicit and explicit gender prejudice and
discrimination persist.
Despite equality between the sexes in intelligence
scores, people have tended to perceive their fathers
as more intelligent than their mothers (Furnham &
Wu, 2008).
LBGT prejudice
In 2016 two dozen countries allowed same-sex marriage, but
dozens more had laws criminalizing same-sex relationships.
39 percent of LBGT persons reported having “been rejected by a
friend or family member” because of their sexual orientation or
gender identity (Pew, 2013a).
58 percent reported being “subject to slurs or jokes” (Pew,
2013a).
80 percent of LGBT adolescents reported sexual orientation-
related harassment in the prior year (GLSEN, 2012).
Gays and lesbians are America’s most at-risk group for hate
crimes (Sherman, 2016).
Social roots of prejudice
Social inequalities: Often lead to the development of
attitudes that justify the status quo
Just-world phenomenon: Good is rewarded and evil
is punished
Stereotypes: Rationalize inequalities
Groups: Through social identities, people
associate themselves with others.
Evolution prepares people to identify with a
group.
Ingroup: “Us”—people with whom we share a
common identity
Outgroup: “Them”—those perceived as different or
apart from our ingroup
Ingroup bias: The tendency to favor our own group
Scapegoat theory: The theory that prejudice
offers an outlet for anger by providing someone
to blame
Research evidence (Zimbardo)
Prejudice levels tend to be high among economically
frustrated people.
In experiments, a temporary frustration increases
prejudice.
Forming categories
Humans categorize people by race: Mixed-race
people are identified based on their minority identity.
Similarities are overestimated during categorization,
creating “us” and “they.”
Overestimation also occurs, in the form of the other-
race effect or bias.
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Other-race effect: Tendency to recall faces of one’s own race more accurately than faces of other races
Presenter
Presentation Notes
When New Zealanders quickly classified 104 photos by race, those of European descent more often than those of Chinese descent classified the ambiguous middle two photos as Chinese (Halberstadt et al., 2011).
Presenter
Presentation Notes
The Muslim terrorists who struck the United States on September 11, 2001, created, in many minds, an exaggerated stereotype of Muslims as terrorism-prone. A U.S. National Research Council panel on terrorism, when presenting this inexact illustration, reported that most terrorists are not really Muslim and “the vast majority of Islamic people have no connection with and do not sympathize with terrorism” (Smelser & Mitchell, 2002).
Biology influences aggression at three levels.
Genetic influences
Evidence from animal studies and twin studies; genetic Y
chromosome genetic marker; MAOA gene
Alcohol associated with aggressive responses to frustration
Neural influences
Neural systems facilitate or inhibit aggression when provoked
Aggression more likely to occur with frontal lobe damage
Biochemical influences
Testosterone linked with irritability, assertiveness,
impulsiveness, and low tolerance for frustration; alcohol effect
Psychological and Social-Cultural Factors in
Aggression
Aversive events
Frustration-aggression principle: Frustration
creates anger, which can spark aggression
Other anger triggers
Hot temperatures, physical pain, personal insults, foul
odors, cigarette smoke, and crowding, among others
Previous reinforcement for aggressive behavior,
observing an aggressive role model, and poor self-
control
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Richard Larrick and his colleagues (2011) looked for occurrences of batters hit by pitchers during 4,566,468 pitcher–batter matchups across 57,293 Major League Baseball games since 1952. The probability of a hit batter increased if one or more of the pitcher’s teammates had been hit, and also with temperature.
Psychological and Social-Cultural Factors in
Aggression
Media portrayals of violence provide social
scripts that children learn to follow.
Viewing sexual violence contributes to greater
aggression toward women .
Playing violent video games increases
aggressive thoughts, emotions, and behaviors.
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Social script: A culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations
Psychological and Social-Cultural Influences
on Aggression
Do violent video games teach
social scripts for violence?
Nearly 400 studies of 130,000
people suggest video games
can prime aggressive
thoughts, decrease empathy,
and increase aggression.
Some researchers dispute this
finding and note other factors:
depression, family violence,
and peer influence.
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Coincidence or cause? In 2011, Norwegian Anders Behring Breivik bombed government buildings in Oslo, and then went to a youth camp, where he shot and
killed 69 people, mostly teens.�
As a player of first-person shooter games, Breivik stirred debate when he commented that “I see MW2 [Modern Warfare 2] more as a part of my training-simulation than anything else.” Did his violent game playing contribute to his violence, or was it a mere coincidental association? To explore such questions, psychologists experiment.
Experiments in North America, Western Europe, Singapore, and Japan indicate that playing positive games produces positive effects (Gentile et al., 2009; Greitemeyer & Osswald, 2010).
Biopsychosocial Understanding of
Aggression
Altruism is an unselfish concern for the welfare
of others.
People are most likely to help when they notice an
incident, interpret it as an emergency, and assume
responsibility for helping (Darley et al.).
Odds for being helped increase if the person appears
to deserve help or is a woman.
Similarity to self, being unhurried or in a good mood,
feeling guilty, and being focused on others and not
preoccupied also raise the likelihood of being helped.
Tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to
give aid if other bystanders are present
Occurs when there is a diffusion of responsibility
Presenter
Presentation Notes
Before helping, one must first notice an emergency, then correctly interpret it, and then feel responsible. (Adapted from Darley & Latané, 1968b.)
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Bystander effect
▪ Kitty Genovese Legacy
▪ Tendency for any given
bystander to be less
likely to give aid if other
bystanders are present
▪ Occurs when there is a
diffusion of responsibility
Positive social norms encourage generosity and
enable group living.
Socialization norm: Social expectation that
prescribes how we should behave
Reciprocity norm: Expectation that people will
respond favorably to each other by returning
benefits for benefit (cost-benefit analysis;
utilitarianism; social exchange theory)
Social-responsibility norm: Expectation that
people should help those who depend on them
- Social Psychology
- Social Psychology
Scientific study of how individuals think about, influence, and relate to one another - Slide Number 5
- Slide Number 12
- Attitudes are feelings influenced by beliefs, that predispose reactions to objects, people, and events.
- Zimbardo’s Prison Experiment The Power of Situation
- What Is Conformity?
- What Are the Classic Conformity and Obedience Studies?
- Behavior in the Presence of Others: Three Phenomena
- Psychological and Social-Cultural Factors in Aggression
- Psychological and Social-Cultural Influences on Aggression
- Biopsychosocial Understanding of Aggression
Chapter Overview
Social Thinking
How Do We Explain Our Social World?
Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE)
Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE)
Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE)
Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE)
Social Thinking
Fundamental Attribution Error – Me vs You
Attitudes Affect Actions
Actions Affect Attitudes (part 2)
Actions Affect Attitudes – your doings build your beliefs.
Social Thinking (part 4)
Actions conflict with Attitudes conflict with Actions
Social Influence
Chameleon effect
Conformity and Obedience
More Classic Conformity and Obedience Studies?
More Classic Conformity and Obedience Studies?
Group Pressure and Conformity
People May Conform for Many Reasons
Why Conform?
Classic Conformity and Obedience Studies
Milgram’s Obedience Experiments
Milgram’s Obedience Experiments
Milgram’s Follow-up Obedience Experiment
Milgram’s Obedience Experiments
Group Behavior (part 1)
Group Behavior (part 2)
Home Advantage in Team Sports
Group Behavior (part 3)
Group Behavior (part 4)
Deindividuation
Group Polarization and Groupthink
Group Polarization
Antisocial Relations (part 1)
Antisocial Relations (part 2)
Antisocial Relations (part 3)
Antisocial Relations (part 4)
Explicit and Implicit Prejudice
Prejudice Over Time
Targets of Prejudice (part 1)
Targets of Prejudice (part 2)
Targets of Prejudice (part 3)
Roots of Prejudice (part 1)
Roots of Prejudice (part 2)
Roots of Prejudice (part 3)
Cognitive Shortcuts
Categorizing Mixed-Race People
Vivid Cases Feed Stereotypes
The Biology of Aggression
Temperature and Retaliation
Psychological and Social-Cultural Factors in Aggression
Altruism (part 1)
Altruism (part 2)
Bystander effect
The Norms for Helping