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Literature Review and Analysis

For the final assignment, students will select a topic in educational psychology. Find at least five scholarly articles, in addition to the textbook, from the Ashford University Library on that topic, and prepare a literature review and analysis in addition to a summary of implications.

A literature review is a summary of how your research articles supported your thesis statement. Be sure to consider opposing views in your literature review. Here are some resources to help you understand the process better:

Literature review guidelines

Write a literature review

Learn how to write a review of literature

How to write a literature review

Assignment Instructions

To complete the Literature Review and Analysis, follow these steps:

1. Select a topic of interest relevant to the field of educational psychology. Your topic must address one of the categories below:

a. The teacher’s role in the diagnosis, treatment, and education of the child with attention deficit hyperactive disorder.

b. Critical thinking and its importance in education in making students better thinkers and developing metacognitive skills.

c. Strategies for adapting the classroom to meet the needs of the exceptional student (ex. Autistic, gifted, English Language Learner, etc.)

d. The current level of violent acts committed in schools and efforts to stop them.

e. The role of genetics and environment in determining intelligence.

f. The effectiveness of various initiatives to improve education such as the “Common Core State Standards.”

g. The “Gender Gap” in Education.

h. The impact of affective issues on student learning.

i. Strategies for how and why teachers can incorporate affective activities into their daily instruction.

If you have another topic of interest, please provide your research topic to your instructor for approval during your Week Four, Discussion Three.

2. Narrow your topic and turn it into a question. Your thesis statement aims to answer this question. This can also guide your search for articles.

3. Once a topic/research question has been selected, search for five research articles from scholarly sources that address your topic. Your articles must be empirically based, meaning they involve a research study. Your articles must also be current, meaning they have been published post-2000.

4. After reading your articles, write your paper. Your paper must have the following criteria. Be sure to use these headings in your paper:

a. Introduction: Be sure to clearly state your topic of choice for your research, why you selected it, and a clear thesis statement. Your thesis statement is your position on this topic. You must be able to support your position with research from your articles.

b. Literature Review (Body of Paper): A literature review is a summary of how your research articles supported your thesis statement. Be sure to consider opposing views in your literature review. See the resources above to help you understand the process better.

c. Analysis: In this section, you will analyze your findings from the articles and answer these questions: With which points did you agree and/or disagree and why? Which points resonated with you and why? Which points need further clarification and why? How does educational psychology support your understanding of your topic? All of your statements need to be supported by evidence from the required sources you referenced to create this review.

d. Summary of Practical Implications: Describe how this knowledge will support your role as an educator. Make a list of three to four practical implications and describe each one.

e. Conclusions: After your review and analysis of the literature, describe the ideas you have formulated based on the research. Describe any lingering questions about the topic you would want to know more about and why further study is warranted.

Click to view an

example

of this week’s final project.

The Final Assignment:

1. Must be formatted according to APA style as outlined in the Ashford Writing Center.

2. Must include an APA formatted title page with the following:

o Title of paper

o Student’s name

o Course name and number

o Instructor’s name

o Date Submitted

3. Must address the topic with critical thought and adhere to the assignment instructions. When thinking critically, you will need to engage in higher levels of thinking that require you to examine, evaluate, and analyze your chosen topic. You will be required to actively reflect on multiple perspectives (to eliminate any bias) presented in your research to support your reasoning. Remember, any claims you make must be supported with evidence from your scholarly research.

4. Must be at least eight- to ten-pages in length.

5. Must include a reference page with all sources in APA style, as outlined in the Ashford Writing Center.

My topic would be around the subject:

Gender gaps’ in education have been a big problem in most nations’ fields of education. Differences in education regarding the boy child and girl child have been a big gender disparity since most nations treat both genders equally (Jarecka-Zyluk & Holz, 2014). Education disparities are observed from various angles in the field of education. Such a measure is girl child education. Most communities in the various nations of the world term to be less important; thus, they receive a varied quality of education than the boy child.

References

Jarecka-Zyluk, M., & Holz, O. (2014). Gender and education from different angles. LIT Verlag Münster.

Required Text

LeFrançois, G. R. (2018).

Psychology for teaching

(2nd ed.). Retrieved from https://content.ashford.edu

This text is a Constellation™ course digital materials (CDM) title.

Required Resources

Articles

Alvarado, B. (2017, July 21).

Texas school district to begin paddling as punishment (Links to an external site.)

. USA Today. Retrieved from https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation-now/2017/07/21/school-paddling/499177001/

Boyles, N. (2013).

Closing in on close reading

. Educational leadership, 70(4). 36-41. Retrieved from http://www.ascd.org/publications/educational-leadership/dec12/vol70/num04/Closing-in-on-Close-Reading.aspx

Council of Chief State School Officers. (2011, April).

Intasc model core teaching standards: A resource for state dialogue

. (Links to an external site.)

Retrieved from http://www.ccsso.org/documents/2011/intasc_model_core_teaching_standards_2011

Kids Together, Inc. (n.d.).

What is inclusion?

Retrieved from http://www.kidstogether.org/inclusion.htm

Layton, J. (2017, Jan 18).

Corporal punishment continues in U.S. schools, despite its ineffectiveness (Links to an external site.)

. Retrieved from http://health.howstuffworks.com/mental-health/human-nature/behavior/corporal-punishment-continues-us-schools-its-ineffectiveness.htm

Thompkins, R. & Deloney, P. (1995).

Inclusion: The pros and cons (Links to an external site.)

. Issues..about Change, 4(3). Retrieved from http://www.sedl.org/change/issues/issues43.html

Multimedia

Education Elements. (2012).

The fundamentals of blended learning (Links to an external site.)

[Video file] Retrieved from http://vimeopro.com/edelements/education-elements/video/29536658

EngageNY (2018, March 18).

Teacher interviews – Six Common Core shifts professional development (Links to an external site.)

[Video]. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/HUhaNUwriOQ

Khan, S. [edutopia]. (2012, December 18th).

Salman Khan describes future classrooms with blended learning. (Links to an external site.)

[Video file].
Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vwyOv7PiC40&feature=youtu.be

WeAreTeachers. (2012, November 14th).

How the common core is changing assessment. (Links to an external site.)

[Video file].
Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N6kdyqeoiSI

wetalearningmedia. (2008, May 19th).

Watch & learn: text comprehension (Links to an external site.)

[Video file].
Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rbnwBVrJVdY

Websites

Center for Parent Information and Resources. (n.d.).

School inclusion. (Links to an external site.)

Retrieved from http://www.parentcenterhub.org/repository/inclusion

Free IQ Test (Links to an external site.)

. (Links to an external site.) (n.d.). Retrieved from https://iqtestprep.com/long-iq-test/

Lyons, K. (2010). How to write a literature review. Retrieved from http://library.concordia.ca/help/howto/litreview.php

Multiple Intelligences for Adult Literacy and Education. (n.d.).

Multiple intelligences — Assessment (Links to an external site.)

. Retrieved from http://www.literacynet.org/mi/assessment/findyourstrengths.html

O’Neill, J., Levant, R., Watts, R., Smiler, A., Addis, M., & Wester, S. (n.d.). Literature review guidelines.American Psychological Association. Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/men/literature-review-guidelines.aspx

The Writing Center at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. (2012).

Learn how to write a review of literature.

Retrieved from http://writing.wisc.edu/Handbook/ReviewofLiterature.html

University of California Santa Cruz. (n.d.). Write a literature review. Retrieved from http://guides.library.ucsc.edu/write-a-literature-review

107107

4Exceptionality and Teaching for Diversity

Rawpixel/iStock/Thinkstock

Learning Objectives

After studying this chapter you will be able to:

ሁ Define giftedness and explain how it is identified and addressed in the classroom.
ሁ Analyze how a teacher’s attitudes and teaching styles affect creativity.
ሁ Identify the dimensions of exceptionality.
ሁ Define the common classifications of intellectual exceptionality.
ሁ Evaluate the concept of multicultural education.

If you have built castles in the air, your work need not be lost;
that is where they should be. Now put the foundations under them.

—Henry David Thoreau

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108

Introduction

Pretest

Determine if the following statements are true or false.

1. Research has found that providing gifted and talented students with accelerated
education is harmful to them socially. (T/F)

2. Mainstreaming leads to inclusive classrooms, where students with disabilities ar

included in the regular education classroom. (T/F)

3. Parents of students with severe or multiple disabilities need to pay for the entirety of
their child’s education. (T/F)

4. Individuals with dyslexia have below-average intelligence. (T/F)
5. Culture differs from race in that culture includes genetic components of group

membership. (T/F)
6. Some of the main opponents of bilingual education are parents of Hispanic students who

fear that their children are not learning English quickly enough. (T/F)

Answers can be found at the end of the chapter.

Introduction
Today’s schools are vastly different from yesterday’s schools. And not just because of the
appearance of newfangled technologies like computers, smartphones, and social media, but
more because today’s average, ordinary classroom typically contains a sometimes bewil-
dering diversity of students. For one thing, North American societies are becoming increas-
ingly multicultural; for another, legislation now mandates that, wherever possible, children
with exceptionalities be educated in ordinary classrooms with other students. As a result,
the teacher’s roles and responsibilities have become increasingly complex, as we see in this
chapter.

“Suppose,” Ms. Lebron said, “suppose you have a wild cow . . . no, make that a
demented goose. . . .” Some of us chuckled a bit, squirming ahead in our seats
to get closer and not miss anything. Ms. Lebron often began her lessons this
way, especially when we were unsettled from recess. All she had to say was
“suppose”—a rich word, pregnant with implications—and we would collectively
hold our breath and listen for what was to come next. And when, in the same
short sentence, she would wave in front of us an image like that of a wild cow or
a demented goose, she had us—attention riveted, unwavering.

“A demented, cross-eyed goose,” she continued. “A goose with a completely
unnatural passion for Ford cars.” Barney tittered suddenly, loudly, perhaps
knowing or suspecting something about demented geese or unnatural passions
the rest of us were not yet aware of.

“Now suppose this goose is flying along at 30 miles an hour and he looks
down and sees that he is directly over a Ford that’s going in the same direction,
only it’s going just 20 miles an hour. Well, the goose is tempted to go right down
to this car, but when he looks out in the distance, he sees another Ford that is
exactly 120 miles away and it’s coming directly toward the first Ford at a steady
speed of 40 miles an hour.

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109

Section 4.1 The Talented and the Gifted

“So the goose leaves the first Ford and flies straight toward the second one
at 30 miles an hour. But when he gets to the second Ford, he remembers the first,
changes his mind, and turns right around and flies right back to the first Ford.
But when he gets there, he turns around again and flies right back to the second,
always at 30 miles an hour and always without slowing down—back and forth
and back and forth, until finally the two Fords run, kaboom! smack into each
other.

“The question is,” Ms. Lebron announced into the expectant silence—and we
knew that we had again been seduced into a math problem—“the question is,
how far will that goose have flown before the two cars run into each other?”

Stan raised his hand at once: “I know the answer! Can I tell it?”
“Just write it down and hand it to me.” We knew that Stan’s answer would

be correct, although I couldn’t for the life of me see how he could have figured
it out so fast. Most of the rest of us wrestled with the problem, writing numbers,
dividing, multiplying, drawing lines, trying to figure out how many turns the
goose would make and how much shorter each one would be. For his part, Bar-
ney drew exquisite replicas of two Ford cars, one in each of the bottom corners
of a sheet of paper. Then he sketched a clearly delirious cross-eyed goose in one
upper corner, drew a line from that corner to the other, and then curved the line
down in a series of diminishing esses until it reached the bottom center of the
page. He then measured this line with a ruler and a string and announced, “374
miles—give or take a few.” There was something about demented geese that
Barney apparently didn’t know.

4.1 The Talented and the Gifted
“That is an excellent goose!” Ms. Lebron announced. She seemed truly proud, as if she were
somehow responsible for Barney’s being able to draw and paint so well. “May I show it to the
others, even if the goose didn’t fly quite 374 miles?” And even Barney was proud. One of Ms.
Lebron’s greatest gifts as a teacher was that she recognized gifts and talents in others and
encouraged them and made their owners feel proud.

Education doesn’t always recognize talents and giftedness. Historically, with some notable
exceptions, most school jurisdictions have not offered special programs for gifted children.
And those that have were never quite certain which children to include in these programs.

Defining Talent and Giftedness
Who are the gifted and talented? Our concept of these terms remains unclear. And although
the terms talent and giftedness are often used interchangeably, they mean different things.
Giftedness refers to exceptional general ability often evident in superior performance on
measures of intelligence and achievement. The National Association for Gifted Children
defines gifted individuals as “those who demonstrate outstanding levels of aptitude (defined
as an exceptional ability to reason and learn) or competence (documented performance or
achievement in top 10% or rarer) in one or more domains” (Definitions of Giftedness, 2016).
Talent is a narrower term; it refers to remarkable performance in a specific field like art and
design, physical education, performance arts such as dance or drama, or music. The most
precocious of the highly talented are sometimes referred to as prodigies.

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Section 4.1 The Talented and the Gifted

As an example of the distinction between the terms gifted and talented, compare the gifted
Almira—who receives stunningly impressive grades in all her academic subjects—with the
highly talented Rodriguez who, at the age of 6, could already play a host of musical instruments
with such dexterity, emotion, and grace that his grandmother wept to hear him. Although the
distinctions might seem clear in theory, in practice they are not so clear. Very often, those who
are gifted will also be talented, and those who are talented will also be exceptionally gifted.
And because the distinctions between the two aren’t very distinct or important, the phrase
talented and gifted has become common in education. It includes all of those who require
special educational services because of their exceptional abilities.

The concept of giftedness was clarified somewhat in 1969, following the passage of U.S. Pub-
lic Law 91-230. A section of this law (806) relates directly to the talented and gifted and
includes the following definition, which is still the most common basis for state definitions of
giftedness:

Gifted and talented children are those identified by professionally qualified per-
sons who by virtue of outstanding abilities are capable of high performance.
These are children who require differentiated educational programs and/or
services beyond those normally provided by the regular school programs in
order to realize their contribution to self and society.

The law goes on to state that high achievement and high potential for achievement may be
found in any one or more of five areas:

1. General intellectual ability
2. Specific academic aptitude
3. Creative or productive thinking
4. Leadership ability
5. Visual and performing arts

Defining giftedness and establishing criteria for admission to this group are particularly
important where special programs are available for gifted and talented children. The defini-
tion and criteria are used to determine which children are eligible for special programs. By
the same token, they determine which children are ineligible. Because of biases in identifica-
tion procedures, non-European and economically disadvantaged children tend to be overrep-
resented among programs for those with specific learning disabilities, emotional disorders,
and related disabilities; similarly, they are often underrepresented among the talented and
the gifted (Briggs, Reis, & Sullivan, 2008).

Identifying Gifted Children
Those who are talented and gifted are typically identified by their performance on group intel-
ligence tests, through teachers’ nominations, through assessment of portfolios (collections
of samples of student work), sometimes through performances and auditions, and perhaps
through an individual intelligence test (Pfeiffer & Blei, 2008). Unfortunately, what is perhaps
the most common identification method, teachers’ nominations of gifted students, is some-
times heavily biased in favor of students who achieve exceptionally well in school subjects
and who appear to be highly motivated. This means that gifted underachievers are typically
excluded. When Rost and Hanses (1997) looked at teachers’ ratings for 7,000 third-grade

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111

Section 4.1 The Talented and the Gifted

students, they found that more than two-thirds of the highly gifted underachievers had been
overlooked.

The use of intelligence tests to select the gifted does not resolve all problems, given the ambi-
guity and confusion that often surround their use. As we saw in Chapter 3, what these tests
measure isn’t entirely clear. They tell us very little about important factors such as motivation,
persistence, and other personality variables. And whatever they measure, they don’t always
measure very accurately.

In effect, then, what happens in practice with respect to identifying gifted children often does
not reflect official definitions of giftedness. In the majority of cases, general intellectual abil-
ity and academic achievement are taken into consideration, but these are only two of the five
criteria identified by the U.S. public law that defines giftedness. Although special talents and
abilities (creative ability, leadership qualities, and talents in visual and performing arts) may
affect teachers’ nominations, they are seldom part of formal identification procedures.

Characteristics of the Gifted
By definition, the talented and gifted are marked by a significant advantage in intelligence,
creativity, performance, or motivation—or, most likely, all four. Many of them come from con-
texts where their gifts and talents are not only nurtured but are highly valued as well (Sen &
Sharma, 2013).

But are the gifted identifiably different from their classmates in other, more negative, ways?
Are they more likely to be geeks and social misfits? The answer is a resounding no. In fact,
research indicates that the gifted are often as athletic, physically attractive, well-adjusted,
insightful, and popular as those who are less gifted (Jenaabadi, Marziyeh, & Dadkan, 2015).

Table 4.1 summarizes some of the many characteristics that various researchers have
reported as being descriptive of the talented and gifted. Note that some of these might also be
characteristic of those less gifted.

Table 4.1: Possible characteristics of the talented and the gifted
in four areas

Intellectual
(academic) giftedness Creative giftedness Artistic giftedness Leadership talent

• Memorize material
easily

• Learn rapidly
• Advanced

vocabulary
• Curious and

inquisitive
• Achieve at a high

level

• Independent
thinkers

• Seek novelty
• Highly curious
• Marked by fluency

of ideas
• Openness
• Tolerant of

complexity
• Sense of humor
• Improvise solutions

• Self-chosen artistic
activity

• Self-study and
practice for self-
improvement

• Experiment in area
of artistic interest

• Demonstrate
confidence

• High achievement in
area of interest

• High degree of
organization

• High social
intelligence

• Work well in groups
• Recognized as

leaders by peers
• Willingly accept

leadership role
• Self-confident
• Highly adaptable

Source: Based on Clark, B. (2013). Growing up gifted: Developing the potential of children at school and at home (8th ed.). Boston,
MA: Pearson; Kettler, T. (Ed). (2016). A differentiated approach to critical thinking in curriculum design. Waco, TX: Prufrock Press.

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112

Section 4.1 The Talented and the Gifted

Prevalence of Giftedness
Estimates of the prevalence of gifted and talented children vary considerably. Some research-
ers argue that as many as 20 percent of all children have the potential to become gifted (Ren-
zulli, 2008). In the U.S. Department of Education’s 2010 survey of U.S. schools, an impressive
6.7 percent of the total enrollment was classified as gifted and talented (Figure 4.1).

Figure 4.1: Gifted and talented students in U.S. schools
ሁ 6.7% is the total percentage of public elementary- and secondary-school students in the United

States who are considered gifted and talented.

Source: National Center for Education Statistics, 2010 Tables and Figures. Retrieved October 23, 2016, from https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d10
/tables/dt10_049.asp

Gifted and talented students
as a percentage of total U.S.
elementary and secondary

enrollment

Female TotalMale

6.3 6.77.0P
e
rc

e
n

ta
g

Ethnic minorities are vastly underrepresented in special programs for the gifted (Bracken,
2008). Although in some cases their backgrounds might have impeded the development of
the cognitive skills and motivation essential for performance at a high level, that is clearly not
always the case.

Because there are insufficient programs for gifted learners, educators tend to err on the side
of under- rather than overidentification.

Programs for the Gifted
There are two broad approaches to educating the gifted: acceleration and enrichment. Each
of these can occur in the regular classroom; each might also involve what is termed ability
grouping.

Ability grouping implies segregating the gifted either in separate classes or sometimes even in
special schools. These schools, sometimes termed magnet schools, typically have very strin-
gent entrance requirements and highly developed programs designed to foster the develop-
ment of talents and gifts. Not all magnet schools cater solely to those identified as gifted and
talented in a general sense; many are designed for students with special interests in specific
areas like math and science, the arts, or sports.

Programs that accelerate simply move students more rapidly through the conventional cur-
riculum, exposing them to the same material as other students. Grade skipping is the most
common form of acceleration. Grade skipping is generally a response to a single student’s

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https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d10/tables/dt10_049.asp

113

Section 4.1 The Talented and the Gifted

achievement rather than a general, schoolwide program for gifted learners. Although this
practice rewards the student for past accomplishments, it does little to modify the curriculum
to make it more appropriate.

Programs that enrich provide students with additional school experiences in an attempt to
deepen and broaden their knowledge and capabilities. One well-known enrichment approach
is Renzulli’s (1977) school enrichment model (SEM), also called the revolving door model
(Renzulli & Reis, 2008). This approach selects gifted individuals on the basis of three char-
acteristics: above-average academic ability, high creative potential, and high motivation
(task commitment). Any of the students selected may then enter enrichment programs and
drop out of them as they wish (hence, the revolving door). The programs vary according to
the expressed interests of the students. Under this model, enrichment programs tend to be
schoolwide rather than restricted to specific classes or students.

Research on Acceleration and Enrichment
The relative merits of acceleration and enrichment have long been debated among educators.
One common argument against acceleration is that it might be harmful to move students
much beyond their social and psychological levels of development, that they might eventually
no longer “fit in” socially with their peers. Enrichment, on the other hand, does not separate
gifted children from their age and grade level peers and would not be expected to have the
same negative consequences.

The research, however, indicates that the fear that acceleration might cause social or emo-
tional harm to gifted learners is generally unfounded (Plucker & Callahan, 2014). The evi-
dence suggests that different forms of acceleration such as entering school early, skipping
grades, and entering college early appear to have clearly positive effects. This is especially
true for gifted learners who are carefully selected on the basis of academic, social, and emo-
tional maturity. It may be less true for students selected for acceleration solely on the basis of
high IQ or advanced social maturity.

Tutoring, Mentoring, and IEPs
Other approaches to teaching the gifted
include the use of tutors, mentors, and indi-
vidualized education plans (IEPs).

A tutor is a one-on-one teacher. Tutoring is
one of the most effective ways to teach, says
Bloom (1984). However, it is far more likely
to be used with learners who are having
difficulty than with the gifted and talented.
When used with gifted learners, tutoring is
often carried out by adults or older students,
sometimes in what are termed study-buddy
programs. It can also be conducted by peers;
in this case it may be called peer-assisted
learning (PAL). Many studies have reported
highly positive results for peer tutoring (for
example, Weidner & Popp, 2007).

Marie Lefrançois/Marie’s Photography
ሁ Tutoring can be carried out by peers or older

students, which has proven to be highly beneficial
to both the tutor and the learner.

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Section 4.1 The Talented and the Gifted

A mentor is an individual who serves as a sort of intellectual and psychological guide. Unlike
tutoring, which is generally limited to instructing, mentoring implies a close relationship on
a variety of levels. The mentor may be a role model, consultant, advisor, source of wisdom—
even a sort of protector. Hence, the term protégé (the protected one) is often used to signify
the one who is mentored. Investigations of the effectiveness of mentoring are generally highly
positive (for example, Dennison, 2000).

Another approach to the education of the gifted involves self-directed and independent study,
often using IEPs as a guide. These are specific descriptions of educational activities specially
designed for individual students according to their needs and talents. IEPs are widely used
for children with special needs, their use having been mandated in the United States by a
1975 law (PL 94-142) later reaffirmed by the No Child Left Behind act (which has now been
replaced by the Every Student Succeeds Act).

Suggestions for the Classroom Teacher
Many gifted and talented children remain in regular classrooms and lack access to any formal
“special” education. Do schools do what they can (or should) for gifted and creative students?
Perhaps not, if Ms. Bourgeois’ class is any indication (see the case entitled “Your Dad’s Not the
Teacher”).

C A S E S F R O M T H E C L A S S R O O M :
Y O U R D A D ’ S N O T T H E T E A C H E R

The Setting: Ms. Adèle Bourgeois’ third-grade arithmetic class. The class has been learning
odd and even numbers.

Ms. Bourgeois: So who can tell me, you should all know this by now, which numbers
between 1 and 10 can be divided by 2?

Thomas: All the even ones—2, 4, 6, 8, and 10!

Ms. Bourgeois: Very good, Thomas. That’s exactly right.

Claire: That’s not right.

Ms. Bourgeois (annoyed): What’s that, Claire?

Claire: That’s not right. I mean, not just the even numbers.

Ms. Bourgeois (quite angry): You always think you know better than the book, don’t you?

Claire (more timidly, but sticking to her guns): But the odd ones too. My dad said . . .

Ms. Bourgeois: Your dad isn’t the teacher. How d’you suppose you’d divide 5 by 2, hunh?
Weren’t you paying any attention at all when we talked about how all even numbers can be
divided by 2?

Claire, red-faced, shrugs and whispers “2 1/2” too softly for Ms. Bourgeois to hear.

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Section 4.1 The Talented and the Gifted

Schools have traditionally been geared toward developing students who are obedient, accept-
ing of other people’s ideas, popular, punctual, courteous, and respectful. Academic success has
been fostered by memorization and the ability to recognize and replicate accepted answers
and procedures. Flexibility, risk taking, originality, inventiveness, and nonconformity are
absent from these lists. Claire, like all other students in her class, was expected to learn a
simple odd-even rule and to repeat it when asked.

Many highly gifted and talented students, note Torrance and Sisk (1997), achieve at levels far
below what might be expected on the basis of their capabilities. Why? Because, these authors
argue, they are simply not motivated to achieve at their highest potential. Their lack of moti-
vation may have any of a variety of sources.

First, and perhaps most important, say Torrance and Sisk, is that learners cannot see any rela-
tionship between real life and what they are asked to learn. Second, many of the highly gifted
lose their motivation following repeated exposure to evaluation systems that are shallow,
meaningless, and totally inadequate. Third, teaching often presents gifted learners with tasks
that are too ridiculously simple to maintain their interest. And fourth, many school programs
do not ask, or permit, gifted learners to use their most unique talents, nor do they provide
them with an opportunity to learn according to their preferred learning styles.

The result of these shortcomings of schools, programs, evaluation systems, and parental and
teacher expectations may well be a stifling of motivation and ambition and an appalling lack
of achievement among those who could easily be society’s very best achievers.

But teachers can do specific things to teach students different ways of thinking and perhaps
foster giftedness and creative thinking. Among these are a variety of problem-solving tech-
niques, one of which is brainstorming.

Brainstorming
Brainstorming has been widely used in business as well as in many school programs designed
to foster creativity. Developed by Alex Osborn (1957), brainstorming is a process that simply
asks individuals to produce a wide variety of ideas while deliberately suspending judgment
about the appropriateness of any of them. This, the principle of deferred evaluation, is prob-
ably the most important characteristic of brainstorming. It leads to the production of far more
ideas than would be possible if evaluation were permitted.

Brainstorming in a classroom might involve the entire class, often divided into smaller
groups, and last either all or only part of a class period. However, brainstorming is not always
a group approach; nor does it always require face-to-face interaction. For example, it might
involve interaction by means of computers—termed electronic brainstorming; or it might
be entirely individual rather than involving groups (termed nominal brainstorming).

In a brainstorming session, the leader (teacher) explains a few simple rules: Criticizing ideas is
discouraged; modifying other ideas is encouraged; the emphasis is on producing many ideas;
and all ideas are permitted, no matter how wild or unusual they might seem. The teacher then
describes the problem to be solved, and the session begins. During the session, participants
are encouraged to stay focused, not to tell stories or try to explain ideas, and everyone is

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Section 4.1 The Talented and the Gifted

urged to participate (Paulus et al., 2006). Various checklists for stimulating ideas might also
be used. Table 4.2 shows how a checklist might be applied to a general problem in classroom
management.

Table 4.2: Application of a creative brainstorming checklist to the
question: How many suggestions can you make for different ways to
manage a classroom?

Checklist Explanation Some possibilities suggested by the checklist

Adapt Use ideas from other
sources

Run class like a factory, like a prison, like a casino,
like a resort, like a religion, like a military camp, like a
playground . . .

Modify Change Change the composition of the class; change teaching
methods; change approach to discipline problems; change
school hours . . .

Magnify Make larger Increase class size; increase number of teachers; increase
number of assignments; increase size of desks; increase
difficulty of assignments; increase magnitude of punishment
or reinforcement; lengthen school day . . .

Minify Make smaller Decrease class size; decrease number of assignments;
decrease size of paper, pencil, books; reduce number of
reprimands; reduce number of school days; shorten school
day; shorten summer holidays . . .

Put to
other uses

Put to an unexpected use Students are given the responsibility of entertaining the
school at a social evening; students are encouraged to teach
rather than learn; to correct assignments rather than do
them . . .

Substitute Exchange Replace teacher; replace entire class; exchange one or more
members of the class with students from another class;
change class venue . . .

Rearrange Reorganize, reorder, resort Change physical aspects of class; change seating plan; hold
classes in another school . . .

Reverse Turn around; do the
opposite

Turn desks to face the rear, the side, the front; have teacher
face the opposite direction; exchange teacher-student roles;
hold classes during the evening . . .

Combine Bring together; join Combine one or more of previous suggestions; combine
teaching-learning function with other function such
as entertainment, problem solving, or discussion of
noncurricular topics of interest . . .

Classroom Climate and Teaching Styles
Classroom climate, the general atmosphere of a classroom, seems to be related to the encour-
agement of giftedness and creativity as well as to achievement, care and respect among stu-
dents, and social competence (for example, McLellan & Nicholl, 2013; de Souza Fleith, 2014).

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Section 4.2 Teaching Those With Disabilities

However, without further clarification, phrases like “general atmosphere of a classroom” are
uncomfortably vague, far from scientific, and not particularly useful.

One way of describing classroom climate is in terms of the quality of emotional and instruc-
tional supports provided for students. Many studies have found that a positive and support-
ive classroom climate, coupled with high-quality instruction, are highly predictive of student
achievement and positive student behavior (Matsumura, Slater, & Crosson, 2008). In Corlett’s
(2007) words, “the importance of establishing a positive classroom culture and climate of
trust cannot be underestimated” (p. 47). Teachers need to be positive and caring, explain
these authors; they also need to build rapport with their students, as well as trust and respect.

Classroom climate can also be described in terms of instructional approaches or teach-
ing style. A teaching style is an identifiable group of teaching activities and routines. Thus,
researchers speak of styles that reflect specific methods of instructing (for example, the lec-
turing style, the questioning style, the role-playing style). Or they speak of styles that reflect
the teacher’s predominant relationship with students or the major roles that each assumes
(for example, authoritarian versus democratic, teacher-centered versus learner-centered,
traditional versus progressive).

Haddon and Lytton (1968) describe two types of schools, which they label “formal” and
“informal.” Formal schools are characterized by a teacher-centered, authoritarian approach
to learning and teaching. Teachers who adopt a formal teaching style tend to teach each
subject separately, emphasize individual rather than group work, assign class seating, restrict
students’ movements, emphasize assessment and achievement, and make extensive use of
external motivators such as grades.

In contrast, informal schools tend to emphasize self-initiated learning and greater student
participation; they are more student-centered (more constructivist). Teachers who use an
informal teaching style tend to integrate subjects, provide students with considerable free-
dom for determining their activities, typically allow students to select their own seating, do
not emphasize tests and academic achievement, and tend to rely on internal sources of moti-
vation like self-satisfaction.

There is some evidence that students in informal schools do better on measures of creative
thinking than do students of comparable intelligence and socioeconomic status who attend
formal schools (Haddon & Lytton, 1968).

4.2 Teaching Those With Disabilities
Most of the human population is what we consider normal or average—although each of us is
different from every other person. But there are some who, in one or more ways, are different
from the average. These are children who, from an educational, social, and sometimes medi-
cal point of view, can be described as having special needs.

Among them are those about whom we have been talking: those who are far more talented
and gifted than the average. These include the exceptionally academically gifted and talented,
those who are endowed with superior motor skills, and those who are socially gifted. The
special needs of these learners must be attended to if they are to develop their potential.

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Section 4.2 Teaching Those With Disabilities

Note that the term exceptionality includes those less intelligent or less creative, those with
physical and motor disabilities, and those with emotional and adjustment problems as well as
the talented and gifted. That is, the term exceptional applies equally to those to whom nature
and nurture have been noticeably generous and to those to whom nature and nurture have
been much less kind.

Knowing how to identify exceptional children—and knowing, as well, how to administer the
programs and resources available for them—has always been an essential part of the train-
ing of special education teachers. These are teachers whose express function is to provide
educational services for children with special needs.

In recent years, however, the special needs of exceptional children have also become impor-
tant to the regular classroom teacher—particularly since the passage of a series of federal
laws. Public Law 94-142, which came into effect in 1975, attempted to correct the injustices
that have sometimes existed in the treatment of exceptional children. This law gave special-
ists like psychologists and special education teachers most of the responsibility for identify-
ing children with exceptionalities and providing services for them. The law was amended in
1990 by the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) and reauthorized by the
U.S. Congress in 1995. Then, in 2004, it was reauthorized and changed with the passage of
the No Child Left Behind act, and its name was changed to the Individuals with Disabilities
Education Improvement Act (IDEIA). The No Child Left Behind act has now been replaced
by a new education law: the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA). This act, signed in 2015,
along with various related court interpretations associated with the No Child Left Behind act,
has been largely instrumental in revolutionizing how schools deal with exceptionality.

The broad goal of ESSA is to ensure that all learners receive the best possible educational
experiences regardless of their gifts, talents, and challenges. Among other things, the law pro-
vides some important guarantees for children with special needs and for their parents (IDEA
2004 Statute Changes, 2010), including:

• Zero rejection and parent participation
• Education in the “least restrictive environment”
• Free and appropriate educational services
• Fair, nondiscriminatory evaluation and due process of law
• An individualized education plan (IEP)

We look at each of these provisions in the next five sections.

Zero Rejection and Parent Participation
The stipulation that there be “zero rejection” refers to the principle that all children, regard-
less of how severe their disabilities, are entitled to all the provisions of IDEIA. That is, all
are entitled to free and appropriate educational services including individualized education
plans, nondiscriminatory evaluation, and due process of law. The law also guarantees zero
rejection for children with special needs who might otherwise be excluded from special pro-
grams for disciplinary reasons.

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Section 4.2 Teaching Those With Disabilities

In general, when faced with a serious disciplinary problem, school administrators are allowed
to suspend a child with a disability for up to 10 days. In the case of serious disciplinary issues
(drugs, weapons, or injury to self or other students), students may be suspended for as many
as 45 days. After that, the child’s IEP team, which is made up of teachers, parents, and special-
ists, is required to determine the extent to which the discipline problem might be related to
the child’s disability and whether it might also relate to the school’s failure to implement the
IEP.

The Act’s guarantee of parent participation grants parents the right to participate in signifi-
cant ways in all aspects of their child’s education including initial assessment, development
of educational programs, ongoing evaluation, and transition from school.

Inclusion: The Least Restrictive Environment
The phrase “least restrictive environment” relates to a legal decision that specified that chil-
dren with disabilities have a right to education in the “least restrictive environment.” For prac-
tical purposes, this environment has usually been judged to be the regular classroom—hence,
the practice labeled mainstreaming or inclusion (inclusive education). This practice means
that an increasing number of regular classroom teachers are called upon to teach exceptional
children in regular classrooms, sometimes also termed inclusive classrooms.

Proponents of inclusion, note Gresham and MacMillan (1997), argue that it has at least three
positive outcomes: increased peer acceptance and decreased rejection of students with dis-
abilities by their peers; mutually beneficial social interactions between students with and
without disabilities; and the learning of socially appropriate behaviors by students with dis-

abilities as a result of modeling the behavior
of other students.

In addition to these largely social benefits,
inclusion often has clear academic benefits
for learners with disabilities. This is espe-
cially true in well-designed inclusion class-
rooms where regular teachers and special
education teachers collaborate to discover
and apply strategies that work well with
children who have special needs. Among
these are highly individual approaches
often involving drill and repetition (Shar-
rock, 2008).

Inclusion, says Perles (2010), also has
advantages for students without disabilities.
Not only do many of these students develop

strong friendships that they would not otherwise have developed, but they also develop
acceptance and appreciation of people different from them.

Wavebreakmedia/iStock/Thinkstock
ሁ Well-designed inclusive classrooms can create

positive social and academic benefits for students
with and without

disabilities.

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Section 4.2 Teaching Those With Disabilities

Even when exceptional children are part of inclusive classrooms, not all of them have their
needs met only by their teachers and entirely in inclusive classrooms. Some may stay in a
regular classroom, and the regular teacher may be assisted by an aide, an assistant teacher, or
an itinerant specialist; others may be sent to a special resource room for part of each day or
week; some may be in special classrooms part of the time and in a regular classroom for the
remainder of the time; some may be in a segregated, special class full time. Still others may
be in residential schools (children who are deaf or blind, for example) or in hospitals or other
institutions.

A Free and Appropriate Education
Legislation mandates that all children are entitled to free and appropriate public educa-
tion (FAPE). This means that educational services for children with special needs must be
provided at public expense. Furthermore, they must be appropriate in the sense that they are
guided by a detailed educational plan developed for each student. (Individualized education
plans, or IEPs, are discussed shortly.)

Fair Evaluation and Due Process
The decision that a student has special needs is typically based on a variety of evaluation and
assessment procedures. Parents or teachers are usually first to notice that there might be a
problem and to seek referral for further evaluation. IDEIA mandates that an interdisciplinary
assessment team be employed to determine whether comprehensive assessment is required.
Where further assessment is necessary, the law stipulates that it be undertaken by trained
professionals and that the evaluation take place in the child’s native language.

If the final determination is that the student requires special services, an individualized edu-
cation plan is prepared—often by the assessment team in consultation with the teacher and
the parents.

Individualized Education Plans (IEPs)
Individualized education plans (IEPs) (sometimes called individualized education pro-
grams) are written programs, required by law for every child with disabilities. IEPs are usu-
ally prepared by a team that includes the child’s parents, the regular classroom teacher, one
or more special education teachers or other specialists as required, and sometimes the child.

IDEIA stipulates that an IEP must be a written document that contains the following:

• A description of the student’s current performance and achievement
• A statement of annual goals and short-range objectives
• A detailed list of services and programs to be provided for the student
• The expected duration of the program, including specific dates
• Evaluation procedures that will be used to determine whether the program’s goals

are being met

See Table 4.3 for a summary of the provisions and implications of IDEIA.

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Section 4.3 Classification and Identification of Children With Exceptionalities

4.3 Classification and Identification of Children
With Exceptionalities

Given the classroom teacher’s role in identifying and providing services for children with
special needs, it has become increasingly important for all teachers to be familiar with the
various manifestations of exceptionality they are most likely to encounter.

Exceptionality, as we saw, has two dimensions: the exceptionally gifted and those with dis-
abilities. Exceptionalities are found in each of the three main areas of human functioning—
cognitive, physical, and socioemotional. In each area, abilities range from average to the fur-
thest extremes in either direction.

In general, children with disabilities are those who are in need of special services to achieve
their full potential. They include children who have varying degrees of intellectual disabili-
ties; children with specific learning disabilities; those with any of a variety of speech, lan-
guage, physical, visual, or hearing impairments; and those with serious emotional disorders
(such as schizophrenia). In the United States, approximately 9 percent of children aged 6 to

Table 4.3: Main provisions of the Individuals with Disabilities Education
Improvement Act (IDEIA)

Provision Practical implication

Zero rejection and parent
participation

Free and appropriate educational services must be provided to all
children, no matter how serious their disability, even those who
present discipline problems. Parents have the right to participate in
their child’s education, to be fully informed, and to grant or withhold
consent for evaluative or instructional procedures.

Education in the least restrictive
environment

Typically mandates inclusive education (or mainstreaming) because
the “least restrictive environment” is interpreted by the courts to
mean the most normal environment that can meet the child’s special
needs.

Free and appropriate public
educational services

Publicly funded special education programs are to be provided
without charge to all children with special needs.

Fair, nondiscriminatory evaluation
and due process of law

Students must be evaluated by experts using instruments that are
free from bias and that take into consideration specific disabilities
and problems the child might have (such as a different first
language); parents have a right to be informed and to grant or
withhold consent regarding assessment and educational plans for
their child.

Individualized education plans
(IEPs)

An individually designed education plan for each child with special
needs must be developed by a team of teachers, administrators,
specialists, and parents, and should contain statements of goals,
instructional programs, and assessment procedures together with
specific time lines for each.

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Section 4.3 Classification and Identification of Children With Exceptionalities

21 receive services under IDEIA. Percentages of these in the most common classifications of
disabilities are shown in Figure 4.2.

The sections that follow examine exceptionality in all three areas of human functioning—
physical, cognitive, and social—with special emphasis on cognitive disabilities, which are
often more relevant for the regular classroom teacher (see Figure 4.3). Teachers who major
in special education would be expected to know much more than can be included here.

Physical Exceptionality
At one extreme among the physically exceptional are those endowed with superior capabili-
ties that might be manifested in athletic skills and in other activities requiring motor coordi-
nation, strength, rhythm, and so on. At the other extreme are those with physical disabilities,
sensory deficits, cerebral palsy, or a variety of diseases that might lead to problems in school.
Among these, blindness and deafness may require special assistance beyond the capabilities
and resources of the regular classroom teacher.

Socioemotional Exceptionality
At the positive end of socioemotional exceptionality are children who are more socially adept,
better adjusted, and more immune to the stresses and tensions of life than are ordinary indi-
viduals. These exceptional individuals often go unrecognized and unheralded, although they
might on occasion be envied.

At the other extreme are those with severe emotional disturbance (SED) (also sometimes
termed behavior disorder or social maladjustment). What these labels have in common is that
each describes individuals who are troubled and often unhappy and who are frequently a
source of difficulty for teachers, peers, parents, and others.

IDEIA specifies that children with SED are those who manifest one or more of the following
characteristics over a long period of time, to a marked degree, and where these characteris-
tics impair their performance:

• An inability to learn not explained by other factors such as intellectual disabilities
• Difficulty in establishing and maintaining satisfactory interpersonal relationships

with teachers, peers, parents, or siblings
• Pervasive negative moods; unhappiness or depression

For the most severe manifestations of emotional disturbance (schizophrenia, for example),
institutional care is generally required. Sometimes learners with emotional problems may
be placed in special classrooms. In many cases, however, children who might be described as
suffering from emotional disorders continue to function in regular classrooms.

Intellectual Exceptionality
On the one hand are the gifted and creative children that we discussed earlier in this chap-
ter; on the other hand are children who have significant difficulty in learning some, if not
all, of the things that others learn relatively easily. This dimension of exceptionality includes
two important categories: those with intellectual disabilities and those with specific learning
disabilities.

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Section 4.3 Classification and Identification of Children With Exceptionalities

Figure 4.2: Percentage of students in U.S. schools served under
IDEIA by disability

ሁ More than 95 percent of American children have no disabilities. The severity of disabilities among
remaining children varies from slight to very severe.

Source: Data from U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (2016). Digest of Education Statistics, 2014 (NCES 2016-006),
Retrieved October 23, 2016, from https://nces.ed.gov/fastfacts/display.asp?id=64

Specific learning
disabilities 4.6%

Speech or language
impairments 2.7%

Intellectual

disability 0.9%

Emotional
disturbance 0.7%

Multiple
disabilities 0.3%

Hearing
impairments 0.2%

Orthopedic
impairments 0.1%

Other health
impairments 1.6%

Visual
impairments 0.1%

Autism and traumatic
brain injury 1.0%

Deafness and
blindness 0.1%

Developmental
delay 0.8%

Students without
disabilities 96.2%

Figure 4.3: Dimensions of exceptionality
ሁ Children can be exceptionally gifted or challenged in three areas of human functioning: physical,

socioemotional, and intellectual.

Physical

Socioemotional

Intellectual

• Superior athletic ability
• Superior sensory ability

• Invulnerability
• Leadership

• Giftedness, superior
intellect, intellectual,
creative, and motivational
qualities

• Visual impairment
• Hearing impairment
• Cerebral palsy
• Other physical loss,
injury, or disease

• Autism
• Schizophrenia
• Hyperkinesis
• Conduct disorders
(Aggressiveness, delinquency
withdrawal, severe shyness)

• Mild, moderate, severe, and
profound mental disabilities
learning disabilities

Exceptionality
(below average)

Exceptionality
(above average)“Normality”

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Section 4.3 Classification and Identification of Children With Exceptionalities

Definition of Intellectual Disabilities
Intellectual disabilities is the current expression for what has long been labeled mental
retardation. One widely accepted definition is that presented by the American Association
on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (AAIDD) (Definition of Intellectual Disability,
2016):

Intellectual disability is a disability characterized by significant limitations both
in intellectual functioning and in adaptive behavior, which covers many every-
day social and practical skills. This disability originates before the age of 18.

“Significant limitations in intellectual functioning” is generally defined as a score of 70 or less
on one or more of the well-known individual intelligence tests, such as the Stanford-Binet or
the Wechsler. “Limitations in . . . adaptive behavior” are apparent as significant maturational
deficits, most evident in an inability to learn and failure to reach the levels of independence,
social effectiveness, and social responsibility that would normally be expected of others of
similar age and experience—such as a 4-year-old not yet able to talk. The AAIDD presents
a useful checklist of what parents and professionals might look for when looking at a child’s
adaptation (Table 4.4).

Table 4.4: Examples of adaptive behavior skills to be taken into account
when diagnosing intellectual disabilities

Conceptual skills Social skills Practical skills

• Receptive and expressive
language

• Reading and writing
• Money concepts
• Self-directions

• Interpersonal skills
• Ability to accept

responsibility
• Self-esteem
• Lack of gullibility (likelihood

of being tricked or
manipulated)

• Not exceptionally naive
• Follows rules
• Obeys laws
• Avoids victimization

• Personal activities of daily
living such as eating, dressing,
mobility, and toileting

• Instrumental activities of
daily living such as preparing
meals, taking medication,
using the telephone,
managing money, using
transportation, and doing
housekeeping activities

• Maintaining a safe
environment

• Occupational skills

Source: Based on Definition of Intellectual Disability. American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities
(AAIDD) (2016).

Classifications of Intellectual Disabilities
Commonly used classification schemes for intellectual disabilities are based mainly on IQ
scores (Figure 4.4). Approximately 1 percent of the general population appears to have an
intellectual disability when the level of adaptive behavior is also taken into account (Smith,
2007). In practice, however, school psychologists tend to rely much more on IQ than on adap-
tive skills when diagnosing intellectual disability.

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Section 4.3 Classification and Identification of Children With Exceptionalities

Figure 4.4 Labels sometimes used to classify intellectual
disabilities

ሁ The two common classification schemes for intellectual disabilities shown here are based on
measured IQ. In practice, adaptive skills would also be taken into account. Note that the cutoffs are
vague rather than definite: “mild” ranges from 50–55 to around 70; “moderate,” from 35–40 to 50–55;
“severe,” from 20–25 to 35–40; and “profound,” below 20–25.

757065605550454035302520151050

Profound Severe MildModerate

Custodial Trainable Educable (EMR)

Common DSM-5
classifications

Educators’ global labels

Measured IQ

Causes of Intellectual Disabilities
Psychologists and educators classify intellectual disabilities by level of disability (as shown
in Figure 4.4) rather than by cause. Often we don’t actually know the specific cause of the dis-
ability. In some cases, however, we know that organic causes are involved—as in the case of
cerebral injury, chromosomal aberrations and defects such as Down’s syndrome, and mater-
nal infections or alcohol and drug use at critical periods of fetal development. In other cases,
familial causes might be implicated: These would include inadequate genetic endowment,
growing up in an unstimulating environment, or a combination of environmental and genetic
factors.

Characteristics of Children with Intellectual Disabilities
The largest group of children with intellectual disabilities includes those with mild intel-
lectual disability. Relatively few of these children are identified as having intellectual dis-
abilities before they’ve been in school for a while. Many are eventually capable of acceptable
academic achievement in elementary school and can adapt quite well socially. Most are main-
streamed and are sometimes described as educable.

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Section 4.3 Classification and Identification of Children With Exceptionalities

Severe intellectual disabilities and profound intellectual disabilities are generally asso-
ciated with highly limited motor and cognitive learning—virtually no communication skills
in the case of children with profound intellectual disabilities and only rudimentary skills for
those with severe intellectual disabilities. Children with profound intellectual disabilities
often require institutional care of a custodial nature—that is, involving feeding and clothing.

A moderate intellectual disability is characteristic of about 20 percent of those with intel-
lectual disabilities. These children learn to talk during the preschool period, and most also
learn to walk, although their verbal and motor skills are generally noticeably inferior to those
of other children. Many are educated in inclusive classrooms where, with the help of spe-
cial programs and teachers, they may progress through the primary grades but not usually
much further academically. Training in occupational skills is sometimes very helpful for these
children.

Specific Learning Disabilities
Intellectual disability (mental retardation) usually affects all areas of cognitive functioning
and adaptation. But there are children who, in the absence of any perceptible physical or
emotional disturbance, and in the absence of general intellectual disability, nevertheless
experience significant difficulty in learning specific skills. These children have sometimes
been described as suffering from a learning dysfunction, hyperactivity, cerebral dysfunction,
minimal brain damage, perceptual disability, dyslexia, or simply as being slow learners. Unfor-
tunately, these terms are nonspecific, often confusing, and sometimes meaningless. Largely
for this reason, the expression specific learning disability, or simply learning disability,
was introduced.

Defining Specific Learning Disabilities
The expression specific learning disability is now used to describe a variety of conditions that
have these four groups of characteristics in common:

1. There is a marked disparity between expected and actual behavior often apparent in
general academic achievement that is significantly below what would be predicted
on the basis of measured IQ.

2. The child displays an uneven pattern of academic achievement, doing quite well in
some subjects but very poorly in others. Often, such a child is unable to do certain
things that other children do very easily.

3. The child typically has problems with one of the basic psychological processes
involved in language or arithmetic. Hence, the disorder is apparent in disorders of
listening, thinking, talking, reading, writing, spelling, or arithmetic.

4. Problems observed are not the result of other problems relating to hearing, vision, or
general intellectual disabilities.

Prevalence
Children with specific learning disabilities make up the largest group of special needs stu-
dents in North America. In fact, as Figure 4.2 shows, they compose about 4.6 percent of the
entire student body in U.S. public schools—about half of all children with special needs. Males
with specific learning disabilities outnumber females by about 3 to 2 (Child Trends Data Bank,
2013).

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Section 4.3 Classification and Identification of Children With Exceptionalities

Various tests are available to help identify the learning disabled (for example, Hammill &
Bryant, 1998, Learning Disabilities Diagnostic Inventory). These are used to examine the basic
psychological processes involved in learning and remembering. In addition, of course, intel-
ligence tests are often used as well.

Categories of Specific Learning Disabilities
Like intellectual disabilities, specific learning disabilities are not classified by cause—which
is typically unknown—but by symptom. They are most often labeled according to whether
they involve oral or written speech, comprehension or production of speech, or particular
problems in spelling or arithmetic.

By far, the most frequently diagnosed specific learning disabilities are those that involve lan-
guage—especially reading. Thus, one common learning disability is developmental read-
ing disorder—also called dyslexia or specific reading disability (American Psychiatric Asso-
ciation, 2013). Its main feature is difficulty in recognizing words and understanding what is
read, in spite of normal or above-normal intelligence and absence of problems such as deaf-
ness, blindness, or inadequate schooling.

Table 4.5: Some symptoms that may be associated with specific learning
disabilities

Preschool K to grade 4 Grades 5–8 High school and adults

• Delayed speech
• Pronunciation

problems
• Slow vocabulary

growth
• Trouble learning

numbers,
alphabet, days
of week, colors,
shapes

• Trouble
interacting
with peers

• Slow to make sound-
letter connection

• Confuses simple
words

• Consistent reading/
spelling errors

• Confuses number
sequences/arithmetic
signs

• Difficulty
remembering facts

• Impulsive
• Trouble learning time

• Letter sequence
reversals

• Difficulty learning
prefixes, suffixes,
spelling strategies

• Avoids reading aloud
• Difficulty with

handwriting/pencil
grip

• Poor memory
• Difficulty making

friends

• Inconsistent spelling
errors

• Avoids reading/
writing

• Trouble
summarizing

• Problem with open-
ended questions

• Poor grasp of
abstractions

• Misreads
information

Source: Based on LD Online, 2015, retrieved October 23, 2016, from http://www.ldonline.org/ldbasics/signs

Symptoms of Specific Learning Disabilities
For the classroom teacher, first indications of specific learning disabilities are usually very
tentative and uncertain. The characteristic most likely to be noticed by teachers is general
academic retardation, which is often a result of a child’s problems with reading, writing, and
other aspects of the language arts.

A variety of other symptoms can sometimes be associated with specific learning disabilities:
inattentiveness, mood shifts, hyperactivity, short-term memory problems, and impulsiveness
(see Table 4.5). Drug use may also be more common among these children, perhaps because
of their problems in school and subsequent adjustment problems.

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Section 4.3 Classification and Identification of Children With Exceptionalities

A second language disorder involves difficulty in written language, termed developmental
expressive writing disorder or dysgraphia. Children with dysgraphia may lack coordina-
tion, making it difficult to hold a pencil correctly or to form letters. Also, they may find it dif-
ficult to spell words. Many confuse similar letters like p and q, or b and d.

A third specific learning disability is developmental arithmetic disorder, also termed
dyscalculia. Its principal feature is significant difficulty in developing arithmetic skills in
the absence of other problems such as intellectual disabilities. Consequently, developmental
arithmetic disorder is usually most apparent in computational problems (difficulties in add-
ing, subtracting, multiplying, or dividing) or problems in processing visual or auditory infor-
mation. As a result, children with arithmetic disabilities often have reading problems.

In most instances, specific learning disabilities are treated in the regular classroom, often
with the help and advice of learning disability specialists. Many of these children are not dif-
ferent from other children in regular classrooms, except for the specific learning difficulty
they experience. Most children with learning disabilities are well adjusted and well liked.
Here, as in other areas of exceptionality, the onus of initial identification rests with the class-
room teacher. In fact, the teacher’s opinion may be relied on in place of more formal—and
more expensive—testing.

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a relatively common emotional excep-
tionality that is closely related to specific learning disabilities.

Prevalence
Estimates of ADHD prevalence vary enormously depending on the criteria used and also
depending on whether diagnosis is based on teacher ratings, parent ratings, or both. Some
believe that this condition is significantly overdiagnosed by both parents and teachers who
want explanations for the misbehavior of their charges, and by the pharmaceutical compa-
nies who want to sell medication (Cohen, 2006). It is the most frequently diagnosed child-
hood psychiatric disorder. Global estimates of the prevalence of ADHD among children ages 3
to 17 range from 5 to 7 percent (ADHD Institute, 2016).

Symptoms, Diagnosis, and Cause
Overdiagnosis may well be a function of the most apparent features of ADHD: excessive gen-
eral activity for the child’s age; difficulty in sustaining attention and apparent forgetfulness;
and impulsivity (tendency to react quickly, difficulty taking turns, low frustration tolerance).
For these reasons, ADHD is often commonly labeled hyperactivity.

Strictly speaking, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, as defined by the American Psy-
chiatric Association (2013), must be apparent before the age of 7 to differentiate it from dis-
orders that might arise as reactions to stressful events or illness. The disorder also requires
diagnosis according to a list of very specific criteria in the areas of inattention, hyperactivity,
and impulsivity (National Institute of Mental Health, 2016).

The causes of ADHD are unclear, although the fact that more males than females are diag-
nosed with the condition suggests that it is at least partly genetic. Most of the research indi-
cates that the disorder has a strong neurological basis (Barkley, 2017).

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Section 4.4 Multiculturalism in the Classroom

Intervention with ADHD
The most common treatment for a child diagnosed as having an attention deficit disorder
with hyperactivity involves the use of stimulant drugs such as dextroamphetamine (Dexe-
drine) and methylphenidate (Ritalin). This might seem strange because stimulants ordinarily
increase activity and many ADHD children already suffer from excessive activity. However,
these drugs appear to have what is termed a paradoxical effect on children. That is, they
appear to sedate rather than stimulate. They are effective in approximately 70 to 80 percent
of children with ADHD (NIMH, 2008).

Nonmedical interventions for children with ADHD include a number of different options.
Many of these children respond well to token reward programs; some require highly struc-
tured approaches to learning and benefit from clear rules and well-defined consequences for
misbehaviors; most function better in classroom environments that are uncluttered and that
offer a minimum of distractions (Pfifner, Barkley, & DuPaul 2005).

Labels in Special Education
“Learning disabled,” “educable mentally retarded,” “attention deficit hyperactivity disorder,”
“severely emotional disturbed”—these and their common letter substitutes (LD, EMR, ADHD,
and SED respectively) are widely used labels in special education. But they are just that:
labels. Labels do nothing more than name; they don’t explain anything. To say that Eric has
difficulty recognizing numbers because he has the condition called dyscalculia might mislead
us into thinking we understand why Eric hesitates and struggles when he picks up the six of
spades. But all the label tells us is that Eric’s behavior manifests a combination of symptoms
that we have agreed to brand “dyscalculia.”

Although labels can be useful because they permit us to communicate with one another and
to develop remedial programs, they do have disadvantages. Many insist that labels are often
unfair and inaccurate, that they lead to lower expectations and thus present an additional
disadvantage for those who are labeled, and that there is a remarkable lack of homogeneity
among those who are given identical labels. There is also a growing tendency to treat children
with disabilities as quantitatively rather than qualitatively different from normal children.
The use of generally pejorative labels is clearly incompatible with this trend.

We have come some distance from labels that were once as widely accepted as those we use
today—labels like “idiot,” “moron,” “imbecile,” “cretin,” “dolt,” “nitwit,” “nincompoop,” “igno-
ramus,” “dimwit,” “booby,” “simpleton,” “halfwit,” “dullard,” “numskull,” “dummy,” “stupid,” . . .

4.4 Multiculturalism in the Classroom
Gifts and talents and learning disabilities in all their varieties describe only a few of the
sources of diversity with which the teacher must deal. Another is defined by multicultural-
ism: the mix of cultures found in the classroom. A culture is the totality of the customary
ways of behaving, the beliefs, the attainments, the stories, the songs, the dances, the language,
of an identifiable group of people, or of a specified period of time.

We often think of culture and race as though they were largely synonymous. But, strictly
speaking, a race is a major biological subdivision of individuals who share a common genetic

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Section 4.4 Multiculturalism in the Classroom

ancestry and who are often identified on the basis of physical characteristics. There is consid-
erable controversy over the assignment of groups to races.

For most purposes, the concept of race is not only largely useless, but it easily leads to racism,
the belief that biologically distinct groups of humans have inherited different mental abilities
and personality characteristics.

As if these often vague terms were not enough, another one is frequently bandied about as
though it meant both race and culture—which, in a sense, it does: ethnic. What ethnic signi-
fies is membership in a racial, cultural, or language group where individuals share important
things such as beliefs and values, history, or other characteristics. This causes them to have a
sense of shared identity, or belongingness. So when we speak of ethnic differences, we might
be referring to language differences, cultural differences, or racial differences—or perhaps to
all three.

Changing Demographics
As recently as 1980, 78 percent of the school-age population (ages 5–15) in the United States
was white; Hispanic children accounted for only 8 percent of school-age children. Now, in
some states like California, the “minority” has become the “majority.” Projections are that by
2050, more than half of California’s population between birth and age 14 will be Hispanic (see
Figure 4.5). By then, Hispanic, African American, Asian, and other groups will make up about
75 percent of California’s total population. These changing demographics are partly due to
lower birthrates and, consequently, smaller average family size among white families than
among African Americans and Hispanics (United States Census Bureau, 2016).

Figure 4.5: Projected California birth to age 14 population
ሁ Changing demographics in California. By 2050, the total population of the state is projected at

50,365,074. The current population is close to 40 million.

Source: Data from State of California, Department of Finance, Population Projections for California and Its Counties 2000–2050, by Age, Gender and Race/
Ethnicity, Sacramento, California, July 2007; and from California Department of Finance Population Projections: 2010–2060 Data Tables, retrieved October 23,
2016, from http://www.dof.ca.gov/Forecasting/Demographics/projections/

White

Hispanic

Black

Asian

Other

Total

2,0
00

,00
0

4,0
00

,00
0

6,0
00

,00
0

8,0
00

,00
0

10,
00

0,0
00

12,
00

0,0
00

Projected population

D
e
m

o
g

ra
p

h
ic

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http://www.dof.ca.gov/Forecasting/Demographics/projections/

131

Section 4.4 Multiculturalism in the Classroom

Multicultural Education and Language Learning
The clearest implication of these changes is an increasing need for multicultural educa-
tion—that is, education that reflects an understanding and appreciation of different cultures
and that accommodates the needs of children from different backgrounds.

Multicultural education is a loosely defined concept that reflects the attempts of educators
to take into consideration the cultural diversity of their classrooms and communities. And
because it is very difficult to separate culture from language, in the majority of cases, multicul-
tural education is also multilingual—that is, it involves instruction in more than one language.

Ideally, explains Banks (2006), multicultural education accomplishes several tasks, each of
which is reflected in the five key features of multicultural education shown in Figure 4.6.

Figure 4.6: Features of multicultural education
ሁ Ideally, according to Banks (2014), multicultural education should be designed to achieve

five important goals relating to reducing prejudice, making teaching fair, empowering learners,
developing an appreciation of how culture influences learning, and integrating cross-cultural content.

Source: Adapted from Banks, J. A. (2014). Cultural diversity and education: Foundations, curriculum and teaching (6th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Making teaching
equitable

Teacher attempts to
match instruction to

student learning styles,
interest, motivation, to

enhance every
individual’s performance

Empowering
learners

Teacher attempts to
provide school climate
that permits students
to develop to their full

potential (that
empowers them)

Construction of
knowledge

Teacher helps learners
understand how culture
influences knowledge

Reducing
prejudice

Teacher Is aware of
personal biases and of
learners’ prejudices and

attempts to minimize
their influence

Integration of
content

Teacher incorporates
content from different

cultures

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Section 4.4 Multiculturalism in the Classroom

First, it integrates information and examples from a variety of different cultures, making all
students, in a sense, culture literate. This feature of multicultural education might involve
modifying the curriculum to include units on different cultures.

Second, it helps students understand how knowledge and beliefs are influenced by cultures
(and by social class and language). One example of this, the construction of knowledge dimen-
sion of multicultural education, might involve having learners view historical events, such as
the discovery of the American continent, from many different points of view. How might the
indigenous people already here view this event? How about the discoverers? The people still
in the old countries who financed the voyages of discovery? The missionaries who soon fol-
lowed? Your grandparents? Your parents?

Third, and extremely important in an increasingly tribalistic world, it reduces racial prejudice
by increasing understanding and tolerance of other people and other belief systems.

Fourth, it reduces racial, social-class, and gender inequities by making teaching equitable.
That is, it looks for instructional approaches that provide each child with the greatest prob-
ability of achieving at the highest potential level.

And fifth, it empowers all students so that even those from disadvantaged backgrounds, or
very different cultural groups, can acquire information and skills and the confidence and
sense of personal power necessary to succeed.

The Second-Language Debate
Multicultural education, as we saw, is often multilingual—or, more precisely, bilingual,
because in many North American schools there is a clearly identifiable main second language.
As a result, numerous bilingual, immersion, or English as a Second Language (ESL) programs
have been established. Multicultural education is enormously challenging. In particular, the
question of which language—or languages—should be used and taught in schools has been
intensely controversial. As Ginn (2008) puts it, “Many Americans have an opinion on bilin-
gual education, and for most it is a matter of strong conviction” (p. 7). In the United States,
there have been powerful movements toward doing away with bilingual programs and throw-
ing all children into the same “sink or swim” classrooms (see, for example, Benson, 2014).

Ironically, opposition to bilingual programs comes from two sources: parents of English-
speaking students who fear the education of their children is being shortchanged as a result
of too many resources being thrown into the education of cultural minorities; and parents of
Hispanic students who fear their children aren’t learning English fast enough or well enough
in bilingual programs. In addition, as Wyman and colleagues (2010) point out, the “high
stakes testing” that accompanied the No Child Left Behind act (and that underlies the Race
to the Top initiative) presents additional incentives for school systems to present English-
only programs. That’s because bilingual schools are accountable for the same curriculum as
English-only schools, but they face the added responsibility of developing or maintaining pro-
ficiency in a second language.

Not surprisingly, the debate over second-language programs has strong advocates on both
sides. On one side are powerful, well-funded, and highly vocal groups of English-only advo-
cates who argue that English should be designated the official language, as it has now been in
at least 25 states (English-only movement, 2011). Many members of English-only movements
are firmly opposed to the use of public resources for bilingual education.

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Section 4.4 Multiculturalism in the Classroom

On the other side of the second-language debate are those who believe that education should
be multicultural and multilingual. They argue that focusing exclusively on English-only pro-
grams does a disservice to bilingual learners, violates their civil rights, has negative conse-
quences for intergroup relations, and, in brief, does not serve the public interest (American
Psychological Association, 2016). Their beliefs are expressed in the English-plus movement,
which arose in response to the English-only movement. Its goals are to promote language
diversity primarily through multicultural and second-language programs.

The most highly developed second-language programs in the United States are the two-way
bilingual immersion programs (also called dual language programs) (García, 2008). In
these programs, instruction is split between two languages, sometimes on a 50-50 basis and
sometimes according to some other predetermined ratio. In two-way bilingual immersion
programs, classes include all students: native English speakers, nonnative English speakers,
and those who are bilingual. As illustrated in the case “Buen Amigos and False Friends,” in
dual-immersion classes, instruction sometimes takes place in both languages simultaneously.
At other times, one language may be used for one lesson or subject, and the second language
for another (Two-way immersion, 2016).

C A S E S F R O M T H E C L A S S R O O M :
B U E N A M I G O S A N D F A L S E F R I E N D S

The Place: Miss Robinson’s seventh-grade two-way bilingual immersion (Spanish-English) class

The Situation: A language lesson

Miss Robinson: Who knows the Spanish word for one billion?

Edward: Billón.

Juan: No. Es mil millones.

Miss Robinson: Right, Juan. But that was a good guess, Edward, billón es una buena palabra
Española. But it means one trillion, not one billion! That’s what we call a false friend—un
amigo falso.

Tamara: You mean like a word that sounds the same but means something else. Like car-
peta that sounds like it should mean carpet but it doesn’t.

Miss Robinson: Good example. ¿Tienen otros ejemplos de amigos falsos?

Students quickly come up with a short list: constipación (which doesn’t mean constipation);
compromise (which doesn’t mean compromise); éxito (which is not the exit); largo (which
doesn’t mean large); ropa (which is not a rope); sano (which doesn’t mean sane). . . .

Miss Robinson: Now can you think of words that sound or look the same in both languages
and have the same meaning? ¿Palabras que son buen amigos?

André: Petróleo.

Roberto: Clima and tarifa and juvenile.

Marcela: And subterráneo and tranquilo and ocupado . . .

Miss Robinson: Escribamos en la pizarra una lista de amigos falsos y otra de buen amigos
¿vale?

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Chapter 4 Summary and Resources

Also very common are total language immersion programs. In essence, total language
immersion involves entering an environment where only the language that is to be learned
is spoken. Among the different kinds of immersion programs are what are sometimes called
“elite” programs for speakers of the dominant language who want to develop proficiency in
a second language. These are a form of linguistic enrichment typically offered for children of
well-educated, higher socioeconomic status parents. Immersion programs for nonspeakers
of the dominant language are usually programs for children who need to learn the dominant
language as rapidly and as well as possible. These are programs typically provided for chil-
dren of immigrant parents.

The results of research on the effectiveness of second-language programs are somewhat con-
tradictory—perhaps because of the highly emotional nature of the issue. Some studies sug-
gest that bilingual programs for children who speak a different native language are not always
very effective, especially in developing proficiency in the dominant language. As a result, par-
ents of minority-language children sometimes advocate for English-only instruction (Freed-
man, 2008).

In general, however, the research indicates that immersion programs can be highly effective
for teaching a second language (García, 2005). Many participants quickly reach high levels
of proficiency in understanding and speaking the second language, as well as in reading and
writing, although most do not reach as high a level of proficiency as native speakers. Gifted
learners, in particular, can quickly excel in both languages (Green et al., 2011). And most of
the research supports the notion that later academic performance is not impeded by early
exposure to language immersion (Cobb, Vega, & Kronauge, 2009).

Chapter 4 Summary and Resources

Key Points
• Talented and gifted children are those identified by professionals as being capable

of high performance by virtue of outstanding capabilities that might be reflected in
general intellectual ability, specific academic aptitude, creative or productive think-
ing, leadership, or artistic talent. The culturally different are often overlooked and
are underrepresented in programs for the gifted.

• Two approaches to educating the talented and gifted are acceleration (for example,
grade skipping) and enrichment (students go beyond the conventional curriculum).
Other approaches include mentoring and tutoring, IEPs, special schools, the use of
problem-solving techniques like brainstorming, and more informal teaching styles.

• IDEIA mandates education in the “least restrictive environment” and the right to
zero rejection and parent participation, due process and nondiscriminatory evalu-
ation, free and appropriate educational services, and an IEP for each child with
special needs.

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Chapter 4 Summary and Resources

• Exceptionality describes significant deviation from the norm in cognitive, socioemo-
tional, or physical functioning. It can be associated with either superior or inferior
functioning.

• Physical exceptionality may be manifested in exceptional athletic ability or extraor-
dinary grace and elegance; or it may be apparent in sensory or motor impairments,
physical disabilities, diseases, and so on.

• Socioemotional exceptionality includes manifestations of emotional disturbance,
behavioral disorders, and ADHD, among others. Intellectual disabilities (formerly
mental retardation) are characterized by a marked depression in general ability to
learn and by limited adaptation; it can vary from mild to severe or profound. Most
children with intellectual disabilities are mildly disabled and are thus capable of
acceptable achievement in elementary school.

• Specific learning disabilities are generally evident in a disparity between actual and
expected achievement, with an uneven pattern of achievement often marked by one
or more specific learning impairments (for example, developmental reading disor-
der or developmental arithmetic disorder).

• ADHD is a relatively common emotional disorder marked by excessive activity, atten-
tion problems, and impulsivity far in excess of what might be considered normal.
ADHD is often treated with stimulant drugs (the paradoxical effect).

• Labels are useful in categorizing children and in providing for their special needs.
But they simply name rather than explain and should not be pejorative.

• North American schools are increasingly multicultural. Multicultural education
seeks to look after the needs of children from all backgrounds. Adapting instruction
for cultural diversity is a difficult and controversial task.

• Second-language programs may be geared toward teaching minority children the
dominant school language, or they might be directed toward teaching a second
language to speakers of the dominant language. Bilingual education remains highly
controversial. Two-way bilingual immersion programs (also called dual language
immersion) expose learners to two languages simultaneously.

Posttest

1. Marilyn works with Ms. Caston, a teacher in her school. Ms. Caston provides aca-
demic support and acts as a role model and advisor for Marilyn. In this relationship,
Ms. Caston is best described as a
a. protégé.
b. tutor.
c. scaffold.
d. mentor.

2. Which of the following best fits the characterization of an informal teaching style?
a. Mr. Brock teaches individual subject areas separately in his class.
b. Miss Heshmati emphasizes assessment and achievement.
c. Mr. Andersen allows students to select their own seating locations.
d. Mrs. Botnay uses more external motivators like grades.

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Chapter 4 Summary and Resources

3. Severe emotional disturbance (SED) is the diagnosis for all of the following behav-
ioral patterns EXCEPT
a. constant extreme positive moods such as euphoria or excitement.
b. difficulty forming and maintaining interpersonal relationships with others.
c. pervasive negative moods; unhappiness or depression.
d. an inability to learn that is not related to other factors such as intellectual

disabilities.

4. Which of the following would NOT be an example of a specific learning disability?
a. Joan has difficulty reading the board due to her nearsightedness.
b. Michael has difficulty with tasks that involve arithmetic.
c. Ralph’s actual and potential behaviors differ markedly.
d. Evelyn does well on some subjects, but does poorly in others.

5. In terms of symptoms and diagnosis, which is true of ADHD?
a. ADHD is underdiagnosed in the United States.
b. ADHD must be apparent in the child before age 7.
c. The child with ADHD feels that others are not paying enough attention to them.
d. The child with ADHD tends to spend excessive time considering decisions.

6. Which of the following is the best example of a dual language immersion program?
a. Ms. Saurez teaches all academic subjects in English.
b. Ms. DeFeo celebrates the cultural heritage of all of the students in her class.
c. Mr. Tennanbaum splits instruction between English and Dutch.
d. Mr. Harper coordinates a cultural awareness each February for his school.

Answers: 1(d), 2(c), 3(a), 4(a), 5(b), 6(c)

Critical Thinking Exercises
• What are the most important elements of the legal definition of the talented and

gifted?
• Write a personality and teaching style profile of a hypothetical teacher whose

approach is most likely to foster creativity. Which teaching style did you choose?
Why?

• What are the two dimensions of exceptionality in each of these three areas: physical,
intellectual, and emotional?

• How would you describe the differences between intellectual disabilities and spe-
cific learning disabilities?

• What are the symptoms of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)? Do you
think children are overdiagnosed? Explain your reasoning.

• Describe how multicultural education has been part of your schooling. What are
some strategies you’ll incorporate to increase multiculturalism in your classroom?

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Chapter 4 Summary and Resources

Web Resources
For more information on two-way bilingual immersion programs (dual language immersion
programs) in the United States, visit:

For more information on working with gifted and talented children, visit:

http://www.nsgt.org/articles/index.asp

For more information on IDEIA, visit:

http://www.specialednews.com/special-education-dictionary/ideia—individuals
-with-disabilities-education-improvement-act.htm

For more information on the provisions of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act,
visit:

http://www.apa.org/about/gr/issues/disability/idea.aspx

For more information on bilingual education, visit:

http://www.nabe.org/

Answers to Pretest

1. False. Research has found that students who are advanced academically, socially, and
emotionally benefit from an accelerated education.

2. True. Mainstreaming allows students with and without disabilities to learn in the
same classroom.

3. False. Laws mandate that all children, including those with disabilities, are entitled
to free and appropriate education.

4. False. Dyslexia is characterized by having trouble understanding and recognizing
words, despite having average or above-average intelligence and not having other
problems, such as lack of education.

5. False. Culture is the collection of customs and beliefs of a group of people, while race
is a group of people with the same ancestry who are often identified by their physi-
cal characteristics, such as the color of their skin.

6. True. Opponents of bilingual education include parents of non-English-speaking
students who think their children’s progress in learning English will diminish and
parents of English-speaking students who argue their children’s learning is hindered
by bilingual education.

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http://www.nsgt.org/articles/index.asp

http://www.specialednews.com/special-education-dictionary/ideia—individuals-with-disabilities-education-improvement-act.htm

http://www.apa.org/about/gr/issues/disability/idea.aspx

http://www.nabe.org/

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Chapter 4 Summary and Resources

Answers to Posttest

1. A mentor provides guidance. This role can include being a role model, trainer, or
advisor.

2. Characteristics of an informal teaching style can include allowing students to choose
where they sit and integrating subjects during teaching. Followers of informal teach-
ing also tend not to emphasize testing and external motivators.

3. SED is marked by individuals who are usually unhappy, have difficulty creating rela-
tionships, and do not have intellectual disabilities, but are unable to learn.

4. Struggling to read due to nearsightedness would not be considered a specific learn-
ing disability. In order to be categorized as a specific learning disability, the problem
should not result from hearing, vision, or intellectual disabilities.

5. According to the American Psychiatric Association, ADHD symptoms must appear
before age 7 as well as meet criteria for inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity.

6. Dual language immersion programs are characterized by splitting instruction
between two languages. The split can be even or according to a predetermined ratio.

Key Terms
acceleration One approach used for the
education of the gifted. Acceleration pro-
grams attempt to move students through the
conventional curriculum more rapidly than
normal. See also enrichment.

attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
(ADHD) A disorder marked by excessive
general activity for a child’s age, attention
problems, high impulsivity, and low frustra-
tion tolerance. Also termed hyperactivity.
See also paradoxical effect.

bilingual education One of a variety
of educational programs that attempt to
develop proficiency in more than one lan-
guage. See also total language immersion,
two-way bilingual immersion program.

brainstorming A technique used to pro-
duce creative solutions for problems where
individuals are encouraged to produce a
wide variety of ideas that are evaluated later.

cerebral palsy Label for collection of con-
genital motor problems of varying severity,
associated with brain damage, occasionally
manifested in other problems such as con-
vulsions or behavior disorders.

classroom climate The general ambi-
ence of a classroom evident in the teacher’s
customary ways of interacting with students
(teaching styles), physical features of the
classroom, relationships and interactions
among learners, and personal and decora-
tive touches.

culture The totality of the customary ways
of behaving, the beliefs, the attainments, the
stories, the songs, the dances, the language,
of an identifiable group of people, or of a
specified period of time.

developmental arithmetic disorder A
specific learning disability evident in diffi-
culties in developing arithmetic skills in the
absence of other problems such as intellec-
tual disability.

developmental expressive writing disor-
der The American Psychiatric Association
label for a specific learning disability char-
acterized by difficulty in writing that is not
due to general intellectual disabilities or to
physical or sensory problems.

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Chapter 4 Summary and Resources

developmental reading disorder A spe-
cific learning disability manifested in read-
ing problems of varying severity—some-
times evident in spelling difficulties. Also
termed dyslexia or specific reading disability.

dual language immersion programs
Immersion programs that include children
who are native speakers of the dominant
language and children who are learning the
dominant language as a second language.

dyscalculia See developmental arithmetic
disorder.

dysgraphia See developmental expressive
writing disorder.

dyslexia See developmental reading
disorder.

electronic brainstorming A brainstorm-
ing session involving the use of computers
either in linked groups (as in a “chat” brain-
storming group) or individually (nominal
brainstorming).

enrichment An approach to the education
of gifted children in which learners are pro-
vided with additional and different school
experiences rather than simply being accel-
erated. See also acceleration.

ethnic Refers to the sharing of beliefs,
values, history, or other characteristics, as
might happen with distinct cultural or lan-
guage groups.

Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) A U.S.
act, signed in 2015, that replaced No Child
Left Behind (NCLB). The broad goal of ESSA
is to ensure that all learners receive the best
possible educational experiences regardless
of their gifts, talents, and challenges.

exceptionality A term used to describe a
significant deviation from the average in
terms of physical, intellectual, or emotional
behaviors, abilities, or skills (significant
superiority or challenges). See also special
education teacher, special needs.

formal teaching style An approach to
teaching that emphasizes competition, indi-
vidual work, discipline, order, achievement,
and external motivators. See also informal
teaching style.

free and appropriate public education
(FAPE) One of the guiding principles of
IDEIA. It asserts that all children with special
needs are entitled to educational services at
public expense and that this education must
be appropriate in the sense that it conforms
to an educational plan devised specifically
for each child.

giftedness Exceptional general ability. See
also talented and gifted, talent.

hyperactivity A common term for attention
deficit hyperactivity disorder. See also atten-
tion deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).

inclusion See mainstreaming.

inclusive classroom A classroom that
contains one or more children with special
needs in addition to more average children.

individualized education plans (IEPs)
Individualized instructional programs tai-
lored to a child’s specific pattern of needs
and abilities. Also termed individualized
program plans or IPPs.

Individuals with Disabilities Education
Act (IDEA) The act that updated Public-
Law 94-142 in 1997. It was superseded by
the Individuals with Disabilities Education
Improvement Act in 2004. See also Individu-
als with Disabilities Education Improvement
Act (IDEIA), Public Law 94-142.

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140

Chapter 4 Summary and Resources

Individuals with Disabilities Education
Improvement Act (IDEIA) The U.S. spe-
cial education law that provides funding for
special education and guarantees certain
rights for learners with special needs and
their parents.

informal teaching style A teaching
approach that grants students a relatively
high degree of freedom and autonomy and
emphasizes individual growth and fulfill-
ment rather than academic achievement and
external rewards. See also formal teaching
style.

intellectual disability A significant general
depression in the ability to learn, usu-
ally accompanied by deficits in adaptive
behavior.

learning disability A depression in the
ability to learn specific things (for example,
reading or arithmetic), where the learning
difficulties are not related to mental retarda-
tion or emotional disorders.

magnet schools Highly specialized schools
designed to attract (as might a magnet)
gifted learners or learners with special artis-
tic, athletic, or social skills, or other special-
ized talents or interests.

mainstreaming The practice of placing stu-
dents in need of special services in regular
classrooms rather than segregating them.
Also termed inclusion or inclusive education.

mentor An individual engaged in a one-on-
one teaching-learning relationship where
the teacher (mentor) serves as a fundamen-
tally important model with respect to values,
beliefs, philosophies, and attitudes, as well
as a source of more specific information. See
also tutor.

mild intellectual disability A classifica-
tion of intellectual disability identified by
degree and usually defined in terms of an IQ
between 50 and about 70. Also termed edu-
cable, children with mild intellectual disabil-
ity are capable of adequate social adaptation
and achievement at about the sixth-grade
level. See also moderate intellectual disabil-
ity, profound intellectual disability, severe
intellectual disability.

moderate intellectual disability A degree
of intellectual disability defined in terms of
an IQ range between 35 and 55. Those with
moderate intellectual disability can profit
from training in social and occupational
skills. See also mild intellectual disability,
profound intellectual disability, severe intel-
lectual disability.

multicultural education Educational
procedures and curricula that are respon-
sive to the various cultures and languages of
students, with the goal of assuring that all
children experience high-quality education.

multiculturalism Having to do with many
cultures.

nominal brainstorming Phrase used to
describe individual, as opposed to group,
brainstorming sessions.

paradoxical effect Literally, a surprising or
contradictory effect. This phrase is used to
describe the apparently sedating effect that
some stimulants (such as Ritalin) have on
children who suffer from excessive activity
(hyperactivity; ADHD). See also attention
deficit hyperactivity disorder.

peer-assisted learning (PAL) A form of
tutoring in which the tutors are typically
school peers rather than older students or
adults. See also mentor, tutor.

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141

Chapter 4 Summary and Resources

prodigy An individual characterized by a
distinct form of giftedness—marked by a
highly focused talent or ability, such as musi-
cal or artistic talent, for example.

profound intellectual disability A degree
of intellectual disability defined in terms of
a measured IQ below 20 or 25 and marked
by limited motor development and a need
for nursing care. See also mild intellectual
disability, moderate intellectual disability,
severe intellectual disability.

Public Law 91-230 A 1969 law dealing
with identifying and defining talent and
giftedness among students.

Public Law 94-142 A 1975 U.S. education
act that attempted to formalize the rights of
children with special needs, and to specify
the responsibilities of the school. Later
replaced by the Individuals with Disabilities
Education Improvement Act (IDEIA). See
also Individuals with Disabilities Education
Improvement Act (IDEIA).

race A biological term referring to an
attempt to classify humans in groups distin-
guishable in terms of their genetic ancestry;
often identifiable on the basis of physical,
mental, or personality characteristics. The
concept is unclear, contradictory, and not
very useful.

racism The belief that identifiable groups
of humans inherit different physical, mental,
and personality characteristics.

revolving door model An enrichment
program for gifted children advocated by
Renzulli, available to the top 25 percent of
students in a program (high ability, high
creativity, high motivation) on an optional
basis, so that students can opt in or out of
the program (hence, the revolving door).

school enrichment model (SEM) Also
called the revolving door model, an enrich-
ment program developed by Renzulli,
wherein all learners in a school are pre-
sented with a continuum of challenging pro-
grams determined largely by their interests
and talents.

severe emotional disturbance (SED) A
general category of social/emotional excep-
tionality defined primarily in terms of inap-
propriate behavior and affect and the inabil-
ity to establish normal social relationships.

severe intellectual disability A level of
intellectual disability defined in terms of
an IQ range between 20 and 40. Individu-
als with severe intellectual disability can
learn to communicate and, with systematic
training, to take care of simple hygiene. See
also mild intellectual disability, moderate
intellectual disability, profound intellectual
disability.

special education teacher A teacher
whose training and/or functions deal spe-
cifically with the education of exceptional
children—that is, children with special
needs who might be either talented and
gifted or more challenged. See also excep-
tionality, special needs.

special needs A phrase used to describe
individuals whose social, physical, or emo-
tional exceptionalities require special treat-
ment and services for them to develop their
potential. See also exceptionality.

specific learning disability A depression
in the ability to learn specific things (for
example, reading or arithmetic), where the
learning difficulties are not related to intel-
lectual disability or emotional disturbance.
See also developmental arithmetic disorder;
developmental reading disorder.

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Chapter 4 Summary and Resources

study-buddy program A volunteer pro-
gram where older individuals are matched
with younger students to help them learn.

talent Exceptional ability in a specific field
such as music or literature. See also talented
and gifted, giftedness.

talented and gifted A phrase used to
describe an advantageous combination of
intelligence, creativity, and motivation that
results in the potential for superior achieve-
ment in one or more fields. See also talent,
giftedness.

teaching style A customary way of teach-
ing, often described as either teacher-
centered (also labeled formal or direct
instruction) or learner-centered (informal or
constructivist). See also formal teaching style,
informal teaching style.

total language immersion An approach
to teaching a second language that involves
placing the learner in an environment where
only the second language is used. See also
two-way bilingual immersion program.

tutor A teacher involved in a one-on-one
teaching situation. Tutors are frequently
other students or other teachers or experts.
See also mentor.

two-way bilingual immersion program
A program in which instruction is split
between two languages. In two-way bilin-
gual immersion programs, classes include all
students: native English speakers, nonnative
English speakers, and those who are bilin-
gual. Also called dual language programs.

ሁ In the summer, a bear’s heart normally beats
approximately 40 times per minute. In winter,
when the bear is denned up, heart rate may
drop as low as 10 beats per minute. Amazingly,
extreme cold rouses the bear as readily as does
warmth. If this were not the case, many bears
would freeze to death because it is necessary
for the bear to awaken and warm up when the
temperature drops too low (Matthews, 1969).

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2727

2Socioemotional and Cognitive Development

Choreograph/iStock/Thinkstock

Learning Objectives

After studying this chapter you will be able to:

ሁ Explain how society and genetics influence the development of gender roles.
ሁ Summarize the stages of Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development and explain their
implications for teachers.

ሁ Describe how Piaget’s theory of cognitive development influences how we teach children.
ሁ Assess Vygotsky’s and Bronfenbrenner’s models and indicate how they can help teachers
understand students’ perspectives.

ሁ Describe how human development is characterized with respect to genetics and environment,
brain-based education, differential growth rates, and environmental influences.

The childhood shews the man,
As morning shews the day.

—John Milton, Paradise Lost

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Introduction

Pretest

Determine if the following statements are true or false.

1. Gender stereotypes are often vast oversimplifications based on actual experiences
with others. (T/F)

2. Identity achievement in Marcia’s theory occurs when the adolescent has made
commitments after a time of exploration. (T/F)

3. The teacher is an essential element in constructivism. (T/F)
4. Direct instruction is an effective way to use constructivist principles. (T/F)
5. Scaffolding is best used when teachers arrange for children to engage in activities that

lie within their zone of proximal development. (T/F)

Answers can be found at the end of the chapter.

Introduction
To teach children effectively, it’s useful to know what to expect of them. We don’t expect our
6-year-olds to understand programming languages such as FORTRAN or Pascal. Nor do we
expect our teenagers to become excited at the prospect of being allowed to play on the swings
if they color their drawing of mommy nicely, staying inside the lines. But what can 6-year-
olds understand? And what does excite teenagers? This chapter presents the beginnings of
answers for questions such as these. It’s important to keep in mind, however, that our discus-
sion is necessarily limited to that mythical but convenient invention, the “average child.” Your
children are not likely to be average; they will need to be understood as individuals. Neverthe-
less, knowledge of the average may prove valuable in understanding the individual.

When an infant was about to be born among the Mundugumor of New Guinea,
the parents would adorn themselves with their most prized clothing and jew-
elry: a skirt of brilliant parrot feathers for the father, with plumes and beetle
shells around his neck. And for the mother, bracelets of wild orchids, a neck-
lace of smoothly polished dog teeth, and, through her nostrils, the long white leg
bone of a wild guinea fowl.

The Mundugumor considered this business of dressing well for a birth
extremely important. If others in the village looked at the parents in admira-
tion, this would bode well for the child. But they also knew that other matters
that they could not so easily control are even more important. For example, the
Mundugumor knew without any doubt that only infants who are born with their
umbilical cords wrapped around their necks have any chance of becoming great
artists. And among the Mundugumor, to be a great artist is a lucky and wonder-
ful thing. Amazingly, the Mundugumor were right: Infants not born with their
umbilical cords coiled around their necks simply did not become great artists—
to absolutely no one’s surprise.

When I was born, my parents were not particularly concerned with the
position of my umbilical cord—unless, of course, the cord was wrapped danger-
ously tightly around my scrawny neck. You see, my parents knew without any
doubt whatsoever that the position of the umbilical cord at birth had absolutely
nothing to do with whether or not I would become a great artist. I didn’t. I had
no brushes as a child! But that’s another story. Besides, where I was born and
raised, becoming a great artist was an uncommon ambition.

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Section 2.1 Gender Roles

Still, my parents were very much like the Mundugumor in their attempts to
foretell my future at birth. No, they didn’t look at the location of my umbilical
cord. Instead, they wanted to know whether I was a girl or a boy.

2.1 Gender Roles
My parents were convinced that they could make stunningly accurate predictions based on
my gender. They believed that if I were a boy, which I was, I would be fast and strong and
tough and just a little aggressive (it’s not a bad thing in this dog-eat-dog world, you know).
And if I were a girl, well, I’d be gentler and more emotional and not nearly so aggressive,
and I’d want to help out in the house, but no way would I be interested in chopping wood or
becoming a great scientist or a computer programmer.

My parents were heir to a vast body of beliefs dealing with the most likely characteristics
associated with gender. These characteristics define gender roles (also called sex roles).
There have traditionally been masculine roles and feminine roles, and all societies seem to
have had relatively clear ideas of what these should be. They are evident in culture-specific
stereotypes that describe the behaviors, personality characteristics, and attitudes that a cul-
ture finds appropriate for each sex. Learning the behaviors that correspond to one’s gender is
called gender typing (or sex typing).

Gender stereotypes are not always wrong, based as they are on actual experiences with males
and females. That there should be a smidgen of truth in our preconceived notions of male–
female differences should hardly be surprising. At the same time, however, we need to keep
in mind that stereotypes are typically vast oversimplifications and that, especially when they
are wrong, they can be grossly unfair. Teachers need to be especially vigilant about stereo-
types; they need to be carefully examined.

Development of Gender Roles
As for all aspects of human development, there are two main influences on the development of
gender roles: the environment, evident in the social pressures and models that lead children
to adopt male or female roles; and genetics, whose influence is related to our different bio-
logical makeup. See Table 2.1 for definitions of important terms in the study of development.

Table 2.1: Human development: Definitions

Term Definition

Psychology The science that studies human behavior and thought.

Developmental psychology Division of psychology concerned with changes that occur over time
and with the processes and influences that account for these changes.

Development includes:
Growth

Physical changes such as increases in height and weight.

Maturation Naturally unfolding changes, relatively independent of experience
(for example, pubescence—the changes of adolescence that lead to
sexual maturity).

Learning Relatively permanent changes in behavior or in potential for behavior
that result from experience.

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Section 2.1 Gender Roles

Social Pressures and Models
In many, though not all, societies, the roles of men and women are different. Often, women
are more responsible for looking after children and men are more responsible for producing
income. These different social roles, explain Eagly, Wood, and Johannessen-Schmidt (2005),
inevitably lead to sex differences in expectations and behavior and, consequently, in gender
stereotypes. That’s because these traditional roles constrain the individual, in a sense, forcing
the adoption of nurturing behaviors by women and the adoption of more assertive behaviors
by men who are forced to compete in the sometimes more vicious work world. In societ-
ies where these social roles are clear, it’s hardly surprising that caring and nurturing should
be seen as feminine traits and that assertiveness and competitiveness should be considered
masculine traits.

It follows from this social role theory of gender typing that a change in the roles of men and
women would eventually result in a change in gender roles and in gender stereotypes. Thus,
dramatic changes in college enrollment patterns in North America, as well as in occupational
patterns, coupled with the fact that far fewer women now carry out the role of traditional
homemaker, are rapidly leading to very different conceptions of gender and gender roles.
Consider, for example, that in 1960, for every 10 males who graduated from college, only 6
females did likewise (Figure 2.1). Now, almost 60 percent of college graduates are women
(U.S. Census Bureau, 2015).

Figure 2.1: Ratio of female to male college graduates
ሁ Increase in ratio of female to male college graduates in the United States from 1950 to 2015.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau (2015). Educational Attainment in the United States: 2015 [Data file]. Retrieved from https://www.census.gov/data/tables
/2015/demo/education-attainment/p20-578.html

19
5
5

19
6
5

19
7

19
7
5

19
8

19
8
5

19
9

19
9
5

2
0

0
0

2
0
0
5

2
0

0
2

Ratio of Female to Male College Graduates

Years

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

R
a
ti

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https://www.census.gov/data/tables/2015/demo/education-attainment/p20-578.html

Section 2.1 Gender Roles

Exactly how the different social roles of boys and girls translate into the characteristics that
make up masculinity and femininity is not entirely clear. One explanation is gender schema
theory. According to this theory, the child begins with no understanding of the nature of
gender—no notion of what is called basic gender identity. But notions of gender identity
appear even within the first year of life when infants begin to develop what researchers label
gender schemas—notions about what male and female mean and what the characteristics
of each are. Children can correctly label people as “man” or “woman,” “boy” or “girl,” almost
as soon as they can talk, and they can also predict the sorts of activities in which each is most
likely to engage.

Still, however, there are a large number of occupations that are traditionally male rather
than female, where fewer than 25 percent of jobs are held by women, including occupations
such as architects, clergy, machinists, truck drivers, fire fighters, and mechanics (Bureau
of Labor Statistics, 2016). In Lippa’s (2005b) survey of occupational preferences of 4,749
men and women, he found that the men typically preferred three categories of occupations:
“blue-collar realistic” (carpenter; plumber), “educated realistic” (electrical engineer), and
“flashy, risk-taking” (jet pilot). Women preferred occupations such as “fashion related” (fash-
ion model), “artistic” (author), “helping” (social worker), and “children related” (child-care
center). Female occupations, even for college-educated women, also tend to be lower-paying
than the occupations of comparably educated men (Figure 2.2).

Figure 2.2: U.S. male and female median earnings by educational
attainment

ሁ Median earnings tend to increase with increasing education. They are still higher for males than
for females.

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census (2016). BLS Reports, November 2015 [Data file]. Retrieved from https://www.census.gov/data/tables/2015/demo
/education-attainment/p20-578.html.

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

Bachelor’s degreeH.S. diploma

Male

Female

M
e
d

ia
n

w
e
e
k
ly

e
a
rn

in
g

s
2

01
4

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https://www.census.gov/data/tables/2015/demo/education-attainment/p20-578.html

Section 2.1 Gender Roles

Parents tend to exert an enormously important influence on the development of gender role
in their children (Croft, Schmader, Block, & Baron, 2014). Not only do they typically provide
them with what are considered sex-appropriate toys and encourage gender-appropriate
behaviors, but they also communicate their own gender biases and stereotypes. For exam-
ple, research indicates that, among other things, North American parents typically think that
boys find math more interesting and easier than do girls. Children may well internalize this
and many of the subtle messages parents send out regarding gender and regarding what is
expected and appropriate for boys and girls. As a result, these stereotypes can affect chil-
dren’s math performance (Casad, Hale, & Wachs, 2015).

Once children have begun to develop gender schemas, these act as powerful constraints on
their behavior. Because boys aren’t supposed to cry, Robert bites his lip and tries hard to hold
back his tears; because girls aren’t supposed to like playing with boys’ things, Elizabeth tries
to ignore her brother’s gleaming red fire truck.

Biological Influences
As we noted, biology also contributes to the development of gender roles. Biology, after all,
determines whether we are anatomically male or female. And there are strong indications
that some male–female personality differences may have physiological roots. For example,
there are anatomical differences between male and female brains, both in terms of size and
function. Men’s brains are, on average, larger than those of women; structures that are linked
with sex and aggression are more developed among men; women tend to have relatively
more gray matter; and men, more white matter (Belfi et al., 2014; Escorial et al., 2015; Lud-
ers et al., 2009). Also, the part of the brain associated with spatial relations and mathematics
is more developed in males, whereas the areas of the frontal and temporal lobes linked with
language are more developed in women (Sabbatini, 2010).

Hormones are another physiological factor thought to be closely involved in the development
of gender. When children are exposed prenatally to male or female hormones, their behaviors
may subsequently appear to be more masculine or feminine than might otherwise have been
expected (Ehrhardt et al., 2007). Thus, females exposed to male sex hormones tend to be
somewhat more aggressive.

Gender Differences
Parents, children, and society in general assume that there are important differences between
males and females in their different gender roles. But just how real and important are these
differences?

Following an early review of research on gender differences, Maccoby and Jacklin (1974)
suggested four areas in which gender differences are significant: (1) verbal ability, par-
ticularly in the early grades, favoring females; (2) mathematical ability, favoring males;
(3) spatial-visual ability (evident in geographic orientation, for example), favoring males; and
(4) aggression (lower among females).

But many of these differences no longer seem as clear now as they did in 1974. There is
mounting evidence that when early experiences are similar, there are few significant male–
female differences (Strand, 2010). Furthermore, even when differences are found, they tend

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Section 2.1 Gender Roles

to be modest and far from universal. Still, to the extent that there might be predictable differ-
ences in school-related areas, such as verbal ability and science and mathematical achieve-
ment, these differences can be important for teachers.

Verbal Ability
Differences in verbal ability are not always apparent and are usually quite small, but almost
invariably favor girls (Reilly, Neumann, & Andrews, 2016). In most comparisons that have
looked at specific skills, such as those involved in spelling, verbal fluency, and verbal composi-
tion, girls tend to perform better than boys.

Mathematics, Science, and Visuospatial Abilities
On average, boys tend to do better than girls on measures of mathematical skills (College
Board SAT, 2010). They also typically do better in sciences such as physics and chemistry,
which are heavily dependent on mathematical and visuospatial abilities (evident in tasks
involving mentally rotating objects, map orientation, way-finding, and geographical knowl-
edge). Males are also more variable than females on most tests (Halpern, 2011). That is, more
males are at the highest and at the lowest levels. Interestingly, however, there is some evi-
dence that although females don’t do as well as males in mathematics on average, there are
more females than males who are high in both verbal and mathematical ability (Wang, Eccles,
& Kenny, 2013).

Physical Abilities
Some of the physical differences between boys and girls are clear and not especially con-
troversial. On average, males are taller and heavier than females throughout life except for
a short period during pubescence when girls’ earlier maturation gives them a short-lived
advantage in height and weight.

That these differences in height and weight should be reflected in different physical abilities
is not especially surprising. Males tend to perform better than females in activities requiring
strength and stamina. As a result, males can often throw objects further, lift heavier weights,
run faster, jump higher, do more sit-ups, and more effectively fend off cantankerous bears. On
the other hand, women have better eye-hand coordination than men, are more flexible, and
do better at rhythmic tasks such as hopscotch and dancing (Lippa, 2005a).

The Implications of Gender Roles for Teaching
Stereotypes about the different abilities and interests of boys and girls may well lead teach-
ers to treat them differently and to expect them to perform differently. Hence, it is extremely
important for teachers to keep in mind that many apparent gender differences are trivial or
even nonexistent. Teachers need to be aware of—and work to eliminate—the many subtle
instances of sex bias that still permeate our attitudes, our books, our schools, and our society.
See the case “And for Noon Detention, Here Is the List . . .” for examples of still-common gen-
der inequities in three areas.

One example at the Wes Horman School, as in many other schools, is evidence of gender ineq-
uity in the administration. The principal and vice principal are both male; the majority of

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Section 2.1 Gender Roles

teachers are female. As Figure 2.3 shows, the proportion of female to male teachers has been
increasing so that about 3 of every 4 teachers are now female. Yet almost half of all principals
are male. But that proportion, too, is declining (see Figure 2.4).

Another example of inequity is the treatment of students. When Tom and Teddy called out,
Ms. Fenna responded to them directly. But when Rosa echoed Tom, Ms. Fenna reprimanded
her: “In this class, we raise our hand,” she said.

Is this unusual? No. At virtually all educational levels, teachers interact more with male stu-
dents than with female students: Boys receive more instructional time, more attention, even
more praise and encouragement (Sadker & Sadker, 1986). And, like the detainees at Wes Hor-
man School, they are also more often reprimanded and punished.

Gender inequities are also apparent in the sexual stereotypes still found in books, in the cur-
riculum, in classroom examples, and elsewhere. At Wes Horman School, boys who need look-
ing after because they did not go on a field trip are sent to gym classes; girls are sent to the
art room. And for those who have finished their arithmetic, the reading assignment is Tom
Sawyer. Although “male hero” books are no longer as pervasive in schools as they once were,
boys are often portrayed as more dominant and girls as more helpless.

C A S E S F R O M T H E C L A S S R O O M :
A N D F O R N O O N D E T E N T I O N , H E R E I S T H E L I S T . . .

The Time: Early morning at Wes Horman School

The Place: Ms. Fenna’s fifth-grade class

Morning messages are just ending on the intercom. “And,’’ says Mr. Sawchuk, school principal,
“for noon detention in Mr. Klein’s office, the list is Ronald West, Juan González, Eddie Mio, and
Eddie Nyberg . . . and I hope there won’t be any more by noon.’’*

Ms. Fenna: You heard that, Ronald?

Ronald nods.

“Also,” continues Mr. Sawchuk, “grade sixers who aren’t going on the field trip: the boys will
spend the day in Mr. Klein’s phys ed classes, and the girls will go to the art room. . . . That’s all.’’

Ms. Fenna: Now, class, I want you to open your math workbooks to page 34, which we started
yesterday, and finish the assignment on that page before we go on.

Tom Larsen: I finished mine. What can I do now?

Ms. Fenna: I’ll come check it in a minute.

Rosa Donner: Me too.

Ms. Fenna: In this class, we raise our hand, Rosa.

Teddy Langevin: Can we read our Tom Sawyers if we’re finished?

Ms. Fenna: How many are finished with page 34?

*Note that the principal’s reading the names of detention students over an intercom system is not a highly recommended school management
behavior. (See Chapter 9.)

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Section 2.1 Gender Roles

Figure 2.3: Percentage of elementary and secondary teachers who
are male and female

ሁ Declining ratio of male to female teachers in U.S. elementary and secondary schools.

Source: Institute of Educational Sciences, U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics (2008; 2015). [Data file]. Retrieved from
http://nces.ed.gov/fastfacts/display.asp?id=28

Figure 2.4: Declining proportion of male principals in elementary
and secondary schools

ሁ The relative proportion of male to female public school principals has dropped dramatically in the
last several decades.

Source: Institute of Educational Sciences, U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics (2007). [Data file]. Retrieved from
https://nces.ed.gov/; Institute of Educational Sciences, U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics (2013). Characteristics
of public and private elementary and secondary school principals in the United States: Results from the 2011–2012 schools and staffing survey.
Retrieved from nces.ed.gov/pubs2013/2013313

Years

0
19
6
1
19
6
6
19
7
1

19
76

19
8
1
19
8
6
19
9
1
19
9
6
2
0
01
2
0

0
6

2
01

Percentage of elementary and secondary
teachers who are male and female

Female
Male

P
e

rc
e

n
ta

g
e

0.50

0.60

0.70

1993–
1994

1999–
2000

2003–
2004

2007–
2008

2011–
2012

Years
R
a
ti
o

Lef83909_02_ch02_027-072.indd 35 12/14/17 4:18 PM

http://nces.ed.gov/fastfacts/display.asp?id=28

https://nces.ed.gov/

nces.ed.gov/pubs2013/2013313

Section 2.2 Personality Development: Erik Erikson

It isn’t sufficient simply to know that schools reflect much of the racism, sexism, and other
prejudices of our society. Teachers (and principals) need to be on guard constantly lest they
unconsciously propagate the same stereotypes and inequities. In the United States, gender
equity is mandated by laws that prohibit discrimination by sex in any federally funded edu-
cational program. But this doesn’t mean that all inequities have been wiped out. There is still
much to be done.

2.2 Personality Development: Erik Erikson
Gender is one very important aspect of our personality. But personality is much more than
our notions of being male or female and related attitudes and interests. Personality includes
all of the abilities, predispositions, habits, and other qualities that make each of us different
from every other person.

Exactly how personality develops—for example, the extent to which personality characteris-
tics are innate or result from our experiences—is not entirely certain. But one highly useful
theory of personality development for teachers is that of Erik Erikson.

Much of Erikson’s theory was inspired by Sigmund Freud. But whereas Freud’s theory high-
lighted the importance of sexuality and sexual conflicts in human development, Erikson
emphasizes the importance of the child’s social environment. The result is a theory of psy-
chosocial rather than psychosexual development. The major emphasis in Erikson’s theory
is on the development of a healthy self-concept, or identity, to use his term.

Psychosocial Stages in Childhood and Adolescence
Psychosocial development, says Erikson, can be described in terms of eight stages, the first
five of which span infancy, childhood, and adolescence; the last three occur in adulthood.
Each stage involves a conflict brought about mainly by a person’s need to adapt to the social
environment. And because the demands of a given environment tend to be much the same for
all individuals within that culture, we tend to experience the same problems and conflicts at
about the same ages—hence the notion of stages.

Trust Versus Mistrust
For example, for infants to adapt to an initially complex and largely bewildering world, they
have to learn to trust the world. Doing so, explains Erikson, is highly dependent on the con-
sistency and care with which caregivers meet the infant’s needs for drink, food, warmth, and
comfort. Should caregiving be haphazard and unreliable, the infant becomes mistrustful.
Hence, the basic psychosocial conflict is one of trust versus mistrust. Resolving the conflict
results in a sense of competence and enables infants to continue to develop and grow. In Erik-
son’s words, “The infant’s first social achievement is his willingness to let the mother out of
sight without undue anxiety or rage, because she has become an inner certainty as well as an
outer predictability” (1950, p. 247).

Autonomy Versus Shame and Doubt
Initially, infants don’t deliberately act upon the world; instead, they react to it. Sucking, for
example, is something that happens when stimulation is appropriate; it isn’t something that

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Section 2.2 Personality Development: Erik Erikson

infants deliberately decide to do. But during the second year of life, they gradually begin to
realize that they are the authors of their own actions. As a result, they begin to develop a
sense of autonomy. At this stage, it’s important for parents to encourage their children to
explore and to provide opportunities for their independence. Overprotectiveness can lead to
doubt and uncertainty in dealing with the world.

Initiative Versus Guilt
By the age of 4 or 5, children have begun to develop a sense that they are separate, autono-
mous individuals capable of their own decisions and actions. Now they must discover who
they are. This discovery, Erikson (1959) explains, comes about largely as a result of identifi-
cation. Identification involves trying to be like the person with whom the child identifies—in
this case, the parent.

During this stage of development, children’s
worlds expand dramatically, not only in a
physical sense, but also through their use
of language and in the fact that preschool
teachers, friends, and siblings become
more important. Children need to develop a
sense of initiative with respect to their own
behaviors—a sense that they are autono-
mous as well as responsible for initiating
that behavior.

Industry Versus Inferiority
It’s important to keep in mind that each
of Erikson’s stages reflects the principal
social and cultural demands in the child’s
life. Thus this next stage, which spans the
elementary school years, is marked by chil-
dren’s increasing need to interact with and
be accepted by peers. It now becomes vital
that children receive assurance that they are significant and worthwhile. During this stage,
children often take advantage of opportunities to learn things that they think are important in
their culture. It is as though, by so doing, they hope to become someone important rather than
someone inferior. Successful resolution of this stage’s conflict depends largely on how the
culture’s main socializing agencies—especially schools and teachers—respond to children’s
efforts. Recognition and praise are crucial for developing a positive self-concept. If children’s
work is continually demeaned, seldom praised, and rarely rewarded, the outcome may well
be a lasting sense of inferiority.

Identity Versus Identity Diffusion
Adolescence brings with it an extremely critical, and sometimes very difficult, task: that of
developing a strong sense of identity rather than a vague, uncertain self-concept.

The formation of an identity, notes Erikson (1959), involves arriving at a notion not so much
of who one is but rather of who one can be. The source of conflict is the almost overwhelming

Marie Lefrançois/Marie’s Photography
ሁ By the age of 4 or 5, children have begun to

develop a sense of autonomy and independence.
Still, the most important people in their lives are
parents and family—as is evident in this child’s
painting of his mother and brother.

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Section 2.2 Personality Development: Erik Erikson

number of possibilities open to children. The conflict is made worse by the variety of models
and the range of different values evident in society. In the absence of clear commitment to val-
ues, and perhaps to vocational goals as well, adolescents are said to be in a state of identity
diffusion.

Later in adolescence, children may experiment with a variety of identities. In this sense, Erik-
son explains, adolescence serves as a sort of “moratorium”—a period during which adoles-
cents can try out different roles without a final commitment. The crisis of adolescence is sim-
ply the conflict between the need to find an identity and the difficulties involved in doing so.
Resolution of the crisis normally involves achieving a relatively mature identity.

Achieving a mature identity is clearly not something that all adolescents manage to do by
the time they are out of their teens. There are many potential pitfalls and issues that might
confront the adolescent and interfere with identify formation: pregnancy and parenthood,
sexual abuse and violence, drug and alcohol use, the possibility of sexually transmitted dis-
eases, parental conflict, and coping with insistent hormonal urges. Add to these issues prob-
lems associated with making career- and life-shaping decisions and it becomes clear why Hall
(1916) described adolescence as a period of sturm und drang (storm and stress.)

Stages of Identity Formation: Marcia
Erikson’s description of adolescent identity formation has been clarified by Marcia (1966,
1993). There are essentially four distinct types of identity status, explains Marcia, each dis-
tinguishable in terms of whether the adolescent is currently undergoing a crisis and whether
a commitment has been made to a specific identity.

Identity Diffusion
Adolescents in a state of identity diffusion are characterized by a total lack of commitment
and by the absence of any real crisis. These are individuals whose political, social, and religious
beliefs are either ambiguous or nonexistent and who have no vocational aspirations. Iden-
tity diffusion is characteristic of early adolescence. Older adolescents (and adults) marked
by identity diffusion are recognizable as full-time “fun-seekers,” says Marcia, or as imma-
ture and disturbed individuals often characterized by high anxiety and low self-confidence
(Marcia, 1980).

Foreclosure
Foreclosure describes a strong commitment to an identity without having gone through a
crisis. Foreclosure is often characteristic of individuals reared in close-knit religious com-
munities where there is no need to make vocational, political, or religious choices. The most
striking characteristic of foreclosure individuals is obedience and high adherence to authori-
tarian values.

Moratorium
Adolescence provides adolescents with an opportunity to experiment with various roles and
to toy with vague, changing commitments while struggling with the need to develop a strong
sense of identity. In this sense, adolescence is a moratorium—an interlude or period of delay.
Moratorium individuals are those who are not yet committed (to occupational, political, or

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Section 2.2 Personality Development: Erik Erikson

religious roles, for example) and who are going through crises of varying severity. Adoles-
cents who have foreclosed their identities are those who have not experienced this period of
exploration without commitment.

Identity Achieved
Identity-achieved adolescents are those who have experienced a crisis and made a choice
(commitment). Note, however, that identity can develop independently in different areas. For
example, an adolescent who is married and has a child has achieved a relatively high level of
identity with respect to social relationships; but the same adolescent might still be in a stage
of identity diffusion or moratorium with respect to career development. Adolescents who
have achieved a sense of identity, notes Marcia (1980), are more independent, better able to
cope with stress, and marked by higher self-esteem.

Psychosocial Stages of Adulthood
Of less importance to K–12 teachers, Erikson describes three additional psychosocial con-
flicts that occur during adulthood and old age. Each of these reflects the most common social
realities in North American cultures. And each requires new competencies and adjustments.

The first of the adult stages, intimacy and solidarity versus isolation, reflects most adults’ need
for intimate relationships with others (as opposed to being isolated). Such relationships are
especially important for those who want marital and parental roles. For others, developmen-
tal tasks might be quite different.

The second adult stage, generativity versus self-absorption, describes individuals’ need to take
on social, work, and community responsibilities that will be beneficial to others (that will be
generative). The basic conflict here is between a tendency to remain preoccupied with the self
(as are adolescents, for example) and cultural demands that individuals contribute to society
in various ways.

The final adult stage in the human lifespan, integrity versus despair, has to do with facing the
inevitability of our own death and realizing that life has meaning—that we should not despair
because the end is imminent. (See Table 2.2 and Table 2.3 for a summary of Erikson’s stages
and Marcia’s descriptions of identity formation.)

The Relevance of Erikson’s Theory for Teachers
Erikson’s theory, notes Elkind (2015), has had a profound influence on psychoanalysis, on
psychology, and yes, on the way we view children and adolescents. The theory is especially
important for teachers because of the insights it provides concerning normal, healthy devel-
opment. It underlines the close relationship between emotions and cognitions and empha-
sizes the role of teachers and parents in helping children develop positive emotions and social
competencies (Thompson, 2010).

To the extent that each of Erikson’s stages reflects some truth about human nature, perhaps
about our most basic tendencies and conflicts, it can be important in helping teachers better
understand children. In the same way as parents are the most important source of influence
in the lives of infants, so too are teachers a fundamentally important source of influence in the
lives of schoolchildren. One of the things that Erikson’s theory emphasizes is the importance

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40
Section 2.2 Personality Development: Erik Erikson

Table 2.2: Erikson’s psychosocial stages

Erikson’s psychosocial crises*
Important social and cultural
influences

Main accomplishments
required for healthy
development

1. Trust vs. mistrust
(Birth to 18 months)

Mother or other principal
caregiver

Developing sense of trust with
main caregiver(s)

2. Autonomy vs. shame and doubt
(18 months to 3 years)

Supportive parents; family Developing sense of ownership
over actions; developing
intentional behavior

3. Initiative vs. guilt
(3 to 6 years)

Parents and family, beginning to
expand to preschool, friends, and
relatives

Identifying with parents to
develop a sense of self and of
responsibility for own actions

4. Industry vs. inferiority
(6 to 12 years)

Schools, teachers, friends and
family

Developing a positive
self-concept

5. Identity vs. identity diffusion
(Teen years)

Peers and role models; social
pressure

Developing a sense of identity;
resolving crises and making
commitments

6. Intimacy vs. isolation
(adult years)

Spouse, colleagues, partners,
society

Developing close relationships
with others; achieving the
intimacy required for marriage

7. Generativity vs. self-absorption Spouse, children, friends,
colleagues, community

Assuming responsible adult
roles in the community;
contributing; being worthwhile

8. Integrity vs. despair Friends, relatives, children,
spouse, community, religious
support

Facing death; overcoming
potential despair; coming to
terms with the meaningfulness
of life

*A crisis is defined as a period of active and conscious decision making during which various alternatives are examined and
evaluated. Commitment is acceptance of a combination of political, social, religious, and vocational alternatives. Level of crisis
and commitment may be different in each of these areas.

Table 2.3: Marcia’s description of identity formation

Status Commitment Crisis Characteristics

Identity diffusion None None Ambiguous belief systems; no vocational
commitment

Foreclosure Strong None Commitment predetermined by political,
social, or religious affiliation

Moratorium None Yes Period of exploration of alternatives

Identity achieved Yes Finished Crisis finished; commitment made; higher
independence and self-esteem; clearer
sense of self

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Section 2.3 Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

of the child’s self-concept. As we noted, teachers can do a great deal to enhance self-con-
cept. They can also do much to facilitate the adolescent’s occasional struggles with issues of
identity.

Erikson’s theory deals mainly with emotional and personality development. Also of profound
importance for teachers is cognitive development. Cognition has to do with knowing. Cognitive
theorists are concerned with how we obtain, process, and use information. Cognitive develop-
ment refers to the stages and processes involved in the child’s intellectual development.

In the next sections, we look at three important theories of cognitive development: those of the
Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget, of the Soviet psychologist Lev Vygotsky, and of the Russian-born
American psychologist Urie Bronfenbrenner. Each of these theories has important implications
for teachers.

2.3 Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Babies are remarkable little sensing machines. Almost from birth, they can detect sounds,
odors, sights, tastes, and touches; they can respond by squirming and wriggling, by crying, by
flinging their limbs about and grasping things, and by sucking.

But can they think? Do they have a store of little ideas? Of budding concepts?

We can’t answer these questions easily because the neonate (newborn) doesn’t communi-
cate well enough to tell us. But Piaget tells us that the child probably does not think in the
sense that we ordinarily define thinking. The newborn does not have a stockpile of memories
or hopes and dreams—does not have a fund of information about which, and with which, to
think. But what this little sensing machine does have are the tools necessary for acquiring
information.

Factors Underlying Development
From the very beginning, says Piaget, the infant continually seeks out and responds to stimu-
lation, and by so doing it gradually builds up a repertoire of behaviors and capabilities.

To begin with, the infant is limited to reflexive behaviors, unlearned, biologically based
actions such as sucking and grasping. Soon, however, these behaviors become more com-
plex, more coordinated, and eventually purposeful. The process by which this occurs defines
adaptation. And adaptation is made possible through the twin processes of assimilation
and accommodation.

Assimilation and Accommodation
To assimilate is to respond in terms of pre-existing information using previously learned
behaviors. In contrast, to accommodate is to change a behavior in response to a given situ-
ation. As a result, explains Piaget, assimilation involves little change in the child’s cognitive
system because old learning and old behaviors are being used and practiced. But accommo-
dation involves changes in the mental system because old behaviors and old learning are now
being modified.

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Section 2.3 Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

Assimilation and accommodation are the processes that make adaptation possible throughout
life. However, these are not separate and independent processes; they always occur together.
We cannot begin to make changes in mental structure (accommodating) without first having
some basis for responding (assimilating). But all instances of assimilation also involve some
degree of change, no matter how familiar the situation or how well learned the response—
even if the change is no more significant than that the response will be a tiny fraction better
learned and more readily available in the future.

Equilibration
One of the governing principles of mental activity, explains Piaget, is equilibration, a ten-
dency to maintain a balance between assimilation and accommodation. At one extreme, if the
child always assimilated stimulation to previous learning and responses, there would be no
new learning. Everything would be responded to in the same way. This would be a state of
disequilibrium that would lead to little cognitive change (hence, little learning). On the other
hand, if everything were always accommodated to, behavior would be in a constant state
of flux, forever changing—again an extreme state of disequilibrium resulting in little new
learning.

As an illustration, if Matthew always calculates area by multiplying two dimensions of a figure,
he can be said to be assimilating all area problems to what he has already learned about the
area of squares and rectangles. This state of disequilibrium will lead to an incorrect answer
every time an area problem involves a different geometric figure (such as a circle or a tri-
angle), and it will also result in little new learning about calculating area. However, if Matthew
insists on using a different method of calculating area each time he is faced with a new prob-
lem, he will be accommodating (modifying responses) excessively and inappropriately. Again,
this state of disequilibrium will lead to few correct answers and not much new learning.

Four Factors That Shape Development
The tendency toward equilibration, says Piaget (1961), is one of the four great forces that
shape a child’s development. The second is maturation, a biologically based process that
makes certain kinds of learning possible and even probable. Thus, physical maturation allows
infants to learn to control tongue, lip, and mouth movements, enabling them to learn to speak.

But without the right experiences, of course, physical maturation alone would not result in a
child who speaks. Hence, the need for active experience. Through active interaction with the
real world, the child develops important notions about objects and their properties. Similarly,
through social interaction children elaborate their ideas about things, about others, and about
the self.

The development of progressively more advanced ways of representing the world and of
interacting with it depends on:

1. Equilibration: The tendency to balance assimilation (responding in terms of
previous learning) and accommodation (changing behavior in response to the
environment).

2. Maturation: Genetically based changes that make certain developments possible and
probable.

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Section 2.3 Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

3. Active experience: Interaction with real objects and events allows an individual to
discover things and to construct mental representations of the world.

4. Social interaction: Interaction with people leads to the elaboration of ideas about
things, people, and self.

Piaget’s Stages of Development
Piaget describes development in terms of a series of stages through which children progress
as they develop. Each of these stages is characterized by certain kinds of behaviors and cer-
tain ways of thinking and solving problems. Piaget’s descriptions of these ways of solving
problems, of behaving, and of thinking can be valuable for helping teachers understand their
students. (See Table 2.4 for an overview of the stages.)

Table 2.4: Piaget’s stages of cognitive development

Stage Approximate age Some major characteristics

Sensorimotor 0–2 years Motoric intelligence
World of the here and now
No language, no thought in early stages
No notion of objective reality

Preoperational thought
Preconceptual thinking
Intuitive thinking

2–7 years

2–4 years

4–7 years

Egocentric thought
Reason dominated by perception
Intuitive rather than logical solutions
Inability to conserve

Concrete operations 7–11 or 12 years Ability to conserve
Logic of classes and relations
Understanding of number
Thinking bound to concrete

Formal operations 11 or 12–14 or 15 years Complete generality of thought
Ability to deal with the hypothetical
Development of strong idealism

Sensorimotor Intelligence: Birth to 2 Years
During the first two years of life, Piaget explains, infants understand the world only in terms
of the actions they perform and the sensation that results. Sensation is defined as the imme-
diate, physical effects of a stimulus (for example, a sound, a sight, a taste). Hence, Piaget’s use
of the label sensorimotor intelligence to describe this period. It seemed to Piaget that, until
the child develops a way to represent the world mentally, intelligent activity must be confined
mainly to sensorimotor functions.

The child’s world at birth is a world of the here and now, says Piaget. Objects exist when they
can be seen, heard, touched, tasted, or smelled; when they are removed from the infant’s
immediate sensory experience, they cease to be. One of the child’s major achievements dur-
ing the sensorimotor stage is the acquisition of what Piaget calls the object concept—the
notion that objects have a permanence and identity of their own and that they continue to

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Section 2.3 Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

exist even when they aren’t being immediately sensed. If an attractive object is shown to a
very young infant and then hidden, the child will not even look for it: it does not seem to exist
when they can no longer see or touch it.

In general, says Piaget, the first two years of life are characterized by a sensorimotor repre-
sentation of the world. But one of the important achievements of this stage is symbolic repre-
sentation evident in the learning of a language.

The Preoperational Period: 2 to 7 Years
The preoperational period is so called because, according to Piaget, children do not acquire
operational (logical) thinking until around age 7. During this period, thinking is full of contra-
dictions and errors.

Piaget illustrates this point by describing his young son’s reaction to a snail they had seen
while out walking one morning. When they later saw another snail, the boy exclaimed, “Here
it is again, the snail.” He was certain this was the same snail. This, Piaget says, is an example
of preconceptual thinking. The child does not yet understand that similar objects define
classes (all snails are snails), but are not identical (snail A is not snail B).

Another feature of preoperational thought is found in the animism that sometimes marks the
3-year-old’s thinking. Piaget (1960) relates a conversation he had with a young child as they
walked. “Does the sun move?” asked Piaget (p. 215). “Yes,” the child answered, going on to
explain that the sun, like the moon, goes wherever he goes, that it stops when he stops, turns
when he turns, moves fast when he runs, and that it must surely be alive.

Animistic thinking—the belief that inanimate things are alive—grants a different magic to
the thinking of the 2-year-old, a magic that sees life in all things that move or otherwise act as
though they were alive. But even among preschoolers, animism has its limits. Bullock (1985)
suggests to a 4-year-old that if the moon or the sun are alive because they move, then surely
a car, which clearly moves, must also be alive. But the child is not so easily fooled. How can
this thing of metal and rubber and plastic be alive? In fact, says Bullock, animistic thinking is
relatively common among very young preschoolers, but it is rare among 4- and 5-year-olds.
And even among the very young, animism is often limited to things like the sun, the moon,
clouds, the wind, and other things about which even we adults are not always entirely certain;
it seldom applies to rocks and trees and pitchers of cold water.

After around age 4, children’s thinking becomes somewhat more logical, although it is still
largely dominated by perception—what the child sees, feels, hears, tastes, or smells—rather
than by reason. It is not so much rational as it is intuitive thinking, which is marked by the
child’s ability to solve many problems intuitively and also by the child’s inability to respond
correctly in the face of misleading perceptual features of problems.

Intuitive thought, explains Piaget, is often marked by egocentrism, evident in this simple
demonstration: A boy and girl doll are placed side by side on a string. A researcher holds one
end of the string in each hand so that the dolls are hidden behind a screen placed between
the child and the researcher. The child is asked to predict which doll will come out first if the
string is moved toward the right. Whether the child is correct or not, the boy doll is moved out
and hidden again. The question is repeated; again the boy doll will come out on the same side.
This time, or perhaps next time, but almost certainly before many more trials, the child will

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45
Section 2.3 Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

predict that the other doll will come out. Why? “Because it’s her turn. It isn’t fair.” The child
interprets the problem only from a personal point of view, from an egocentric view.

That perception tends to dominate the child’s thinking is evident in this Piagetian demonstra-
tion: Michael, a 4-year-old, is asked to take a bead and place it in one of two containers. As he
does so, a researcher places a bead in another container. They repeat this procedure until one
of the containers is about half full. To confuse Michael, the researcher has put her beads in a
low, flat dish whereas Michael’s container is tall and narrow. The researcher now asks, “Who
has more beads? Or do we both have the same number?” “I have more,” says Michael, “because
they’re higher.” Or he might just as easily have said, “You have more ‘cause they’re bigger
around.” In either case, his answers reflect his reliance on the appearance of the containers.
This reliance on perception, even when it conflicts with logic, is one of the major differences
between children and adults.

The thinking of 6- and 7-year-olds, says Piaget, is more magical than ours. It does not draw
as fine a line between reality and imagination; the logic that governs it is less compelling and
more easily swayed. (See Figure 2.5 for a summary of preoperational thought.)

Figure 2.5: Preoperational thought
ሁ Some characteristics of preoperational thought, which occurs from 2–7 years of age.

Preconceptual Similar objects are assumed to be identical.

Transductive A dog Reasoning from particular to particular.

Animistic
Some inanimate objects are considered alive,

often because they seem to move.

Preconceptual
period:

2–4 years

Intuitive
period:

4–7 years

Intuitive Tube is rotated; child must predict order of balls.

Perception
dominated

Child acknowledges that two balls of modeling
clay are “the same” in A. In B, where one has

been flattened, child thinks amount has changed.

Egocentric

Boy and girl dolls are behind screen. They are
always brought out on the same side and the boy

always appears first. Child eventually predicts
the other doll will be first: “It’s her turn.”

Prone to errors
of classification

Child realizes some flowers are daisies, fewer
are tulips, but answers “Daisies” to the question

“Are there more flowers or more daisies?”

A B

1 2 1 2

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Section 2.3 Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

C A S E S F R O M T H E C L A S S R O O M :
A R E N ’ T D I N O S A U R S R E A L ?

The Place: Marie’s second-grade classroom

The Setting: A dinosaur expert from the local museum is visiting the class. He has brought
what looks like a large stuffed Tyrannosaurus rex with him.

Expert: Dinosaurs are extinct. Does anyone know what that means?

Roseanne: Means there’s no more.

Billy: Means they stink bad. (burst of laughter)

Ronald: Means they’re all gone and all dead and there’s no more, and . . . and I don’t know.

Expert: That’s right. It means there’s no more. They’re all gone. They’re extinct.

Roseanne (very seriously, pointing to the stuffed Tyrannosaurus rex): Is that a real dinosaur?

The dinosaur case (see “Aren’t Dinosaurs Real?”) shows how magical thinking operates. Dino-
saurs are completely extinct, yet there remains the chilling possibility that there might still be
a real one somewhere, maybe even in this classroom, today. When, later that day, the teacher
asked this same class, apropos of something entirely different, “How many of you have ever
seen a real dinosaur?” fully one-third of those little second-grade hands shot instantly in the
air.

Concrete Operations: 7 to 11 or 12 Years
An operation is a mental activity—a thought, in other words—that is subject to certain rules
of logic. Before the stage of concrete operations, children are preoperational not because they
are incapable of thinking but because their thinking is limited by a reliance on perception and
intuition and egocentric tendencies.

With the advent of concrete operations, children begin to make a transition from a prelogi-
cal form of thought to thinking characterized by rules of logic that are applied to real, concrete
objects and events. Concrete operations are well illustrated by the child’s ability to conserve.

Conservation is the realization that quantity or amount doesn’t change—despite changes
in appearance—unless something is taken away from or added to an object or a collection
of objects. The demonstration in which an equal number of wooden beads are put into two
different-shaped containers leading the child to conclude that one container has more beads
than the other because it’s taller or wide illustrates lack of conservation.

There are as many types of conservation as there are measurable characteristics of objects:
There is conservation of number, length, distance, area, volume, continuous substance, dis-
continuous substance, liquid substance, and so on. None of these conservations is achieved
before the period of concrete operations; even then, some (volume, for example) will not be
acquired until quite late in that period. Several experimental procedures used to test for con-
servation are shown in Figure 2.6, together with the approximate ages of attainment.

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Section 2.3 Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

One of the intriguing things about conservation is that preoperational children can be made
to contradict themselves many times without ever changing their minds. After the experi-
ment on conservation of liquid quantity, for example, the experimenter can pour the water
back into the original containers and repeat the question. The child now acknowledges that
they contain the same amount of water, but as soon as the water is again poured into the tall
and flat containers, that decision may be reversed.

A. B.

A. B.
A. B.
A. B.
A. B.

1. Conservation of substance (6–7 years)

The experimenter presents two identical modeling
clay balls. The subject admits that they have

equal amounts of clay.

One of the balls is deformed. The subject is asked
whether they still contained equal amounts.

2. Conservation of length (6–7 years)

Two sticks are aligned in front of the subject. The
subject admits their equality.

One of the sticks is moved to the right. The subject
is asked whether they are still the same length.

3. Conservation of number (6–7 years)

Two rows of counters are placed in one-to-one
correspondence. Subject admits their equality.

One of the rows is elongated (or contracted).
Subject is asked whether each row still contains

the same number.

4. Conservation of liquids (6–7 years)

Two beakers are filled to the same level with water.
The subject sees that they are equal.

The liquid of one container is poured into a tall tube
(or flat dish). The subject is asked whether each

still contains the same amount.

5. Conservation of area (9–10 years)

The subject and the experimenter each have
identical sheets of cardboard. Wooden blocks are
placed on these in identical positions. The subject
agrees that each cardboard has the same amount

of space

remaining.

The experimenter scatters the blocks on one of the
cardboards. The subject is asked whether each
cardboard still has the same amount of space

remaining.
A. B.
A. B.
A. B.
A. B.
A. B.

Figure 2.6: Procedures for demonstrating conservations
ሁ Some simple tests for conservations with approximate ages of attainment.

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Section 2.3 Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

Besides conservation, children at this stage also acquire the ability to classify and to seriate,
both of which are essential to fully understand numbers. Classification involves incorporat-
ing subclasses into more general classes, while maintaining the identity of the subclasses
(an example is given in Figure 2.7). Seriation requires understanding how to order objects
in terms of an attribute. To demonstrate seriation, Piaget presented children with a series of
different-size dolls and asked them to arrange these dolls in order. Preoperational children
find this task very difficult. Typically, they compare only two dolls at a time and fail to make
an inference that is important for solving the problem: If A is greater than B, and B is greater
than C, A must also be greater than C. Preoperational children don’t hesitate to put B before A
if they have just been comparing B and C (see Figure 2.8).

Large orange balls

Orange balls

Large balls
Large green balls

Green balls

Small orange balls

Small balls

Small green balls

Figure 2.7: Simple classification
ሁ “If there are orange balls and green balls, and some are large and others are small, how many

different kinds of balls are there?” This demonstration illustrates the classification abilities of
children during the period of concrete operations.

Children at the stage of concrete operations can apply rules of logic to classes, to relations
(series), and to numbers. However, they find it difficult to apply rules of logic to objects or
events that are not concrete. They deal mainly with what is real or what they are capable of
imagining. Their ready answer to the question “What if Pinocchio had a short nose?” is “Pin-
occhio does not have a short nose!”

Formal Operations: 11 or 12 to 14 or 15 Years
The final stage, formal operations, brings with it the ability to deal with completely hypo-
thetical situations using rules of logic. Piaget illustrates this with an item from Binet’s reason-
ing test (the forerunner to the well-known Stanford-Binet test): Edith is fairer than Susan;
Edith is darker than Lilly. Who is the darkest of the three?

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Section 2.3 Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

This problem is difficult not because it involves seriation (seriation has already been mastered
in the stage of concrete operations) but because of the abstract nature of the characteristics
to be ordered. If Edith, Susan, and Lilly were all standing in front of a 10-year-old subject,
the subject could easily say, “Oh! Edith is fairer than Susan, and she is darker than Lilly—and
Susan is the darkest.” But when the problem is verbal rather than concrete, it requires think-
ing that is more formal (abstract).

Clearly the thinking of adolescents is a far more powerful logic than the concrete thinking
of younger children. Among other things, it allows children to begin to understand abstract
concepts such as proportion and heat, and it allows them to deal with the hypothetical world
rather than merely what is immediately real. As a result, one important feature of formal
operations thinking is an increasing concern with the ideal. Once children are able to reason
from the hypothetical to the real or from the actual to the hypothetical, they can conceive of
worlds and societies that, hypothetically, have no ills.

Figure 2.8: A test of children’s understanding of seriation
ሁ The elements of the series are presented in random order and children are asked to arrange them

in sequence by height. The top row was arranged by a 3½-year-old; the bottom, by an 8-year-old.

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50
Section 2.3 Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

Moral Development: Piaget and Kohlberg
Even as intellectual development can be understood in terms of sequential stages, claimed
Piaget, so too can the development of morality—notions of right and wrong. Piaget investi-
gated morality in children by telling them stories and asking them to judge how good or bad
the characters in the stories were. For example, in one story child A deliberately breaks a cup,
whereas child B accidentally breaks a whole raft of cups. We, who operate with adult-like
moralities, know that child B, although perhaps clumsy and careless, is not nearly the scoun-
drel that is child A.

Younger children, notes Piaget, judge these two children quite differently. They insist that
child A is not nearly as bad as child B. “Look,” they reason, “she broke a whole bunch of cups
and he only broke one.” Theirs is the reality-based morality of the preschooler: Consequences,
rather than intentions, are all-important.

Based on children’s responses to stories such as these, Piaget describes two stages in the
development of morality: The first, which lasts until around ages 8 to 10, is dominated by
the immediate consequences of the action. As a result, behaviors that have pleasant conse-
quences tend to be viewed as good; those that have negative consequences are judged as bad.
Accordingly, children in this stage respond primarily to outside authority because it is the
main source of reward and punishment. Piaget’s label for this stage is heteronomy. The term
heteronomy refers to forces outside the individual. As DeVries (1997) notes, this stage is typi-
fied by a morality of obedience to outside authority.

In the second stage, beginning around ages 11 or 12, moral judgments are increasingly influ-
enced by internalized standards and values—hence Piaget’s label for this stage: autonomy.
As a result, with advancing age and maturity, the teacher–child relationship changes from
one that is authoritarian and obedience-based to one that reflects increasing mutual respect.

Strongly influenced by Piaget, Lawrence Kohlberg (1980) studied moral development by
describing situations that pose moral dilemmas. One of these stories is paraphrased in Table
2.6. Responses to these stories suggest three broad levels in the development of morality,
each of which reflects two distinct stages of moral orientation. The six resulting stages of
moral orientation are summarized and illustrated in Table 2.5. Note that, in general, these
stages describe 3 broad phases of moral development:

1. A stage of heteronomy where the child believes that behaviors are good or bad
based on their objective consequences and on the likelihood of being punished or
rewarded. Kohlberg labels this phase the preconventional level.

2. An intermediate stage where the child is concerned with maintaining peace and har-
mony, upholding the law, and getting along well with parents and peers—in short,
adhering to social convention. This is what Kohlberg labels the conventional level.

3. A final stage, Kohlberg’s postconventional level, is marked by a morality that reflects
values that are more universal and more independent. These values are often based
on ideals or principles that are seen as valuable guides for rules and laws. But even
among adults, moral judgments that reflect this higher level of morality, which is
based on fundamental ethical principles, are rare, claims Kohlberg.

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Section 2.3 Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

Table 2.5: Kohlberg’s levels of morality
Kohlberg identified levels of moral judgment in children and adults by telling them stories involving a moral
dilemma. One example is the story of Heinz, paraphrased as follows:

Heinz’s wife is dying of cancer. One special drug, recently discovered by a local pharmacist, might save
her. The pharmacist can make the drug for about $200 but is selling it for 10 times that amount. So
Heinz goes to everyone he knows to try to borrow the $2,000 he needs, but he can only scrape together
$1,000. “My wife’s dying,” he tells the pharmacist, asking him to sell the drug at a lower price or let him
pay later. But the pharmacist refuses. Desperate, Heinz breaks into the drug store to steal the drug for
his wife. Should Heinz have done that? Why? (Kohlberg, 1969, p. 379)

Level Stage Possible reasoning

I Preconventional Stage 1: Punishment and obedi-
ence orientation

“If he steals the drug, he might go to jail.”
(Punishment.)

Stage 2: Naïve instrumental
hedonism

“He can steal the drug and save his wife,
and he’ll be with her when he gets out of
jail.” (Act motivated by its hedonistic conse-
quences for the actor.)

II Conventional Stage 3: “Good-boy, nice-girl”
morality

“People will understand if you steal the
drug to save your wife, but they’ll think
you’re cruel and a coward if you don’t.”
(Reactions of others and the effects of
the act on social relationships become
important.)

Stage 4: Law-and-order
orientation

“It is the husband’s duty to save his wife
even if he feels guilty afterwards for steal-
ing the drug.” (Institutions, law, duty, honor,
and guilt motivate behavior.)

III Postconventional Stage 5: Morality of social
contract

“The husband has a right to the drug even
if he can’t pay now. If the druggist won’t
charge it, the government should look after
it.” (Democratic laws guarantee individual
rights; contracts are mutually beneficial.)

Stage 6: Universal ethical* “Although it is legally wrong to steal, the
husband would be morally wrong not to
steal to save his wife. A life is more pre-
cious than financial gain. Imprisonment is
not too high a price to pay.” (Conscience is
individual. Laws are socially useful but not
sacrosanct.)

*None of Kohlberg’s subjects ever reached Stage 6. However, it is still described as a “potential” stage. Kohlberg suggests that
moral martyrs like Jesus or Martin Luther King exemplify this level.

Source: Based on Kohlberg, L. A. (1969). Stage and sequence: The cognitive-developmental approach to socialization. In D. A.
Gosselin (Ed.), Handbook of socialization theory and research (pp. 347–380). Chicago: Rand McNally; Kohlberg, L. A. (1980).
The meaning and measurement of moral development. Worcester, Mass.: Clark University Press.

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Section 2.3 Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

Educational Implications of Piaget’s Theory
Piaget’s cognitive theory is monumental in child development and has had (and continues to
have) a profound impact on educational practices. Among other things, the theory directs the
teacher’s attention to the child’s developmental level: It seems clear that children will gain
most from instruction when they have the concepts and understandings to do so.

Piaget’s theory emphasizes that learning is far more than a simple process of moving items
of information from out there (perhaps in a teacher’s head or in a computer or book) into
the child (what is termed direct instruction). Instead, it suggests that meaningful learning
and development result from a highly active process in which learners construct knowledge
(constructivism).

Constructivism does not mean that teachers need do nothing to facilitate and guide learning—
that the learner should assume complete responsibility for acquiring and organizing informa-
tion. But it does imply that teachers need to be keenly aware of the learner’s capabilities, of
what the learner already knows, and of what is likely to be meaningful and interesting. Several
more specific instructional implications flow from the theory.

Provide Opportunities for Physical and Mental Activity
Activity, says Piaget, is fundamental to building concepts and understanding the world. For
example, children’s ability to deal with classes, relations, and numbers results from the activ-
ities of combining, separating, and setting up correspondences among real objects during
the preoperational stage. It follows, then, that teachers should provide children with many
opportunities to engage in meaningful activities with real objects, as well as opportunities for
mental activity (thinking).

As an illustration, consider the case entitled “The B Store.” In many ways, this little classroom
store mirrors real life, thus giving the learning of mathematics a degree of realism, practical-
ity, and meaningfulness not often found in cold numbers on a worksheet. Not only does it
provide for actual activity in a meaningful setting, but it also gives the teacher a simple way
of administering or withholding reinforcement. And it provides ways to teach an extremely
wide range of mathematical concepts besides simple addition and subtraction. For example,
multiplication concepts can be introduced easily by doubling (or tripling) all prices; division
might involve selling a fraction of something and then calculating what the price of the frac-
tion should be, and so on.

Provide Optimal Difficulty
Cognitive growth, says Piaget, arises from a tendency toward equilibration—that is, main-
taining a balance between assimilation (reacting to new objects or events largely in terms of
previous learning) and accommodation (changing in response to new demands).

If schools are to encourage equilibration, an optimal discrepancy between new material and
old learning is required. Learners need to be provided with experiences that are familiar
enough that they can understand them (assimilate them); they also need to be challenged so
that they will be forced to accommodate. The result, ideally, will be the construction of new
understanding (accommodation) on the back of old learning (assimilation).

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Section 2.3 Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

Understand How Children Think
Providing learners with an optimal level of difficulty presupposes that teachers know their
level of functioning, their interests, and their capabilities—hence, the fundamental impor-
tance of understanding how children think. When a child says there is more water in a tall
container than in a short, flat one, the teacher should not be shocked or surprised. When
a second-grade student becomes completely confused by a verbal seriation problem—for
example, “Juan González has a shorter nose than Johnny West, and Johnny West has a longer
nose than John George. Who has the longest nose?”—she is not trying to be difficult. Teachers
need to know, for example, that concepts of proportion cannot easily be taught to 7-year-olds,
nor can conservation of volume be taught to 5-year-olds.

Provide for Social Interaction
One of the chief factors in making thought more objective, claims Piaget, is social interaction.
The egocentric point of view of the young child is essentially one that does not recognize the
views of others. Children become aware of the ideas and opinions of peers and adults largely
through social interaction. One implication for teaching is that instructional methods should
provide for learner–learner as well as teacher–learner interaction.

C A S E S F R O M T H E C L A S S R O O M : T H E B S T O R E
The Place: Miss Moskal’s third-grade classroom

The Mathematics Learning Center: In the corner of the room, the children have set up a small
store. Items for sale vary from week to week. These are sometimes made by the students,
donated by parents, or purchased through school funds. Among the various items for sale
this week are a number of tiny potted plants Miss Moskal has started from seeds. Also, there
are “privilege” cards. Some of these cards allow children to erase the whiteboards; others
provide access to special books; still others allow their purchaser to be captain of one of the
play teams, leader of one of the cooperative learning teams, storekeeper for a day, bank teller,
or payroll clerk. Price tags, attached to each item, are printed in bold, colorful numbers.

In this class, each student receives a basic weekly “salary,” with the possibility of bonuses for
various behaviors—and sometimes fines as well. The payroll clerk is responsible for keeping
track of everybody’s salary, adding in bonuses and subtracting fines, and writing “paychecks.”
Student auditors are charged with verifying the pay clerk’s calculations. Checks are “cashed”
at a bank adjoining the store, or are sometimes used at the store when making large pur-
chases (like lunch with Miss Moskal). During specified periods, sales clerks sell items from
the store, taking responsibility for making change.

Students were responsible for naming the store. The name was Sandra’s idea.

“Let’s call it the B store,” she said.

“Why?”

“Because that’s a little better than a C store.”

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Section 2.4 Vygotsky and Bronfenbrenner: Emphasis on Culture

2.4 Vygotsky and Bronfenbrenner: Emphasis on Culture
The emphasis in Piaget’s theory is on development as a sort of unfolding guided by internal
tendencies, with some attention to the importance of the environment and social interaction.
In contrast, the main emphasis in the theories of Lev Vygotsky and Urie Bronfenbrenner is on
the importance of culture and of social influences in human development.

A quick look at current writings in education and psychology might make one think that Lev
Vygotsky is a contemporary theorist. Almost all major psychology textbooks have at least one
or two references to him. But Vygotsky is not contemporary in a literal sense; he has been
dead for many decades (he died of tuberculosis in 1934 at the age of 38).

Vygotsky has been described as “the Mozart of psychology,” its child genius. By age 28, he
had assimilated all of the major theories and findings of the psychology of the day, and he
had begun to map out a new theory with ideas that still seem fresh even today. Imagine what
Vygotsky’s contributions and stature might have been had his work not been repressed, as it
was in the Soviet Union of his day, and had he lived as long as Piaget.

Two underlying themes unify Vygotsky’s complex and far-reaching theory. The first theme is
the importance of culture, a theme later championed by American psychologist Urie Bronfen-
brenner; the second has to do with the central role of language.

Human development, says Vygotsky, is fundamentally different from that of other animals.
Why? Because humans use tools and symbols and, as a result, create cultures. And cultures
are powerful things; they have a life of their own. They grow and change, and they exert tre-
mendously powerful influences on each of us. Cultures specify what the end product of suc-
cessful development is. They determine what we have to learn and the sorts of competencies
we need to develop.

Bronfenbrenner’s
Bioecological Model
Vygotsky’s emphasis on the importance of cul-
ture had a profound influence on other psycholo-
gists. That influence is especially apparent in the
bioecological model of human development
proposed by Urie Bronfenbrenner (Bronfen-
brenner & Ceci, 1994; Bronfenbrenner & Morris,
2006). Simply put, the bioecological model argues
that we are not only culture producing, but also
culture produced (Bronfenbrenner, 1989). One
of the main ideas underlying the bioecological
model is that development is the result of interactions between the person and the environ-
ment. The model attempts to describe not only how the environment affects a person’s devel-
opment but also how the environment itself changes as a function of the person.

For example, many important person–environment interactions occur at an immediate, face-
to-face level. These define what Bronfenbrenner calls the microsystem. The microsystem is
the child’s immediate environment. It includes aspects of culture such as those exemplified
by parents, siblings, friends, teachers, playgrounds, local stores, and so on. Everybody in a
person’s microsystem affects the individual, says Bronfenbrenner.

Monkeybusinessimages/iStock/Thinkstock
ሁ Family is part of a child’s microsystem,

which, according to Bronfenbrenner,
influences development.

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55
Section 2.4 Vygotsky and Bronfenbrenner: Emphasis on Culture

But the effect is reciprocal; individuals also affect their own microsystems. For example,
if Lavinia is characteristically rude to those with whom she interacts, but Ronald is warm
and friendly, important aspects of their microsystems might change in very different ways.
Whereas Lavinia might eventually find herself in microsystems that seem cold and unaccept-
ing, Ronald’s microsystems might be dramatically different.

In turn, microsystems might also affect each other. For example, a teacher who has just had a
confrontation with a spouse might inadvertently interact more abruptly with a student. Thus,
teacher–spouse face-to-face interactions (microsystem interactions) can affect interactions
within another microsystem (teacher–learner). Interactions among microsystems define
what Bronfenbrenner labels the mesosystem.

Microsystems and mesosystems describe aspects of the culture that affect individuals directly.
There are other features of the environment that have an indirect rather than a direct effect.
These define the exosystem. For example, family finances may not involve young children
directly but can nevertheless have a profound effect on their development.

The macrosystem includes all the interactive systems (micro-, meso-, and exo-) that char-
acterize a culture. The macrosystem is defined by the beliefs, values, social roles, lifestyles,
religions, and other trappings of a person’s culture.

All of these systems change over time, explains Bronfenbrenner. He labels this concept the
chronosystem. For example, a child’s microsystem can change dramatically with events such
as the birth of a sibling, parental divorce, death in the family, or a move to another city or
country. Similarly, over time there are often significant changes in macrosystems. During the
last handful of decades there have been enormous changes in things such as family struc-
ture (from dual- to single-parent families), employment and educational patterns (increased
female employment and post-secondary enrollment), child-rearing styles (more varied child-
care options), the average age of marriage (older), and the average child-bearing age (also
older). Clearly, many of these macrosystem changes can have profound effects on children’s
microsystems. (See Table 2.6 for a summary of Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model.)

Table 2.6: Systems that affect the child’s development in
Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological theory

System Definition Examples

Microsystem Child in face-to-face interaction Teacher tutoring child

Mesosystem Relationships among two or more
microsystems that involve the child

Parent involved in parent-teacher conference

Exosystem Relationships and interactions among
two or more settings, one of which
does not include the child

Mother’s strained interactions with parents
of child’s playmate

Macrosystem The totality of cultural systems evident
in the lifestyles, values, mores, and
other defining features of the culture

State-legislated curriculum requirements;
culturally defined social expectations

Chronosystem Time-related changes in the systems
that affect the child

Changing societal values; evolving technolo-
gies; emerging environmental preoccupations

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Section 2.4 Vygotsky and Bronfenbrenner: Emphasis on Culture

Vygotsky’s View of the Importance of Language
Like Bronfenbrenner, Vygotsky’s emphasis on culture underlines the importance of social and
environmental interactions in shaping the course of development. Not surprisingly, language
plays a central role in these models.

Language makes thought possible and regulates behavior, explains Vygotsky. Language, which
is the basis of human culture, is also the basis of consciousness, and consciousness was one
of Vygotsky’s central concerns. Without language, we would be limited to elementary mental
functions—animalistic activities such as sensing and perceiving. But with language, we become
capable of higher mental functions and of social interaction. And with social interaction comes
what Vygotsky describes as “upbringing and teaching,” which is essential for development.

Vygotsky (1962) describes three stages in the development of the functions of speech: social,
egocentric, and inner speech.

Social speech (or external speech) emerges first. Its function is largely to control the behav-
ior of others (as in “I want juice!”) or to express simple and sometimes poorly understood
concepts.

Egocentric speech predominates from ages 3 to 7. It serves as a bridge between the primitive
and the highly public social speech of the first stage and the more sophisticated and highly
private inner speech of the third stage. During this stage, children often talk to themselves
in an apparent attempt to guide their own behavior. For example, they might speak about
what they are doing as they do it. Unlike older children, however, they are likely to say things
out loud (externalize) rather than silently, as though they believe that if language is to direct
behavior, it must be spoken.

Inner speech is silent self-talk. It is characteristic of older children as well as adults. It is what
William James (1890) called the “stream of consciousness.” Our self-talk—our inner speech—
is what tells us that we are alive and conscious. It permits us to direct our thinking and our
behavior. More than this, it makes all higher mental functioning possible (see Table 2.7).

Table 2.7: Vygotsky’s stages and functions of language

Stage Function

Social (external) (up to age 3) Controls the behavior of others; expresses simple thoughts and emotions

Egocentric (ages 3 to 7) Bridge between external and inner speech; serves to control own behav-
ior but spoken out loud

Inner (age 7 onward) Self-talk; makes possible the direction of our thinking and our behavior;
involved in all higher mental functioning

Educational Implications of Vygotsky and Bronfenbrenner
Although Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model is not as clearly directed toward education as
is Vygotsky’s theory, it has an important place in teacher training. Its greatest value lies in the
fact that it underlines the importance of the child’s social systems. Teachers need to be aware
that they play a crucial role in the systems that are most directly involved with children: their

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Section 2.4 Vygotsky and Bronfenbrenner: Emphasis on Culture

microsystems. Teachers’ interactions with individual learners can have a profound impact on
their academic as well as their social well-being both in the long and short term. A bioecologi-
cal view focuses on encouraging warm and supportive teacher–learner interactions.

Vygotsky had a strong interest in maximizing intellectual development. In this connection,
he introduced two concepts that have tremendous implications for educational practice: the
idea of the zone of proximal development, and the notion of scaffolding.

The Zone of Proximal Development
Every child, explained Vygotsky, has a sphere or a zone of potential for further developing—in
his words, a zone of proximal development. Take, for example, two 5-year-olds who both,
under normal circumstances, can answer questions that other average 5-year-olds can also
answer. Their mental ages might be said to correspond to their chronological ages, and their
intelligence would be described as average. But if, when prompted, one of these children
could successfully answer questions corresponding to a mental age of 6 but the other could
not, it would then be accurate to say that the first child’s zone of proximal development is
greater than the other’s (that is, it spans a wider range of higher functions).

Davydov (1995) explains what is meant by zone of proximal development as follows: “What
the child is initially able to do only together with adults and peers, and then can do indepen-
dently, lies exactly in the zone of proximal psychological development” (p. 18). One of the
tasks of parents and educators is to arrange for children to engage in activities that lie within
this zone—activities that, by definition, are neither too difficult nor too simple and that there-
fore lead to continued growth.

Scaffolding
Scaffolding is one way of providing students with the support they need as they learn. Scaf-
folding in education works much like a scaffold erected by a pair of workers building an espe-
cially tall, multilevel summer cottage. In the early stages of construction, the scaffold has to
be very close to the ground and very sturdy because there is nothing else to stand on or lean
against. As the construction progresses, the scaffold must also rise or it would soon become
useless. But now the scaffold might be less important because the workers can hang onto the
wall studs of the new construction or stand on the beams and rafters of lower levels. Eventu-
ally, the cottage will have been built, and they can stand on the highest roof without any scaf-
folding at all.

Learning, too, requires scaffolding, claims Vygotsky. In the early stages, scaffolding—that is,
guidance and support—is especially important. A preschooler who knows nothing about the
meaning of the letters of the alphabet can hardly be expected to discover the various sounds
they represent. By telling, demonstrating, pointing, and correcting, the teacher/upbringer
builds scaffolds for the child. And as the child begins to learn, the nature of the scaffolding
changes. With time, there is often less need for scaffolding as the learner begins to build on
previous learning by gradually learning how to learn.

Scaffolding is a metaphor that translates into a model of learning through gradual increments
as a result of an interactive process. In essence, it implies a process of collaboration between
a teacher and learners—ideally, between a single learner and a teacher in a one-on-one tutor-
ing relationship. There are a tremendous variety of specific types of scaffolding—in other
words, support—that teachers and parents can build for children. These include:

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Section 2.5 Principles of Human Development

• Demonstrating how to do things
• Explaining procedures
• Providing written or actual models
• Systematically developing prerequisite skills required for more demanding tasks
• Asking questions that lead to important realizations
• Correcting on-task errors
• Identifying and correcting misconceptions
• Motivating students
• Providing clear and realistic objectives

“Hey,” you say, “so what’s new? Seems to me that most of what good teachers do involves
what you’re calling scaffolding.” Yes, but what is new is the relationship between Vygotsky’s
concept of scaffolding and his notion of the zone of proximal development. Recall that the
zone of proximal development is defined in terms of tasks learners are capable of with the
help of adults or peers. In other words, the zone of proximal development describes tasks that
require support (that is, they require scaffolding). The implication for teachers (and other
upbringers) is very clear: Scaffolding requires that teachers arrange for children to engage in
activities that lie within this zone. Vygotsky suggests that the level at which instructions and
questions are phrased is extremely important. These, he argues, should be sufficiently ahead
of the student’s developmental level that they present a genuine intellectual challenge—but
they must not be so far ahead of the child’s current biological maturation and developmen-
tal level that they present too great a challenge: Hence the importance of understanding the
basic principles of human development.

2.5 Principles of Human Development
Each of us is unique. There is no normal, average child; the average child is a myth invented
by grandmothers and investigated by psychologists. Still, the following principles describe
something of what can be expected of “normal,” “average” development.

Nature and Nurture Interact
It is clear that development is influenced by both heredity (nature) and environment (nur-
ture or experience). We know, for example, that our genes are responsible for many of our
physical characteristics, such as hair and eye color, facial features, and to some extent height
and weight. We know, too, that experience affects not only what we learn (to speak Spanish
rather than English, for example), but that it can also affect physical growth. Thus, although
some physical characteristics (for instance, hair and eye color) appear to be entirely under
the control of our genes, other characteristics (for instance, height and weight) clearly are
also influenced by environmental factors (such as what and how much we eat).

Efforts to separate the effects of genes and the environment have led to a long-standing con-
troversy in psychology: the nature–nurture controversy. In effect, this controversy, which is
discussed in more detail in Chapter 3, pits two camps against each other: On the one hand are
those who believe that experience (nurture) is the most significant influence in determining
important human characteristics such as intelligence; in the other camp are those who think
genes (nature) are more important.

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Section 2.5 Principles of Human Development

Science does not clearly support either camp. In fact, the clearest thinking regarding this con-
troversy readily admits that neither genes nor the environment produce anything by them-
selves. The current emphasis in genetic research is on finding out how genes and contexts
work together to bring about human development.

Growth Occurs at Varying Rates
Over time, development occurs at different rates for the various parts of an organism. This
does not mean that the left foot grows rapidly for a short while, then the right foot, and then
one arm. What it means is that various parts of the body and some aspects of personality and
intellectual and perceptual ability might grow at different average rates, experience different
growth spurts, and reach their maximum development at different times. For example, Bloom
(1964) reports that by the age of 2½, humans have reached half of their future maximum
height. In fact, if a male infant grew at the same rate during years 2 through 6 as he does dur-
ing the first year of life, he would enter his seventh year weighing close to 4 tons and measur-
ing some 18 feet in height!

The Brain Is Malleable: Implications for Brain-Based Education
For many years most of what science knew about the brain had been discovered by looking
at the brains of dead people or by studying the behavior of people who had suffered brain
injuries. But now we can look at the functioning of intact brains of living people. Imaging
techniques like functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) allow scientists to pinpoint
areas of electrical activity in the brain.

Investigations of brain activity and development reveal several important facts. We know,
for example, that most of the neurons (nerve cells) that make up the human brain are formed
during the prenatal period. In fact, during the first four months of gestation, more than 200
billion neurons are formed. It’s during this very early period of brain growth that factors such
as poor maternal nutrition and alcohol consumption can have profoundly negative effects on
the development of the brain (Guerrini, Thomson, & Gurling, 2007).

At birth, the infant’s brain weighs approximately one-fourth of what it will weigh at its maxi-
mum, which is reached at about age 25. Most of the increase in brain weight between birth
and adulthood seems to be caused by the growth of axons and dendrites (the elongated por-
tions of the nerve cell that permit neural transmission) and by myelination (the growth of a
protective covering around the axon) and not by the appearance of new cells.

Nutrition is highly important to the development of the brain, especially during periods of
rapid growth such as during the later stages of fetal development. This time of rapid brain
development appears to be a critical period during which the effects of maternal malnutri-
tion can be especially severe. In the majority of the world’s underdeveloped nations, where
malnutrition is most prevalent, scientists have observed smaller than average head circum-
ferences among children.

Another phenomenon related to brain development is that of brain specialization. Inves-
tigations of brain activity reveal that specific mental activities do not generally involve the
entire brain uniformly. Rather, certain areas of the brain seem to be somewhat specialized
for certain functions. Thus, a part of the brain is more involved with spoken language than

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60
Section 2.5 Principles of Human Development

are other parts; the same is true for other functions such as hearing sounds, rehearsing, and
remembering (Holland et al., 2007). When these specialized functions occur primarily in one
hemisphere, the phenomenon is referred to as lateralization. Lateralization refers to the
fact that the two hemispheres of the brain do not exactly duplicate each other’s functions.
In newborns, the hemispheres do not seem to be highly specialized, but in early infancy the
principle of opposite control becomes evident (Leask & Crow, 1997). This principle is mani-
fested in the observation that the right hemisphere is typically involved in sensations and
movements of the left side of the body, and vice versa.

Some of the specialized functions of the brain become more apparent as children age. For
example, in most individuals (95 percent of right-handed people and 70 percent of left-
handed people) language production and planning for motor activity become increasingly
a function of the left hemisphere (Janssen, Meulenbroek, & Steenbergen, 2011; Oleksiak et
al., 2010). Similarly, by age 10 or 11, recognizing emotions seems to be more a right- than a
left-hemisphere function (Workman et al., 2006). However, this does not mean that the right
hemisphere is not involved in language and the left is not involved in emotions. In fact, when
the left hemisphere suffers damage early in life, the right hemisphere frequently takes over
language functions with little apparent subsequent difficulty. When damage is suffered later,
however, recovery may not occur at all or may be more limited (Uswatte & Taub, 2010).

Research in this area has led some to speculate that the functions of the two hemispheres are
distinct—that the right hemisphere is more concerned with emotions and with the spatial
and the temporal (for example, art and music) and that the left hemisphere is concerned
more with logic, math, science, and language. Thus, individuals who are logical are sometimes
described as “left-brain oriented” and those who are more intuitive and artistic as “right
brained.’’ Some believe that hemisphericity—that is, a predominance of one hemisphere over
the other—may be one of the important contributors to individual differences.

Findings such as these have led some to argue that we now know enough about the brain
that we can begin to modify our educational offerings and instructional procedures to take
advantage of what we know (for example, Sousa, 2006; Jensen, 2006). This is the reasoning
that underlies brain-based education—the attempt to base educational applications on sci-
entific knowledge about the brain. The same reasoning has also led to the recent prolifera-
tion of brain training companies—companies that offer a variety of approaches for improving
memory, learning, and even intelligence.

Brain-training companies tend to market widely to educational systems as well as to individ-
uals. Many of them are highly profit-oriented, offering to restore older people’s memories, to
sharpen attention, and to revolutionize brain power. Many use an assortment of brain games
that might include various puzzles or problems; others are designed to improve senses such
as olfaction, vision, or hearing; still others use computer-based exercises that are similar to
video games. Advocates of brain-based education base their educational recommendations
on findings such as the following (Jensen, 2008):

• The brain continues to grow new neurons, a function that can be enhanced by exer-
cise, reduction of stress, and nutrition.

• Social conditions influence brain functioning in ways that might be strengthened by
arranging social groupings rather than allowing them to occur randomly.

• The brain is highly plastic. Its ability to rewire itself can be assisted though reading,
meditation, the arts, career and technical education, and the development of cogni-
tive skills.

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Section 2.5 Principles of Human Development

Thus, the main instructional recommendations that flow from these observations include the
advisability of teaching cognitive skills as well as a variety of other subjects; of providing
time for recreation, stress reduction, and physical activity; and of arranging for optimal social
groupings, the nature of which is not entirely clear.

Other recommendations that stem from brain-based research relate to research on the
cerebral hemispheres. For example, some educators point out that our current educational
practices emphasize left-brain functions, as reflected in our preoccupation with verbal
learning, mathematics, science, and logic. Our schools neglect right-brain functions—like art,
music, drama, and other creative endeavors—they claim. Hence, we should change our edu-
cational fare and philosophy to educate both halves of our students’ brains (see, for example,
Sonnier, 1995).

Unfortunately, investigating the functions of
the brain’s hemispheres has proven difficult,
and much of what passes for information is
speculation rather than fact. For example,
that hemispheric preference determines
handedness is a widely believed myth. As
Sousa (2006) explains, in spite of all the
sophisticated brain research we’ve done,
we still don’t know what causes approxi-
mately 10 percent of the population to be
left handed when the remaining 90 percent
is right handed.

Another widely believed myth is that cre-
ativity is linked with the right hemisphere.
In fact, there is little evidence to support
this (Edelman, 2006; Kenett, Anaki, & Faust,

2015). One of the most remarkable characteristics of the human brain, explains Sousa (2006),
is how it is able to integrate all the activities that occur simultaneously in its different special-
ized areas. The brain does not function in terms of isolated parts or totally separate halves. It
is simplistic and misleading to insist that the left hemisphere is logical and analytical whereas
the right hemisphere is “artistic.” The dichotomy is more a matter of degree: The right and
left hemispheres might be relatively better for some tasks than for others, in the same way as
certain areas of the brain are highly specialized for certain functions, but there is consider-
able overlap in their functions (Yang & Van Lancker Sidtis, 2015). Still, this does not lessen the
importance of emphasizing some of the often-neglected aspects of education—specifically,
those concerned with the more affective and artistic aspects of the human experience.

Critics of brain-based education have been quick to point out that none of the recommenda-
tions based on brain research are different from those based on good research in education
(for example, Bruer, 2006). And many of the recommendations, especially those that have to
do with left-brain/right-brain differences, have gone considerably beyond the facts that sci-
ence has so far provided. It sounds impressive to say, as does Lombardi (2008), “The brain is
a marvelous organ that can be tapped into, taught, stimulated, and grown” (p. 222). Or, again,
“Using innovative, cutting-edge approaches helps teachers recognize that teaching and learn-
ing addresses the needs of diverse learners . . .” (p. 222).

bowdenimages/iStock/Thinkstock
ሁ Brain-based research suggests that providing

time for recreation, stress reduction, and physical
activity improves cognitive functioning.

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Section 2.5 Principles of Human Development

But do brain-based approaches work? The jury is still out. What does seem clear is that brain-
based approaches can be highly effective when they reflect sound pedagogical principles. For
instance, we know that repetition improves learning. Similarly, we know that under many
circumstances, active involvement in learning activities is effective. Advocates of brain-based
learning argue that repetition is effective because it increases and strengthens neural connec-
tions in the brain. They argue that this activity increases blood flow and causes other biologi-
cal changes that contribute to more effective brain activity. Studies also show that we tend
to remember images better than printed or spoken words, that novel experiences tend to be
highly memorable, and that memories are often linked to odors, emotions, and behaviors.
These are all pedagogically important findings.

The important point is that good teachers tend to know and use many of these observations.
Their learning strategies can be said to be brain-based not because they have adopted a set
of specific brain-training strategies, but simply because they are good teaching strategies that
affect the learner’s brain.

There is as yet little credible support for the claim that commercial brain-training programs
improve brain functioning, memory, and even measured intelligence. A meta-analysis sum-
marizing the results of 23 studies concluded that there is no evidence that brain-training
improves intelligence (Melby-Lervag & Hulme, 2013). (A meta-analysis is a research tech-
nique for synthesizing the results of large numbers of studies that have looked at the same
questions.) The point is clear in the subtitle of Hambrick’s (2014) review of brain-training:
“Scientists doubt claims from brain training companies.” He concluded, following a review of
the literature, that “there is no solid evidence that commercial brain games improve general
cognitive abilities.”

Nevertheless, there is convincing evidence that exercise, particularly in older people, improves
cognitive functioning—as does learning new information or acquiring new skills (for exam-
ple, Kramer & Erickson, 2007). This is one finding that we should try not to forget as we age.

We all want to be cutting edge and innovative and effective. And it may well be that brain
research will soon provide educators with possibilities that actually are both new and aston-
ishingly effective. Although that does not yet appear to have happened, brain-based research
does provide educators with added incentive to offer learners rich and varied learning envi-
ronments. And it underlines the importance of actively engaging students in the learning pro-
cess and of challenging and stimulating them.

Timing of Environmental Influences Is Important
The observation that growth and development occur at different times and at different rates
for various human features leads directly to another, important developmental principle
described by Bloom (1964, p. vii):

Variations in environment have the greatest quantitative effect on a character-
istic at its period of most rapid change and the least effect on the characteristic
at its period of least rapid change.

Twenty-four-year-old Rudolph, who was malnourished through much of his childhood and
who is now 5 feet tall, is not likely to grow an additional foot as a result of a sudden change in
his diet. In contrast, the eventual height of 24-week-old Chrissie is clearly more susceptible to
the effects of dietary changes.

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Section 2.5 Principles of Human Development

This principle also holds true for intellectual
development. Brain growth is highly vulnerable
to malnutrition during growth spurts, especially
during prenatal and early postnatal develop-
ment. A number of studies with Romanian chil-
dren who were severely deprived as infants but
who were adopted into relatively privileged
homes after the age of 6 months indicate that the
effects of early deprivation on intellectual func-
tioning can be serious and long-lasting (Beckett
et al., 2006; Beckett et al., 2007).

Additional evidence suggesting that the timing
of environmental influences can be very impor-
tant is found in language acquisition: Infants and
young preschoolers can easily learn two or more
languages simultaneously and well, whereas
adults experience more difficulty and more inter-
ference from their dominant language (Prover-
bio, Adorni, & Zani, 2007).

Positive Correlation, Not Compensation
Positive correlation, the tendency of two or more characteristics to vary together, not com-
pensation, the tendency for a deficit in one characteristic to be compensated for by superior
endowment in another, is the rule in development. This contradicts the stereotype that those
who are gifted in one area must not be nearly as well endowed in others. This stereotype
informs us that the person with exceptional intellectual gifts must be socially awkward, unat-
tractive and frail, weak-sighted, and completely useless at any kind of task requiring even the
smallest degree of dexterity. The same stereotype insists that an athlete may be stunningly
attractive but must also be unintelligent, spell with difficulty, be unable to write a check
without an accountant to correct it, read only simple comic books, and laugh uproariously at
unfunny events.

Not so. In fact, as we see in Chapter 3, a person who excels in one area is more likely to excel
in others. Less optimistically, it’s also true that people who are below average in one area tend
to be below average in other areas as well. Although there are clearly many exceptions to this
principle, it nevertheless serves as a useful guide for understanding the overall development
of children.

There Are Predictable Differences Between the Sexes
There are systematic, predictable differences in the development of boys and girls. As we
saw earlier, there are culturally influenced gender differences in interests, and there may be
some small and diminishing differences in apparent abilities as well. But, as we cautioned
earlier, teachers need to guard against overly simplistic, often inaccurate, and unfair gender
stereotypes.

And they need to keep in mind that the average child of which developmental psychology
speaks is a myth, a convenient but often misleading invention.

Marie Lefrançois/Marie’s Photography
ሁ Some environments appear to be more

conducive than others to optimal intellectual,
social, and physical development. This
child’s exposure to three languages may
have an immensely enriching effect on her
development.

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Chapter 2 Summary and Resources

Key Points
• Gender roles are patterns of culturally approved and expected masculine and femi-

nine behaviors; they are a combined function of genetic, family-based, and cultural
forces.

• Gender differences are sometimes evident in the greater aggressiveness of males.
There is also a declining tendency for males to score slightly higher on tests of math-
ematics and science, and females to score higher in measures of verbal ability.

• Erik Erikson’s theory of personality development through childhood and adoles-
cence describes a series of psychosocial stages, each involving a major conflict, the
resolution of which leads to greater social competence: trust versus mistrust, auton-
omy versus shame and doubt, initiative versus guilt, industry versus inferiority, and
identity versus identity diffusion. Marcia describes four types of identity status:
identity diffusion (no crisis, no commitment); foreclosure (no crisis, early commit-
ment); moratorium (crisis pending commitment); and identity achieved (commit-
ment post-crisis). The stages of adulthood are intimacy versus isolation, generativity
versus self-absorption, and integrity versus despair.

• Piaget’s stage theory focuses on cognitive (intellectual) development as it results
from maturation, active experience, social interaction, and equilibration—the
tendency to balance assimilation (using previous responses) and accommodation
(changing behavior).

• Achievements of the sensorimotor period (birth to 2 years) are the learning of lan-
guage and the acquisition of the object concept.

• The preoperational stage (ages 2 to 7) is marked by thinking that is intuitive, domi-
nated by perception, and egocentric.

• The stage of concrete operations (ages 7 to 11 or 12) sees the appearance of thought
processes that are subject to some logical rules, labeled operations—evident in con-
cepts of conservation and in new skills relating to classifying, ordering, and dealing
with numbers.

• During the formal operations stage (ages 11 or 12 to 14 or 15), the child’s think-
ing is less tied to concrete objects and events and can now deal more with the
hypothetical.

• Piaget and Kohlberg describe moral development as a progression from the
obedience-oriented stage of heteronomy, where outside authority and consequences
are all-important, to moral beliefs and actions that become progressively more
autonomous. Morality that is based on the most selfless and highest levels of ethical
principles is rare even among adults.

• Vygotsky’s social/cognitive theory stresses the importance of culture and of its
principal invention and main tool, language. Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model
describes the influence of the social systems that define the individual’s ecology: the
microsystem (face-to-face interaction); the mesosystem (interactions among micro-
systems, one of which involves the person directly); the exosystem (wider cultural
systems that affect the individual indirectly); the macrosystem (the totality of cul-
tural systems); and the chronosystem (time-related changes in systems that directly
or indirectly affect the individual). Important educational implications are found in

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65
Chapter 2 Summary and Resources

Vygotsky’s notions of the zone of proximal development (the child’s potential for
development; what the child can do with the help of adults and competent peers)
and in the concept of scaffolding (where teachers provide various forms of support
for students as they learn).

• Some developmental principles are: nature and nurture interact to determine
development; different characteristics grow at different rates; the brain is highly
malleable and teachable; timing of environmental influences is important; correla-
tion, not compensation, is the rule; and gender differences are sometimes important.
Brain-based education refers to deliberate attempts to base instructional strategies
on the latest scientific knowledge about brain functioning and age-related neurologi-
cal changes. In spite of the generality of our developmental principles, individuals
vary considerably. We are each unique.

Posttest

1. Which of the following descriptions would be typical for the individual’s gender?
a. Angelina (female) has good hand-eye coordination.
b. Betty (female) can mentally rotate objects and read maps.
c. Carl (male) tends to score well on tests of verbal abilities.
d. Derek (male) is fairly flexible and good at rhythmic movements.

2. Elaine has discovered that people in school (teachers, peers) tend to be the major
social influence in her life and is trying to learn things that she thinks are important
in her culture. Elaine is most likely in which of Erikson’s stages?
a. Integrity versus despair
b. Intimacy versus isolation
c. Industry versus inferiority
d. Initiative versus guilt

3. Most of the students in Mrs. Apple’s class are no longer cognitively egocentric and
can perform tasks such as classifying objects hierarchically and placing them in
order according to some property such as length, but are unable to understand
abstract principles like negative numbers. According to Piaget’s cognitive develop-
ment theory, Mrs. Apple’s class is most likely which grade?
a. Kindergarten (age 5)
b. Second grade (age 7)
c. Fourth grade (age 9)
d. Tenth grade (age 15)

4. A few years ago, Marnie would tell only the punch line to a joke, expecting her puz-
zled audience to find it as hilarious as it was when Marnie first heard the joke. Now
Marnie realizes that she needs to tell the set-up before the punch line. Piaget would
claim that Marnie has gained skills related to
a. conservation.
b. object concept.
c. classification.
d. seriation.

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Chapter 2 Summary and Resources

5. In consideration of brain lateralization,
a. the two hemispheres of the brain duplicate each other’s functions.
b. the right hemisphere of the brain tends to control the right side of the body.
c. most individuals control language and motor functioning in the right hemisphere.
d. the left hemisphere is concerned more with logic, math, and science.

Answers: 1(a), 2(c), 3(c), 4(d), 5(d)

Critical Thinking Exercises
• What are examples of gender stereotyping in your world?
• Give an example of each of the following: development, growth, learning, and

maturation.
• Describe Piaget’s answers for the primary biological questions he asked: How do

children adapt? How can development be classified?
• Give an example of what is meant by the zone of proximal development. What are

the educational implications of this concept? Use the concept of scaffolding in your
answer.

• Generate ideas for teacher–learner interaction. How would you apply Bronfen-
brenner’s bioecological model to improve teacher–learner interactions?

• Explain at least one developmental principle relating to genetics and environment,
differential growth rates for different aspects of development, the malleability of
the brain, or why timing of experiences may be important. Why is this information
important and relevant for teachers to understand?

Web Resources
For more information on Jean Piaget and his research, visit:

http://www.piaget.org/aboutPiaget.html

Are we products of nature or nurture? Science answers age-old question, visit:

https://www.theguardian.com/science/2015/may/19/are-we-products-of-nature
-or-nuture-science-answers-age-old-question

Answers to Pretest

1. True. There might be some truth in gender stereotypes because they are based on
experiences, but they are usually over-generalizations of characteristics for males
and females.

2. True. According to Marcia’s theory, adolescents can achieve an identity in various
areas, such as social relationships, when they’ve gone through a crisis and made a
commitment.

3. True. Constructivism requires teachers to understand their students’ capabilities in
order to facilitate their learning.

Lef83909_02_ch02_027-072.indd 66 12/14/17 4:18 PM

http://www.piaget.org/aboutPiaget.html

https://www.theguardian.com/science/2015/may/19/are-we-products-of-nature-or-nuture-science-answers-age-old-question

Chapter 2 Summary and Resources

Key Terms
accommodation In Piaget’s description
of development, modification of an activ-
ity or ability in the face of environmental
demands. See also adaptation, assimilation.

adaptation Changes in an organism in
response to the environment. Adaptation
plays a central role in Piaget’s theory. See
also accommodation, assimilation.

aggression The conscious and willful
inflicting of harm or pain on others.

animism Attributing lifelike qualities to
inanimate objects—as young children are
wont to do.

assimilation The act of incorporating
objects or aspects of objects into previously
learned activities. See also accommodation,
adaptation.

autonomy Piaget’s label for the second
stage of moral development, characterized
by increasing reliance on internalized stan-
dards to judge the morality of behavior. See
also heteronomy.

basic gender identity The individual’s
implicit understanding of the fundamental
characteristics of masculinity and femininity.

bioecological model A developmental
model that looks at the role of gene–
environment interactions in human
development. Concerned with the
reciprocal influences of person–culture
interactions over time.

brain-based education The application of
instructional strategies based on informa-
tion and principles derived from scientific
knowledge about the brain and how it
functions.

4. False. Direct instruction focuses on teacher-led learning, which is not the role of
teachers in constructivism, which focuses on students taking responsibility for their
learning.

5. True. Scaffolding provides the assistance needed to help children complete activities
they would not be able to do on their own.

Answers to Posttest

1. Females typically have better hand-eye coordination, verbal abilities, physical flex-
ibility, and rhythmic movements compared to males. Males are typically physically
stronger than females and have better math and visuospatial skills.

2. The industry versus inferiority stage is characterized by children seeking more inter-
action and acceptance from their peers. This stage is an opportunity for children to
learn things that are important in their culture.

3. Children reach the concrete operations stage around 7–11 or 12 years of age and
understand concepts such as conservation, logic, and classification.

4. Seriation is understanding how to properly order things. Seriation is a skill associ-
ated with the concrete operations stage.

5. While the functions of the two brain hemispheres overlap considerably, in most indi-
viduals the left hemisphere is more concerned with math, science, and language; the
right hemisphere is more involved in emotions and spatial and temporal skills such
as art and music.

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Chapter 2 Summary and Resources

brain specialization Refers to the fact that
different areas of the brain are responsible
for different kinds of activity.

chronosystem Bronfenbrenner’s term for
his recognition that developmentally impor-
tant aspects of ecological systems change
over time. See also microsystem, mesosystem,
macrosystem, exosystem.

classification The act of abstracting the
properties of objects or events and making
judgments concerning their similarities to or
differences from other objects or events.

compensation The act of making up for.
In psychology, the often-mistaken belief
that superior skills and abilities typically
counterbalance deficits and difficulties.

concrete operations The third of Piaget’s
four major stages, lasting from age 7 or 8 to
approximately age 11 or 12, and character-
ized largely by the child’s ability to deal with
concrete problems and objects or objects
and problems that are easily imagined.

conservation A Piagetian term for the real-
ization that certain quantitative attributes of
objects, like mass, remain unchanged unless
something is added to or taken away from
them.

constructivism A general term for student-
centered approaches to teaching such as
discovery-oriented approaches, reciprocal
learning, or cooperative instruction—so
called because of their assumption that
learners should build (construct) knowledge
for themselves.

conventional level A stage of moral devel-
opment marked by concern with adhering to
rules, laws, customs, and other social con-
ventions that allow individuals to get along
well.

egocentric speech Vygotsky’s intermedi-
ate stage of language development, common
between ages 3 and 7. During this stage chil-
dren often talk to themselves in an apparent
effort to control their own behavior. See also
inner speech, social speech.

egocentrism A way of functioning charac-
terized by an inability to assume the point of
view of others.

equilibration A Piagetian term for the
process by which we maintain a balance
between assimilation (using old learning)
and accommodation (changing behavior,
learning new things).

exosystem Defined by Bronfenbrenner as
interactions between a system in which the
child is directly involved (microsystem) and
another in which the child is not ordinarily
involved. See also microsystem, mesosystem,
macrosystem, chronosystem.

foreclosure Marcia’s term for the adoption
of a ready-made identity.

formal operations The last of Piaget’s four
major stages beginning around age 11 or 12
and lasting until age 14 or 15, characterized
by the child’s increasing ability to use logical
thought processes.

functional magnetic resonance imaging
(fMRI) A non-invasive imaging technique
that uses highly sensitive magnetic sensors
to detect changes in blood flow in the brain
that accompany neural activity.

gender roles Attitudes, personality char-
acteristics, behavior, and other qualities
associated with being male or female. Gen-
der roles (sex roles) define masculinity and
femininity.

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Chapter 2 Summary and Resources

gender schema theory A cognitive gender
typing theory that recognizes the usefulness
of elements of both cognitive explanations
(the child’s growing understanding of the
nature and meaning of gender) and social
learning explanations (the influence of mod-
els and reinforcements) to account for the
shaping of gender roles.

gender schemas Notions about the char-
acteristics associated with being male or
female.

gender typing Learning culturally expected
sex-linked behaviors.

gestation The period between conception
and birth (typically 266 days for humans).

gray matter The tough, thin, outer covering
of the brain, made up of cell bodies. Its main
function is to transmit messages relating to
sensory and motor stimulation.

hemisphere Literally, half a sphere. The
cerebral hemispheres are the two halves of
the cerebrum, the wrinkled mass of brain tis-
sue that includes the structures associated
with higher mental processes.

heteronomy Linked to external rather
than internal forces. Piaget’s label for the
first stage of moral development, marked
by a focus on the consequences of behavior
and reliance on outside authority. See also
autonomy.

identification A general term popular-
ized by Freud referring to the process of
assuming the goals, ambitions, mannerisms,
interests, and so on of another person. Iden-
tification goes beyond mere imitation in that
it implies a desire not only to do what the
other person does, but to be like the other
person.

identity In Erikson’s theory, the individual’s
self-definition, a sort of personal sense of
who and what one is. One of the important
tasks of adolescence is to select and develop
a strong sense of identity.

identity-achieved Marcia’s term for indi-
viduals who have experienced a crisis and
made a commitment, thus achieving a sense
of identity.

identity diffusion An expression for a stage
in early adolescence when the adolescent
has a vague and changing sense of identity
with no firm vocational commitment and an
ambiguous belief system.

inner speech Vygotsky’s final stage in
the development of speech (around age 7),
characterized by silent “self-talk,” that gives
direction and substance to our thinking and
behavior. See also egocentric speech, social
speech.

intuitive thinking One of the substages of
Piaget’s preoperational thought, beginning
around age 4 and lasting until age 7 or 8,
marked by the child’s ability to solve many
problems intuitively and also by the child’s
inability to respond correctly in the face of
misleading perceptual features of problems.
See also preconceptual thinking.

lateralization A term that refers to the divi-
sion of functions and capabilities between
the two hemispheres of the brain.

macrosystem In Bronfenbrenner’s view,
the totality of all environmental systems
that define a culture (values, mores, beliefs,
language, etc.). See also microsystem, meso-
system, exosystem, chronosystem.

mesosystem In Bronfenbrenner’s develop-
mental theory, interactions among two or
more microsystems (for example, the school
and the family). See also microsystem, exosys-
tem, macrosystem, chronosystem.

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70
Chapter 2 Summary and Resources

meta-analysis Research that involves the
careful, systematic analysis of a large group
of studies that have looked at the same
research question with the goal of sum-
marizing and synthesizing research results
to arrive at a more valid and generalizable
conclusion than that which might be gained
through the analysis of a single study.

microsystem Defined by immediate, face-
to-face interactions in which everybody
affects everybody (for example, child and
parent).

morality The ethical aspect of human
behavior, intimately linked with the indi-
vidual’s notion of right and wrong, of good
and evil.

moratorium Erikson’s term for the social
function of the hiatus between childhood
and adulthood. In Marcia’s description,
moratorium individuals are those who have
not yet made a commitment and who are
in a state of crisis (conflict) as they exam-
ine and experiment with various identities.
Ordinarily occurs during adolescence but
may extend beyond.

nature Genetic influences; heredity. See
also nurture, nature–nurture controversy.

nature–nurture controversy A long-
standing argument over whether genetics
(nature) or environment (nurture) is more
responsible for determining human develop-
ment. See also nature, nurture.

neonate A newborn infant. The neonatal
period terminates when an infant regains
birth weight (about two weeks after birth).

nurture The effects of experience, as
opposed to the effects of heredity (nature).
See also nature, nature–nurture controversy.

object concept Piaget’s expression for
children’s understanding that the world is
composed of objects that continue to exist
apart from their perception of them.

operation In Piaget’s system, a term that
essentially refers to a thought process. An
operation is an action that has been inter-
nalized in the sense that it can be “thought”
and is reversible in the sense that it can be
“unthought.”

perception The translation of physical
energies into neurological impulses that
can be interpreted by the individual. Aware-
ness of the meaning of sensation. In Piaget’s
system, perception refers to the physical
appearance of objects—that is, to what the
child sees, feels, hears, tastes, or smells.

personality The set of characteristics,
including abilities, predispositions, habits,
and other qualities, that make each of us
different.

postconventional level Kohlberg’s third
level of moral judgments reflecting an under-
standing of social relationships and highly
individualistic principles of morality. See also
preconventional level, conventional level.

preconceptual thinking The first substage
in the period of preoperational thought,
beginning around age 2 and lasting until
age 4, so called because the child has not
yet developed the ability to classify. See also
intuitive thinking.

preconventional level The first of Kohl-
berg’s three levels of moral development,
based on hedonistic or obedience-oriented
judgments. See also conventional level, post-
conventional level.

principle of opposite control Describes
the tendency for sensations and movements
on either side of the body to be controlled by
the opposite cerebral hemisphere.

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Chapter 2 Summary and Resources

psychosexual Associated with Freud, a
term used to describe psychological phe-
nomena based on sexuality.

psychosocial Associated with Erikson, a
term that describes development in terms of
the need to resolve social crises and develop
social competencies (independence or iden-
tity, for example).

pubescence Changes of adolescence lead-
ing to sexual maturity.

reflexive behaviors Simple, unlearned
behaviors in response to specific stimula-
tion, usually present at birth or shortly
thereafter. For example, the ability to suck.

scaffolding Vygotsky’s concept to describe
the various types of support (directions,
suggestions, and other forms of verbal
assistance) that teachers/upbringers should
provide children to help them learn. See also
zone of proximal development.

self-concept The concept that an individual
has of him- or herself, often closely allied
with individuals’ beliefs about how others
perceive them.

sensation The physical effect of a stimulus;
a physiological process dependent on activ-
ity of the senses. See also perception.

sensorimotor intelligence Piaget’s first
developmental stage, from birth to about age
2, so called because sensorimotor children
understand their world primarily in terms of
their activities in it and sensations of it.

seriation The ordering of objects in terms
of one or more properties.

social role theory The theory that the main
determinants of gender roles are the distinct
social roles that are ascribed to men and
women in different societies.

social speech In Vygotsky’s theorizing, the
most primitive stage of language develop-
ment, evident before age 3, when the child
expresses simple thoughts and emotions
out loud. See also egocentric speech, inner
speech.

stereotypes Strong, relatively unexam-
ined beliefs typically generalized to a
class of superficially similar situations or
individuals.

white matter The supporting brain tis-
sue that is covered by a thin layer of “gray”
matter. It is made up primarily of neuronal
axons. Its main function is to interconnect
the cell bodies that make up gray matter.

zone of proximal development Vygotsky’s
phrase for the individual’s current potential
for further intellectual development. Defined
by what the learner can accomplish only
with the help of others to begin with, but can
later accomplish alone.

ሁ Folklore has it that many years ago in
Switzerland, bears were worshipped because
the faithful believed that human beings were
descended not from Adam and Eve, but from the
bear (Engel, 1976).

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Lef83909_02_ch02_027-072.indd 72 12/14/17 4:18 PM

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