Comparing Research Reports

Question 

You will compare and analyze a quantitative and a qualitative research report. You will use the specific articles that are attached: Gammon and Morgan-Samuel’s 2005 article, “A Study to Ascertain the Effects of Structured Student Tutorial on Student Stress, Self-esteem, and Coping,” and Kiefer and Ellerbrock’s 2012 article, “Caring and Fun: Fostering an Adolescent-Centered Community Within an Interdisciplinary Team.” 

Submission Requirements

• Format: Use APA style and formatting, include a title page and reference page.
• Font: Times New Roman, 12 point.
• Length: 5 double-spaced pages, excluding title and reference pages.

Middle Grades Research Journal, Volume 7(3), 2012, pp. 1–17 ISSN 1937-0814

Copyright © 2012 Information Age Publishing, Inc. All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.

CARING AND FUN

Fostering an Adolescent-

Centered Community

Within an Interdisciplinary Team

Sarah M. Kiefer and Cheryl R. Ellerbrock

University of South Florida

This qualitative case study analyzed how one interdisciplinary team within a large middle school fostered a

responsive adolescent-centered community for eighth-grade team students. Data were collected during the

spring semester of the 2009 school year via observations, individual interviews, and focus group interviews

with nine participants, including four eighth-grade students, four eighth-grade team teachers, and one middle

school principal. Findings indicate developmentally responsive school organizational structures (i.e., interdis-

ciplinary teaming, flexible scheduling, homeroom, and common planning time) and team teacher characteris-

tics and practices helped to promote an adolescent-centered community that met eighth-grade students’ needs

for care and fun, in addition to other basic and developmental needs. Meeting eighth-grade students’ needs for

care and fun emerged as the major theme in the promotion of an adolescent-centered, developmentally respon-

sive community within one interdisciplinary team at the middle level.

The promotion of a middle school environ-

ment responsive to students’ needs is a vital

component of an effective middle school,

noted as one of the essential attributes of the

Association for Middle Level Education’s

(AMLE) This We Believe: Keys to Educating

Young Adolescents (National Middle School

Association [NMSA], 2010). Two important

needs young adolescents have include the need

to be cared for and experience school as fun

(Noddings, 2005; Schmakel, 2008). While

care and caring school communities have been

examined at the elementary school (Battistich,

Solomon, Watson, & Schaps, 1997) and more

recently at the high school levels (Ellerbrock

& Kiefer, 2010; Garza, 2007; Lee & Ryser,

2009; Schussler & Collins, 2006), studies that

focus on care and caring school communities

are not overly abundant at the middle level (see

Alder, 2002; Cushman & Rogers, 2008; Fer-

reira & Bosworth, 2000; Hayes Ryan, &

Zseller, 1994 as exceptions). The notion of

school as fun has been around for a long time,

as Dewey (1910) believed the perfect mental

• Sarah M. Kiefer, 4202 East Fowler Avenue, EDU 165, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620, United States.

E-mail address: kiefer@usf.edu

2 Middle Grades Research Journal Vol. 7, No. 3, 2012

condition for learning was, “To be playful and

serious at the same time” (p. 218). However,

fun in school as a need students want fulfilled

within the school environment and exactly

what students consider to be “fun in learning”

has been relatively understudied at the second-

ary level (see Schmakel, 2008, as an excep-

tion). Additionally, few studies have directly

investigated how students’ needs for both care

and fun are met within the middle school.

While research highlights the importance of

a responsive middle school environment,

including structures and practices that meet the

needs of young adolescents (Eccles & Midg-

ley, 1989; Eccles & Roeser, 2011; Eccles et al.,

1993; NMSA, 2010), there has been a recent

call for additional research that examines,

embraces, and retains responsive middle level

innovations known to work well for students at

the middle level. Building relationships with

students, interdisciplinary teaming, and com-

mon planning are three practices specifically

mentioned as exemplary middle level elements

that warrant continued investigation (Caskey,

2011). Further, Caskey (2011) urges that stu-

dents be treated as “honored guests” where

they are invited into conversations, including

research conversations, and looked upon as

having noteworthy contributions to add. Lis-

tening to student voices in order to understand

how students’ needs, specifically the need for

care and fun, are met within an eighth-grade

interdisciplinary team may help to extend the

current literature base on how such middle

school practices are responsive to the needs of

today’s young adolescent. The current study

utilized a within-site qualitative case study

approach to gain a detailed understanding of

how one interdisciplinary team at a large mid-

dle school nurtured an adolescent-centered

community that was responsive to students’

needs for both care and fun in school. Interdis-

ciplinary teaming and other organizational

structures (i.e., flexible scheduling, home-

room, and common planning time), along with

developmentally responsive teacher character-

istics and practices, may promote an adoles-

cent-centered community responsive to

students’ needs for both care and fun while

also meeting other basic and developmental

needs.

An

Adolescent-Centered Community

We conceptualize an adolescent-centered

community as one that fosters an environment

responsive to students’ needs, including the

need to receive care and to experience school

as fun. We used four interconnected theoreti-

cal frameworks to help guide our conceptual-

ization and examination of how

interdisciplinary teaming may foster a respon-

sive adolescent-centered community. Specifi-

cally, we utilized self-determination theory

(Deci & Ryan, 1985; 2000), stage-environ-

ment fit theory (Eccles & Midgley, 1989;

Eccles & Roeser, 2011; Eccles et al., 1993), a

caring school community (Battistich et al.,

1997; Ellerbrock & Kiefer, 2010), and the

need for fun in school (Glasser, 1996; Larson

& Gatto, 2004; Schmakel, 2008).

According to the self-determination theory,

individuals have basic psychological needs for

competence, relatedness, and autonomy (Deci

& Ryan, 1985, 2000). Meeting these basic life-

long needs allows for intrinsic motivation and

high quality learning to flourish. The stage-

environment fit theory suggests educators can

foster a responsive environment by providing a

match between students’ developmental needs

and the opportunities afforded within the class-

room and school (Eccles & Midgley, 1989;

Eccles & Roeser, 2011; Eccles et al., 1993).

These needs must be addressed within the

school to promote positive functioning,

engagement, and motivation (Eccles, 2004).

Eccles (2004) highlights the importance of a

responsive school context:

Individuals have changing emotional, cogni-

tive, and social needs and personal goals as

they mature … schools need to change in

developmentally appropriate ways if they are

to provide the kind of social context that will

continue to motivate students’ interest and

engagement as the students mature. (pp. 125-

126)

Caring and Fun 3

Responsive school environments may pro-

vide a foundation for the establishment of a

community where students feel cared for

(Noddings, 2005) and experience school as fun

(Larson & Gatto, 2004; Schmakel, 2008).

Chaskin and Rauner (1995) conceptualize car-

ing as a way to respond to students’ basic psy-

chological needs, including the need for

belongingness, connectedness, support, and

competency. A caring school environment is

described as, “A place where students and

teachers care about and support each other,

where individuals’ needs are satisfied within a

group setting, and where members feel a sense

of belonging and identification with the group”

(Ellerbrock & Kiefer, 2010, p. 396). Glasser

(1996) claimed all human behavior is driven

by four needs, including the need for fun.

Extant theory and research suggest the notion

of “school as fun” as being associated with

pleasure, enjoyment, and a lack of academic

rigor does not fully capture the notion of the

teacher, the classroom, or learning as fun (Lar-

son & Gatto, 2004; Mann, 1996). Rather,

“school as fun” may include exciting learning

activities, forging meaningful connections to

the learning material, in addition to supportive

and caring teacher-student relationships (Lar-

son & Gatto, 2004; Schmakel, 2008). When

the school environment and the learning expe-

riences fulfill students’ needs, a sense of true

community, engagement, interest, exploration,

and enjoyment is often experienced (Battistich

et al., 1997; Ryan, 1995; Ryan & Deci, 2000).

Although a school environment where students

experience care and fun may benefit students

of all ages, it is particularly important during

early adolescence, when individuals often

undergo multiple developmental changes and

declines in academic motivation and engage-

ment (Eccles & Roeser, 2011; Eccles et al.,

1993).

Essential Components of an Adolescent-

Centered Community

Previous research indicates several compo-

nents are essential to fostering an adolescent-

centered community that meets students’

needs. Responsive school organizational struc-

tures along with teacher characteristics and

practices that make it easier to get to know stu-

dents are essential aspects of an effective mid-

dle school (Eccles et al., 1993; NMSA, 2010).

Middle schools should be organized to encour-

age positive relationships, support responsive

teacher characteristics and practices, and pro-

mote a sense of community. Organizational

structures, such as interdisciplinary teaming,

flexible scheduling, and homeroom can help

increase the amount of time team teachers

have to build positive relationships with stu-

dents, meet students’ needs, and afford teach-

ers the opportunity to collaborate with one

another (George & Alexander, 2003; Jackson

& Davis, 2000; Mertens & Flowers, 2004;

NMSA, 2010). Research suggests teaming,

along with its complementary structures, help

to create opportunities for students to establish

a deep sense of community (George & Alexan-

der, 2003; Pate et al., 1993; Powell, 1993), sta-

ble relationships and deep bonds with teachers

and classmates (George & Alexander, 2003),

and an affiliation with a peer group (Jackson &

Davis, 2000).

While organizational structures set the

foundation for an adolescent-centered commu-

nity, teachers who exhibit characteristics and

employ practices that are developmentally

responsive play a significant role in nurturing

this community. Teacher-student relationships

are among the most salient of school-based

social relationships for students, “When stu-

dents make a lasting connection with at least

one caring adult, academic and personal out-

comes improve” (Jackson & Davis, 2000,

p. 143). Responsive teachers exhibit character-

istics such as a sense of humor, “withitness,”

good management skills, respect, kindness,

helpfulness, high expectations, and being a

warm demander (Bondy & Ross, 2008; Bos-

worth, 1995; Cushman & Rogers, 2008; Eller-

brock & Kiefer, 2010; Hayes et al., 1994).

Teachers may cultivate caring relationships by

modeling caring behavior (Noddings, 2005) as

well as demonstrating interest and enthusiasm

4 Middle Grades Research Journal Vol. 7, No. 3, 2012

through the subject(s) they discuss, soliciting

prior knowledge, and encouraging identity for-

mation and exploration (Cushman & Rogers,

2008). In addition, students report responsive

teachers take time to know their students well,

provide constructive feedback, and are aca-

demically helpful (Alder, 2002; Wentzel,

1997).

Although students’ experiences of care and

fun in school are essential components of a

developmentally responsive community and

recent qualitative research has focused on stu-

dents’ perceptions of understanding middle

school as a fun and caring place, care and fun

are often examined separately. Research indi-

cates middle school students perceive teachers

as caring when they know them well, provide

guidance and academic help, hold high expec-

tations for behavior and achievement, encour-

age success and positive emotions, listen to

students, and foster opportunities to experi-

ence fun (Alder, 2002; Garza, 2007; Hayes et

al., 1994; Lee & Ryser, 2009; Wentzel, 1997).

Middle school students want teachers who

help them learn about themselves and their

classmates, are fair, treat them with respect,

and provide opportunities for students to con-

tribute to classroom decision making (Cush-

man & Rogers, 2008). Further, fun in learning

is salient at the middle level as young adoles-

cents are motivated when they perceive activi-

ties as productive, fun, enjoyable, and

interesting (Schmakel, 2008). Together these

findings suggest middle school students crave

a caring and fun community and that teachers

play a critical role in creating such a commu-

nity. However, to the authors’ knowledge, care

and fun have not been directly examined in

middle school together, in addition to the roles

that school structures and teachers play in

responding to the needs of young adolescents,

including experiencing care and fun. Thus, the

current study examines care and fun in school

in tandem to gain a deeper understanding of

how these needs may be met by responsive

school structures and responsive teacher char-

acteristics and practices at the middle level.

METHODS

Purpose

The aim of this within-site qualitative case

study investigation (N = 9) was to gain a

detailed understanding of how one interdisci-

plinary team nurtured an adolescent-centered

community that was responsive to eighth-

grade students’ needs for fun and care as well

as other basic and developmental needs. Case

study methodology was selected due to its

ability to study a single bounded system, such

as an interdisciplinary team, in great detail

(Merriam, 2009). Specifically, we wanted to

know, “How does one interdisciplinary team at

Ford Middle School foster an adolescent-cen-

tered community responsive to their eighth-

grade students’ needs, including the need for

care and fun in school?” This study was part of

a larger longitudinal multi-site qualitative case

study (N = 23) that investigated the develop-

mentally responsive nature of the transition

from middle school (eighth grade) to high

school (ninth grade). A multisource case study

approach highlighting the complexity of stu-

dent, teacher, and administrator voices pro-

vided a deep understanding of how one

interdisciplinary team fostered an adolescent-

centered community.

Context

Ford Middle School is located within a

large, socioeconomically and ethnically

diverse school district in the Southeastern

United States. At the time of data collection

(spring of 2009), Ford had a total school

enrollment of 1559 students, including 480

eighth-grade students dispersed among four

teams. Sixty percent of Ford’s population was

minority and 53% of students received free/

reduced lunch. The team highlighted in the

current study, the Rams, was a split-level sev-

enth and eighth-grade team with 56 eighth-

grade students and four teachers.

Caring and Fun 5

Identification of Participants

Purposeful sampling was used to select the

team and participants in order to help ensure an

“information-rich” case (Patton, 2002, p. 46).

This study was part of a larger, year-long mul-

tisite qualitative case study (N = 23), including

four students who were on the same split-level

seventh and eighth grade team, all four of their

team teachers, their middle school principal, in

addition to each students’ core ninth grade

school teachers (N = 13) and their high school

principal.

Nine people who were part of this larger

investigation participated in the current study.

The middle school principal selected one

eighth-grade team based on a set of predeter-

mined criteria (i.e., an interdisciplinary eighth-

grade team, student population of the team

represented the overall middle school demo-

graphics, and all team teachers were willing to

participate). All 56 eighth-grade students on

the selected split-level seventh and eighth-

grade team who met additional criteria (i.e.

were scheduled to attend the primary feeder

high school for ninth grade) were invited to

participate. Four eighth-grade students who

represented the overall demographics of the

school and team who had plans to attend the

major feeder high school and who returned

parent permission slips were selected for par-

ticipation. Student participants included Troy

(Black male), Jimmy (White male; eligible for

free and reduced lunch), Katelyn (White

female; eligible for free and reduced lunch),

and Lauren (Hispanic female). All four team

teachers participated, including Mrs. Cope-

land, Ms. Hamilton, Ms. Mirabelle, and Ms.

O’Connell along with Mrs. Cramer, the school

principal (all White females). Teaching expe-

rience ranged from 2 (Ms. Hamilton) to 9

years (Mrs. Copeland). The principal had been

an administrator at Ford for 3 years. All partic-

ipants, including parents/guardians of the stu-

dent participants, signed informed consent

forms. Students were read an informed assent

protocol and provided verbal affirmation

along with written consent prior to participat-

ing. Pseudonyms were used for all participants

and identifying components of the school

(e.g., school and team name) to ensure confi-

dentiality.

Data Collection

The present study utilized Merriam’s

(2009) qualitative case study methodology

grounded in the aforementioned theoretical

frameworks to gain insight on how one inter-

disciplinary team cultivated an adolescent-

centered community that met students’ needs

for care and fun in school. Multiple sources of

data were collected, resulting in a theme-based

description of the case (Creswell, 2007). As

part of the larger study, all four students were

followed across the middle-to-high-school

transition and were observed in their core

courses (4 team teachers in eighth grade, 13

teachers in ninth grade), as well as interviewed

individually and in focus groups at both the

eighth-grade and ninth-grade levels. Individual

students’ core teachers were interviewed at the

eighth and ninth grade levels, in addition to the

principal at both school sites.

In the current study, focus group and indi-

vidual interviews served as the primary

method of data collection with classroom

observations and archival data serving as sec-

ondary sources.

Seven interviews took place, including one

teacher team focus group interview, one

eighth-grade student focus group interview,

four individual eighth-grade student inter-

views, and one principal interview. Semi-

structured interview protocols guided all indi-

vidual and focus group interviews. A sample

question for students included, “If you could

create the best eighth-grade team teacher ever,

what would that teacher look like and how

would they teach?” A sample question for

teachers included, “Describe how you build

relationships and connections with your

eighth-grade students.” All interviews were

audiotaped and completely transcribed (total-

ing 58 single-spaced pages of transcripts).

Individual students were followed throughout

6 Middle Grades Research Journal Vol. 7, No. 3, 2012

their team classes in eighth grade. In addition,

non-structured portions of the day (e.g., before

and after school, class interchanges, lunch, in

school activities and events) were observed.

Thus, a total of 26 observations took place

(totaling approximately 24 hours of observa-

tions), including 24 classroom and lunchtime

observations, one observation of the eighth-

grade team end of year luau party and the

eighth-grade send-off. Archival evidence

included student work, lesson plans, students’

schedules, and team rules. Methods designed

to minimize subjectivity include the use of

member checks, peer reviews, a research jour-

nal, and the use of analyzed data to help collect

additional information.

Data Analysis

The current study utilized Hatch’s (2002)

inductive approach to data analysis. This

approach involves looking for patterns in data

and making general statements regarding the

phenomena. Hatch’s method was selected due

to its ability to focus deeply on a particular

entity (i.e., interdisciplinary team) and high-

light participants’ stories. Inductive analysis

begins with reading and rereading the data,

resulting in separation of data into analyzable

parts that, based on the research question,

merit further examination. These analyzable

parts are referred to by Hatch as frames of

analysis. Both researchers independently

coded all data into frames, compared and dis-

cussed each frame until a consensus was

reached. The next step in inductive analysis is

to form domains. Domains are a set of catego-

ries that reflect relationships represented in the

data. Using the main research question as a

guide, both researchers collaboratively formed

domains. Each domain was refined until it

completely and clearly represented how the

interdisciplinary team studied in this investiga-

tion promoted an adolescent-centered commu-

nity. Two domains emerged from the data:

organizational structures-student relationship

and team teacher-student relationship.

Domains were evaluated for sufficient support

and disconfirming evidence were analyzed. By

asking, “How does all this fit together?”

(Hatch, 2002, p. 173), eighth-grade students’

need for care and fun emerged as the major

theme in the promotion of an adolescent-cen-

tered community within the interdisciplinary

team. Last, a master domain sheet was created

(see Table 1) and excerpts from the data were

chosen for inclusion in this manuscript.

TABLE 1

Master Outline of Relationships That Served as a Way to

Promote an Adolescent-Centered Community Responsive to Eighth-Grade Students’ Needs

Organizational Structures-Student Relationship

− Organizational structures served as a way to promote an adolescent-centered community responsive to eighth-grade
students’ needs

• Interdisciplinary teaming

• Flexible scheduling

• Homeroom

• Common planning time

Team Teacher–Student Relationship

− Team teachers themselves helped to promote an adolescent-centered community responsive to eighth-grade students’
needs

• Teacher characteristics

• Teacher practices

Caring and Fun 7

RESULTS

Findings indicate two types of relationships

served as a way to promote an adolescent-cen-

tered community responsive to eighth-grade

students’ needs within their interdisciplinary

team, especially the need for care and fun (orga-

nizational structures-student and team teacher-

student; see Table 1). Results from the organi-

zational structures-student relationship suggest

interdisciplinary teaming, flexible scheduling,

homeroom, and common planning time were

central to the promotion of care and fun within

an adolescent-centered community. Results

from the team teacher-student relationship sug-

gest developmentally responsive teacher char-

acteristics and practices may have helped to

promote an adolescent-centered community

where students’ needs for care and fun were

met.

Organizational Structures-Student

Relationship: Promoting a Caring and

Fun Adolescent-Centered Community

Teaming is very important to me. It’s the

whole child that we look at in middle school.

We are looking at building relationships, a lot

of physical and social things going on.

Things that they don’t always share with their

parents. Things that they share with a friend

and hopefully with teachers through relation-

ships. I want them to leave Ford [Middle

School] with a good foundation in education

but also good human nature. How to seek

advice, how to look for help, how to be a

leader, how to know when to step back, these

are all just as important as the academic and I

feel like if we don’t give that to them in mid-

dle school, I’m not sure where they are going

to get it. —Mrs. Cramer, Principal

As reflected in Mrs. Cramer’s quote above,

interdisciplinary teaming is viewed as the heart

of a responsive, adolescent-centered commu-

nity. Within the organizational structures-stu-

dent relationship, interdisciplinary teaming

along with its complimentary structures (i.e.,

flexible scheduling, homeroom, and common

planning time) helped to set the foundation

that fostered an adolescent-centered commu-

nity for eighth-grade team students. Specifi-

cally, organizational structures provided

opportunities for team teachers to be able to

meet students’ needs for care, fun, and con-

nectedness.

Eighth-grade students were divided into

two smaller groups for a blocked period of

time (131 or 160 minutes total depending on

the bell schedule) that consisted of two

classes (science and social studies) and a

homeroom period. Because math and Eng-

lish classes were grouped by ability, in the

afternoon students were not necessarily in the

exact same small group that they were in the

morning. However, groups remained rela-

tively intact throughout the day. This type of

organization followed the middle school con-

cept design. Students experienced an

increased amount of time during their school

day with a smaller, more intimate group of

students and team teachers. Team teachers

valued the sense of connectedness brought

about by the organizational structures and

believed students benefited from this organi-

zational arrangement as well as they experi-

enced a sense of relatedness to both their

team teachers and fellow peers. As Ms. Mira-

belle stated, “I do feel that when we have

those 56 kids, they know each other better,

they see the same faces all day. I think we

are lucky to have a tighter knit group than

other teams.” Students, like Katelyn, con-

firmed Ms. Mirabelle’s statement:

Researcher: So talk to me about your team,

the Rams [eighth grade team name]?

Katelyn: It’s cool. We have fun students and

cool teachers.

Researcher: Do you have similar kids from

your team in your classes?

Katelyn: Yes.

Researcher: What do you think about that?

Katelyn: It’s cool because you get to see

them all day.

8 Middle Grades Research Journal Vol. 7, No. 3, 2012

Students’ perception of their team teachers

and teammates as “fun” was related to the

amount of time they spent together on a daily

basis. As a result of the organizational struc-

ture of this team, students recognized only

eighth-grade students as members of their

team. Further, students viewed the small

group of eighth-grade students they spent

most of their morning with as their “home-

room team” or team within their eighth-grade

team, increasing their sense of relatedness to

the group. As Lauren explained:

Lauren: These two classes [science and

social studies] are the ones that I am

mostly friends with. There are some kids

in the other classes, but it’s not like these

classes.

Researcher: So it’s your team?

Lauren: Yes. I’m more friends with my

homeroom team. We spend first period

and second period together.

Findings suggest common planning time

provided team teachers the opportunity to com-

municate with one another and to act as a cohe-

sive unit in order to best support students’

needs, a noted byproduct of this middle level

organizational structure. The flexible team

schedule afforded teachers the opportunity to

have a common planning and lunch period

where they spent a large block of time (approx-

imately 100 minutes) together every day. Dur-

ing this time, teachers discussed individual

students and planned team-wide events. Teach-

ers shared how being on a team together

increased teacher communication, helping

them work together to best meet students’

needs, specifically for care and fun. As Ms.

O’Connell shared:

I feel that we help instill that [a sense of

team] in them too. Because we meet every

day at lunch [joint common planning and

lunch period], we know that so and so was

having a bad day this morning and then they

see you and you say, “I heard that you were

having a bad day this morning.” “How did

you know that?” It’s because we are tighter

as a team, so the students realize that we are

working as a team to try and help them.

Students knew that their team teachers had

daily planning time together, ate lunch

together, and worked as one cohesive group.

Witnessed during multiple observations, stu-

dents, like Jimmy, would enter Ms. Hamilton’s

classroom during lunchtime, the place where

team teachers met for common planning and

lunch, to talk about schoolwork, their personal

lives, and solicit advice. Teachers encouraged

this type of behavior by making in-class

announcements and providing passes to stu-

dents who wanted to meet with them during

lunch.

Interdisciplinary teaming, scheduling,

homeroom, and common planning afforded

opportunities for teachers to plan and carry out

several team-wide events that were perceived

by students as both fun and educational. Such

team events included homeroom competitions,

a time capsule, and a luau. Students reported

the time capsule was one of the most fun and

memorable events of their eighth-grade year.

As Lauren shared:

I really liked the time capsule because we

all got to put something in it, all the eighth

graders on our team. If someone dug it up

we would want them to remember us by the

little items that we put in there … we went

out and Mrs. Copeland brought a rose bush,

bought a gate to put around it, and brought

a stone. I got to hold the stone and put it on

the ground. So we all took a class picture of

that. I think that by her taking the time to

make all that stuff and get all that stuff for

us was really special.

Students recognized the time and effort team

teachers put into creating such fun events, per-

ceiving their efforts as a way that their teachers

demonstrated care. When discussing the

eighth-grade team luau, Troy expressed how

such events made him feel cared for by his team

teachers:

Caring and Fun 9

Troy: Yeah. It took all that time to set it up

[eighth-grade team luau].

Researcher: So you noticed that it took some

extra time on their part? How did that

make you feel when you realized that?

Troy: That they cared about us.

Team Teacher-Student Relationship:

Promoting a Caring and Fun

Adolescent-Centered Community

Researcher: What’s it like to be on the Rams?

Katelyn: Fun, we have fun teachers.

Researcher: What makes your teachers fun?

Katelyn: They are really young and relatable.

Researcher: What do you mean when say re-

latable?

Katelyn: They try to help you as much as they

can. And they try to be in your situation to

help you through things … the way they

teach classes. They make it fun learning.

Katelyn, one of the eighth-grade students,

illustrated in the above quote the importance of

teacher-student relationships in promoting an

adolescent-centered community that is both

fun and caring. Within the team teacher-stu-

dent relationship, teacher characteristics and

practices may have helped to promote a fun

and caring adolescent-centered community.

Participants often perceived care and fun in

school as being connected—teachers were as

viewed as fun when they were caring and car-

ing when they were fun. Teacher characteris-

tics such as being fun and making learning fun

along with being a caring, warm demanding

educator were perceived to help foster an ado-

lescent-centered community within the team.

Teacher practices, including fostering high

quality teacher-student relationships and pro-

viding fun, in-class activities and team events

further supported the promotion of a respon-

sive adolescent-centered community. How-

ever, some team teachers lacked a complete

understanding of students’ needs for care and

fun, which served as a barrier to promoting a

responsive community for students.

Meeting Students’ Needs for Care and

Fun: Teacher Characteristics

Team teachers were purposefully selected

by the school administrators to be members of

one of four eighth-grade teams at Ford. During

an interview with Mrs. Cramer, the principal at

Ford, she explained the characteristics she

sought in her eighth-grade teachers, “I have to

have the right teacher that can have the right

relationship, non-sarcastic, caring yet nurtur-

ing, but can also give eighth-grade students

their space.” Throughout student interviews,

all students reported that responsive teachers

knew them and their friends well; were

respectful, funny, athletic, outgoing, and relat-

able; handled disruptive students; and made

school fun. Fun, continuously mentioned by

every student in the study, was highlighted as

an important characteristic that students

looked for in their team teachers. For students,

perceiving team teachers as fun was associated

with teacher characteristics such as being relat-

able and caring, as noted in Katelyn’s quote

above.

During the teacher focus group, team teach-

ers shared instances when they took on the

characteristics of caring warm demanders by

believing it was their responsibility to help stu-

dents achieve academic excellence, communi-

cating high expectations, and providing

multiple supports to help students be success-

ful. Ms. Hamilton reflected on the notion of

being a warm demander:

For me, it goes with the high expectations

thing. Zero is not an option in my class. I tell

them that you have to be in a coma to get a

zero in my class. I give them a 100 at the

beginning of the semester and it’s their job to

keep it. I don’t accept zero’s. You have to do

the work.

When asked how they handle less than quality

student work, Ms. Mirabelle stated:

With all tests, I grade it. I offer it to every stu-

dent that if you want to make the corrections

to this you can get back half the points. That

will definitely bring your grades up. If you

10 Middle Grades Research Journal Vol. 7, No. 3, 2012

made a 70 or lower, it’s not an option, you

have to do it. I sometimes have a student that

gets a 90 and they want to do it, and I say that

they can do it. They just need to write it on a

separate piece of paper, copy the problems

and redo it. Usually they do earn back points

like that, so it helps them bring up their grade.

With homework assignments that I collect

and grade, if I don’t think it’s quality work, I

don’t grade it. I put a note on it that they have

to redo it.

Ms. Hamilton echoed this sense of high expec-

tations for student work, “I will give it back to

them to improve it. They have an option to

continue to make changes and upgrade their

grade.”

All students in this study wanted their

teachers to display the characteristics of a

responsive, warm demanding teacher. For

example, Jimmy stated in an individual inter-

view, “I like the ‘in between’ one [teacher] that

enforces the rules but likes to joke around, like

Ms. Hamilton.” The notion of teachers having

high expectations and supporting student suc-

cess is echoed in Katelyn’s statement, “They

[team teachers] help you prepare for high

school and do a lot to make you stay on track.

If you need help with work, or understanding

high school, they help you.” However, not all

teachers consistently displayed these charac-

teristics. For example, with regard to adhering

to high expectations, Ms. O’Connell shared

how she aimed to prepare students for the “real

world” where she believed they would not

receive additional assistance or second

chances:

I hold very high expectations in my class-

room. If they are not prepared, I kick them

out. They go to Ms. Mirabelle’s room. If you

don’t have a pencil and paper, I don’t want

you in my class and they are immediately

kicked out to another room and their job is to

make up the work and if they don’t make it

up it’s a zero … to me it’s important to teach

them because in the workforce they are not

going to get hand outs.

Meeting Students’ Needs for Care and

Fun: Teacher Practices

Team teachers’ developmentally respon-

sive characteristics resulted in a series of prac-

tices that may help to promote a caring and fun

adolescent-centered community. Two key

teacher practices included fostering caring

teacher-student relationships and providing

fun, engaging in-class activities that helped to

encourage a sense of fun in learning (Bos-

worth, 1995; Juvonen, 2007; Larson & Gatto,

2004; Schmakel, 2008). Additionally, respon-

sive team teachers recognized student success,

helping to communicate care for their students.

However, not all team teachers continuously

engaged in these responsive practices.

Several key components helped to define

high quality team teacher-student relation-

ships, including the desire for teachers to

engage in one-on-one conversations and to

demonstrate respect toward students. Engag-

ing students in conversations allowed teachers

to connect with, relate to, and demonstrate

care. Mrs. Copeland reported:

I think that just by the smallest contact too,

they [eighth-grade students] want to build

relationships with teachers. Even the smallest

comment opens the door. You can be like

“Hey, I love your shoes” and they will be

like, “Yeah, my mom bought them for me

and then we went to the mall.” And it’s like a

deluge and it’s just the little comment that

opens them up. They are like “Oh my gosh

she cares,” and then they open up and talk.

In the teacher focus group interview, Ms.

Mirabelle agreed with Mrs. Copeland and

elaborated on the importance of teachers

engaging students in conversation as a way to

connect with and get to know them:

They [students] like talking. So when you ask

them a question, they open up and then they

want to know something about you. I’ve

found that the eighth graders like to ask me

questions, so if I am willing to speak about

myself or answer questions, then they are like

“Well, I want to ask her something.”

Caring and Fun 11

Responsive teachers, like Ms. Hamilton, rec-

ognized the importance of forging connections

by dedicating in-class time to relationship

building:

I ask them about their day, “Guys, it’s so

great to see you back from spring break. So

for today’s activity I want you to write about

your spring break and then we are going to

share it” because they want to talk about it.

So let’s talk about it. And I think that by

showing an interest in the activities that they

do, “Hey does anybody have fun plans for the

weekend? What are you going to do?” It

shows them that you want to know about

their lives, what they do for fun, and their

spare time. So just by engaging them.

All students perceived many of their team

teachers as fostering teacher-student relation-

ships where they felt cared for. When asked if

she felt teachers knew her, Lauren stated she

believed her team teachers knew her:

I can see them [team teachers] walking down

the hall and they would know me. I mean,

they only have two eighth grade classes. I

think they know me because I got the awards

too. I think they recognized the things that I

have done, so they know me.

Katelyn also discussed how a team teacher was

able to forge a personal connection with her

and engage her in conversation, “She talks to

me a lot. Ms. Hamilton had my two best

friends last year. So she knows about me. She

knows that I like sports and I’m athletic.” Fur-

ther, all students perceived teachers who they

had a close relationship with as fun, engaging,

and relatable. As Lauren elaborated:

I definitely like Mrs. Copeland a lot. She’s

very fun. She is very understanding and she

always likes to do experiments with us and

she knows that we will enjoy them. Ms.

O’Connell, the social studies teacher is actu-

ally from Texas too. So a lot of the restau-

rants that we went to we can talk about and

she knows where everything is.

For students, care and respect were inter-

connected and considered an essential element

in the team teacher-student relationship.

Respect was viewed as reciprocal in nature; as

teachers gave students respect, students treated

teachers with respect. When asked to clarify

how teachers demonstrate respect, Katelyn

responded, “If I treat them with respect, they

give me respect.” Students recognized their

team teachers respected them because they

offered to help. As Troy described, “I know

they respect me because if they didn’t respect

you, they wouldn’t want to help you at all.”

In addition to high quality team teacher-stu-

dent relationships, fun, in-class activities

emerged as a responsive teacher practice.

Teachers attested to the importance they

placed on fostering fun in learning. As Ms.

O’Connell shared, “I like to mix things up. I

think, what haven’t I done in a while, what

would be fun to do? What would be exciting

for them?” All four students in the current

study stated that hands-on learning is their pre-

ferred way to learn. When asked why, all stu-

dents replied because it was fun. Students

recognized their team teachers’ attempts to

make learning fun. When asked to describe his

eighth-grade team, Troy stated, “Fun, we do

fun stuff. Good teachers. If you are an eighth

grader, it’s always the funnest.” Further, Kate-

lyn voiced she wanted team teachers to be

“fun” by engaging students in hands-on activi-

ties, “Bunch of hands on activities, no home-

work, just really fun and not boring…. Getting

involved in stuff and not just sitting down and

doing work. Hands-on activities.” Students

reported fun, educational hands-on activities

as one of their favorite ways to learn. In

response to a question about what a day of fun

learning would entail, students replied:

Lauren: A lot of activities, videos, what we

did today with building dinosaurs.

Katelyn: Hands on stuff.

Troy: What we did today was fun. In history

sometimes we play earth ball.

Katelyn: Name the country with the last letter

in the country, then you throw the ball and

12 Middle Grades Research Journal Vol. 7, No. 3, 2012

the next person has to name a country

with that letter.

Troy: We also play philosophical chairs. That

is fun.

Students reported that fun, yet educational,

hands-on activities helped to engage them in

learning. This is reflected in Lauren’s descrip-

tion of making ice cream and fluffernutters in

her science class:

I like [learning] to be hands on. I like the

experiments that we did in science; they are a

lot of fun. We made ice cream and we also

put foil in this solution. When you are a sci-

entist you have to write down an experiment.

So we made fluffernutters, so in order to have

some, you had to write down how to make it,

so you had to be specific.

Troy attested to the importance of class activi-

ties being both fun and educational, “All the

activities that she [team teacher] does is fun,

but at the same time you are still learning.”

Caring, responsive team teachers also rec-

ognized student success. By recognizing stu-

dents’ success, responsive team teachers were

able to clearly communicate to students how

much they cared about them and applauded

their efforts and achievements. For example,

Mrs. Copeland elaborated on how she regu-

larly sent postcards to parents of students who

did something positive in her class:

It’s just random positive recognition …when

kids do something good in class, or their

grades are super great, or they have a good

test, I just drop it [postcard] in the mail to

mom and send them home. The kids like

them. I just sent a whole bunch of them out.”

Mrs. Copeland perceived this practice as a way

to communicate both care for her students and

that hard work is recognized and applauded.

Both Lauren and Katelyn, who received post-

cards, perceived such recognition as their

teacher communicating care.

Ms. O’Connell also recognized student suc-

cess by sending e-mails to parents when stu-

dents did something positive. After an

assignment that required students to write their

legacy, Ms. O’Connell sent Katelyn’s mother

an e-mail that stated:

Katelyn has blossomed into quite a mature,

joyful student over the last few months. It’s

been neat, as her teacher, to watch her grow

into even a more beautiful young lady. She’s

trying hard while keeping a great attitude.

I’m proud of Katelyn and her accomplish-

ments.

Ms O’Connell attached the e-mail to Katelyn’s

graded legacy assignment with the following

note:

I am really, really proud of you girl! Thank

you for sharing your legacy with me. You are

turning into a great leader that people look up

to. You work hard, you’re trustworthy,

you’re dependable … the list could go on!

Keep up the good work and awesome atti-

tude. You really are setting an example that

others see.

However, not all team teachers continu-

ously engaged in what students considered fun

and caring responsive practices. In individual

interviews, students spoke of their least favor-

ite classes as ones where team teachers primar-

ily used textbooks, workbooks, and overhead

notes as teaching strategies. When students

were asked their least favorite way to learn,

Lauren attested, “Just being given the work

and the textbook. Every day you write down

the notes off the overhead and you start work-

ing. It’s my least favorite subject.” Students’

least favorite class was described as lacking

fun by three of the four students, as reflected in

the following statement:

Katelyn: The teacher didn’t do anything to

make the class fun. We just worked from

the workbook all day.

Researcher: And fun would be what?

Katelyn: Hands-on and stuff like that.

Students described experiences of receiving

consequences from team teachers without an

explanation or full understanding as to why

Caring and Fun 13

they were receiving them, which was per-

ceived as another non-responsive practice:

Troy: I get kicked out a lot.

Researcher: Why do you get kicked out?

Troy: Sometimes I didn’t do anything and get

kicked out and I don’t know why.

Teacher practices may have a lasting

impact on students’ academic and social

adjustment. For example, Jimmy stated that

last year in seventh grade, “I got close to fail-

ing.” When asked to elaborate he stated:

Jimmy: Only [failing] my math class,

because of the way that she taught. She

wouldn’t explain it; she would make us

just copy and notes and then get right to it.

I didn’t really like doing the homework. I

did sometimes, sometimes I couldn’t

understand it. This year we have gotten

more acquainted. The thing that I didn’t

like was that she told me that I wouldn’t

amount to anything or go to college.

Researcher: Why did she say that?

Jimmy: Because I was not doing well in the

class.

Researcher: How did that make you feel?

Jimmy: It made me feel bad and I got sent out

of her class a lot because last year I didn’t

really have a lot of equipment. I never had

pencils and supplies so she would always

send me out before the day’s lesson.

This experience of almost failing math had

repercussions for Jimmy’s friendships. As

Jimmy stated:

Most of my friends I met in sixth grade. One

of my best friends since then is Brad. He goes

to school here and is in eighth grade. He’s not

on my team this year, but was for my sixth

and seventh grade year. He’s not this year

because I didn’t really like last year. I got

close to failing [in math], so instead of put-

ting me with him in algebra 1 honors, they

just put me in regular algebra with Ms. Mira-

belle.

DISCUSSION

The aim of the current study was to gain a

detailed understanding of how one interdisci-
plinary team nurtured an adolescent-centered
community that was responsive to eighth-

grade students’ basic and developmental

needs, including their need for care and fun.

We conceptualized an adolescent-centered

community as one that fosters an environment

responsive to students’ needs, notably the need

to receive care and to experience school as fun.

Two major conclusions materialized from this

study. First, interdisciplinary teaming and its

complimentary structures (i.e., flexible sched-

uling, homeroom, and common planning time)

helped set the foundation for a caring and fun

adolescent-centered community. Team teach-

ers who embodied developmentally responsive

characteristics capitalized on these structures

and utilized responsive practices to foster an

adolescent-centered community that met stu-

dents’ needs for care and fun. Second, stu-

dents’ need for both care and fun were

essential to the promotion of a responsive ado-

lescent-centered community within their inter-

disciplinary team. Team teachers and students

often viewed care and fun as interconnected

needs within the teacher-student relationship.

Thus, findings from this study underscore the

importance for educators to recognize stu-

dents’ basic and developmental needs and to

understand how school organizational struc-

tures and teacher-student relationships may

help to support these needs. Middle level edu-

cators can help foster an adolescent-centered

community by being responsive to students’

needs, including students’ basic psychological

need for relatedness, and unique to the current

study, the need for care and fun.

Although such conclusions are informative

and provide valuable insight, this study is not

without its limitations. Due to its epistemo-

logical focus and case study methodology,

the study is based on the voices of nine par-

ticipants from one school site. Only four stu-

dents were selected to participate due to the

current investigation being part of a larger,

14 Middle Grades Research Journal Vol. 7, No. 3, 2012

year-long qualitative investigation where each

student was shadowed throughout his/her day

at the middle school and high school level.

More students may have provided additional

perspectives. It is also important to note that

in the constructivist paradigm, the researcher

is an intimate and essential part of the

research process and that the final product is

a coconstruction of both researcher and par-

ticipant understandings. Further, data were

collected during a relatively brief period of

time, providing a snapshot of how an adoles-

cent-centered community was fostered.

Lastly, voices from one eighth-grade team

were included, limiting our understanding of

whether this adolescent-centered community

manifested throughout the entire school.

Despite these limitations, this study provided

a rich understanding of how one interdisci-

plinary team nurtured an adolescent-centered
community that was responsive to eighth-

grade students’ needs for care and fun, in

addition to other basic and developmental

needs.

Our first conclusion is that interdisciplinary

teaming and its related structures provided the

foundation for an adolescent-centered commu-

nity that met students’ needs. According to

NMSA (2010), “The team is the foundation for

a strong learning community characterized by

a sense of family. Students and teachers on the

team become well acquainted, feel safe,

respected, and supported, and are encouraged

to take intellectual risks” (p. 31). Caskey

(2011) called for research that supports current

middle level structures and practices. While

there are noted byproducts of teaming, this

study reminds us of the importance of interdis-

ciplinary teaming as it helps to meet students’

basic and developmental needs. Developmen-

tally responsive team teachers capitalized on

interdisciplinary teaming and its complimen-

tary structures and utilized responsive prac-

tices in order to foster an adolescent-centered

community that met students’ needs for care

and fun, in addition to their basic need for

relatedness. Findings from this study align

with prior research that both middle school

structures (Boyer & Bishop, 2004; Dickinson

& Erb, 1997; Flowers, Mertens, & Mulhall,

1999; George & Alexander, 2003; Jackson &

Davis, 2000; National Association of Second-

ary School Principals [NASSP], 2006; NSMA,

2010) and developmentally responsive teach-

ers who employ responsive practices (Battis-

tich et al., 1997; Eccles, 2004; Ellerbrock &

Kiefer, 2010; NMSA, 2010) are essential com-

ponents to creating an adolescent-centered

community. Thus, findings highlight that

responsive middle school structures and teach-

ers are critical to fostering a true adolescent-

centered community invested in student learn-

ing and well being (Jackson & Davis, 2000;

NASSP, 2010). Also aligned with extant

research, findings indicate instances of unre-

sponsive teacher characteristics and practices

may serve as a barrier to the promotion of a

community within the school or classroom that

meets students’ needs (Eccles, 2004; Eccles et

al., 1993; Ferreira & Bosworth, 2000).

Our second conclusion is that meeting stu-

dents’ need for both care and fun was essential

to the promotion of an adolescent-centered

community. Teachers with a hands-on, stu-

dent-centered approach to teaching fostered an

adolescent-centered community where learn-

ing was perceived as educational and fun. Stu-

dents and teachers often perceived care and

fun as interconnected needs that were met

within an adolescent-centered community

where teachers are fun when they are caring

and caring when they are fun. Consistent with

research, results from the current study suggest

teacher-student relationships help determine

the degree students feel cared for and part of

their school community (Noddings, 2005;

Osterman, 2000; Schussler & Collins, 2006).

According to Noddings (2005) and affirmed in

this study, students must be receivers of care in

order for the caring relationship to be com-

plete. Further, findings from this investigation

underscore students’ desire to experience fun

in school and learning (Larson & Gatto, 2004;

Schmakel, 2008), as both students and teachers

recognized students’ need to experience school

and learning as fun. This aligns with research

Caring and Fun 15

that suggests “school as fun” includes exciting

learning activities, where teachers and students

work together to make learning meaningful

and meet students’ needs (Glasser, 1996; Lar-

son & Gatto, 2004; Schmakel, 2008).

In conclusion, this study underscores the

need for researchers and educators to be more

responsive to students’ needs for care and fun

by promoting an adolescent-centered commu-

nity at the middle level. Results from the cur-

rent study indicate meeting students’ needs for

care and fun is an essential component of an

adolescent-centered community at the middle

level and contributes to our understanding of

responsive school environments for young

adolescents. Responsive organizational struc-

tures, in tandem with developmentally respon-

sive teacher characteristics and practices,

helped to cultivate an adolescent-centered

community within the interdisciplinary team

investigated in this study. There is a need to

continue to listen to student voices in order to

be responsive to their needs at the middle level

and for additional research to further examine

successful innovations (e.g., interdisciplinary

teaming, common planning time, building

relationships with students) and how they may

help meet young adolescents’ multiple needs

(Caskey, 2011). Future research is necessary in

order to determine whether such adolescent-

centered communities where students’ needs

for care and fun are met generalize to an entire

school or to multiple schools, and whether

such communities are sustainable over time

and impact students’ adjustment.

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Nurse

Education in Practice (2005) 5, 161–171

Nurse

www.elsevierhealth.com/journals/nepr

Education
in Practice

A study to ascertain the effect of
structured st

udent

tutorial support on
student stress, self-esteem and coping

John Gammon *, Heulwen Morgan-Samuel 1

School of Health Science, University of Wales, Swansea, Singleton Park, Swansea SA2 8PP, UK

Accepted 19 September 2004

Summary The overall aim of this intervention study was to investigate, and mea-
sure quantitatively, the psychological effects of structured student tutorial support,
on undergraduate students’ level of stress, self-esteem and cognitive coping.

A quantitative research approach was adopted using a quasi-experimental design
(post-test only, non-equivalent control group design) in order to ascertain whether
there were any significant differences between the experimental conditions (n = 25)
and a control group (n = 25). The independent variable was structured student tuto-
rial support and the dependent variables were student stress, self-esteem and cog-
nitive coping. A total of 50 subjects were randomly assigned to either the
experimental or control group. Quantitative data were collected using: the Student
Nurse Stress Index (Jones, M.C., Johnston, D.W., 1997a. The derivation of a 22 item
Student Nurse Stress Index, using exploratory, confirmatory and multi-sample con-
firmatory factor analytic techniques. In: Paper Presented at the Annual Nursing
Research Conference, 18–20th April, University of Wales, Swansea; Jones, M. C.
Johnston, D.W., 1999. Derivation of a brief Student Nurse Stress Index. Work and
Stress 13(2), 162–181), the Self Esteem Scale (Rosenberg, M., 1965. Society and
the Adolesent Self Image. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ) and a Linear
Analogue Coping Scale (Gammon, J., 1998. Analysis of the stressful effects of hos-
pitalisation and source isolation on coping and psychological constructs. Interna-
tional Journal of Nursing Practice 4(2),

84

–97). The methods of data analysis
were the application of the t-test and descriptive statistics.

The results indicated a significantly lower level of stress in the experimental group
(t = �3.85, p = 0.001) and a significantly higher self esteem (t = 4.11, p = 0.001).
Results also suggested that students who were provided with structured tutorial sup-
port perceived they coped more effectively with their studies (t = 4.65, p = 0.001).

KEYWORDS
Tutorial support;
Student stress;
Self-esteem;
Coping

1
d

471-5953/$ – see front matter

�c 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

oi:10.1016/j.nepr.2004.09.003

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +44 1792 513154.
E-mail address: j.gammon@swansea.ac.uk.

1 Tel.: +44 1792 205678.

mailto:j.gammon@swansea.ac.uk.

162 J. Gammon, H. Morgan-Samuel

The study concluded that structured tutorial support was an influential variable in
reducing student stress, promoting self-esteem and facilitating more effective cop-
ing, suggests further interventional research is needed to evaluate this further.

�c 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Introduction

Registered nurses embarking on a part-time degree
programme, have to cope with the competing de-
mands of their studies, their professional responsi-
bilities, their families as well as many other issues
(Shipton, 2002). It is recognised that these circum-
stances are stressful and anxiety provoking (Lo,
2002; Aherne, 2002), often resulting in students
finding these competing demands difficult to cope
with (Timmins and Kaliszer, 2002). Davey and Rob-
inson (2002) and similarly Ashton and Shuldham
(1994) suggest that frequently, women in particu-
lar, have to continue to cope with school age fam-
ilies, often fitting in their studies around household
chores, which exacerbates feelings of academic
stress. A number of strategies to ameliorate this
stress have been investigated such as psychological
support (Grant-Vallone and Ensher, 2000), exercise
(Bolger, 1997; Anshel, 1996), relaxation (Heaman,
1995), touch (Taylor and Lo, 2001), preceptorship
(Yonge et al., 2002), and skills training (Mavis,
2001).

However, research that examines how tutorial
support influences stress, a students’ self-esteem
and coping ability is limited (Liddell et al., 2002),
and the extent of intervention research in nurse
education is limited. Therefore, this intervention
study sought to redress imbalances in current re-
search by evaluating academic stress, self-esteem,
and coping ability amongst part-time BSc (Hons)
Nursing Studies Students, in particular attempting
to ascertain whether the provision of structured
tutorial support influenced these constructs.

Literature review

A literature search of studies listed in the Cumula-
tive Index of Nursing and Allied Health Literature
(CINAHL) database was conducted from 1990–
2003, using the terms student stress, tutorial sup-
port, self-esteem, anxiety, and coping. To ensure
completeness of the review additional words in-
cluded: cognitive coping, student support, support
groups, empowerment, autonomy, intervention
studies and psychological effects. A search was also
undertaken to identify other studies that had used

the research instruments utilised in this study.
International studies were used, however foreign
language studies were excluded from the review.

The way in which stress is conceptualised has a
major impact on the way coping can be defined
and studied. Stress arises from a transaction be-
tween an individual and the environment, when
the individual construes stimuli as damaging,
threatening or challenging (Scott et al., 1980). In
general, stressful situations involve awareness of
demands that exceed available resources, as ap-
praised by the individual. An inclusive definition
of stress does not exist, however a comprehensive
description of stress has been provided by Ivance-
vich and Matteson (1990, p. 34)) who state that
stress is: ‘an adaptive response, mediated by indi-
vidual differences and/or psychological processes
that is a consequence of any external (environmen-
tal) action, situation or event that places excessive
psychological and/or physical demands on a
person’.

Stress is particularly important in education and
educational institutions because it has the poten-
tial to impede human learning and functioning
(Timmins and Kaliszer, 2002).

Coping is the natural counterpart of stress. It
generally refers to a person’s efforts to anticipate
and respond to challenging or troublesome condi-
tions. Many definitions of coping are documented
in the literature although widely quoted is that by
Folkman and Lazarus (1980, p. 34)) who define cop-
ing as ‘the cognitive and behavioural efforts made
to master, tolerate or reduce external and internal
demands and conflicts among them. Such coping
efforts serve two main functions: the management
or alteration of the stress (problem focused coping)
and the regulation of stressful emotions (emotion
focused coping)’. It is this definition of coping that
is used for this research because it emphasises the
importance of the psychosocial element of coping
and views the concept from an interactionist
perspective.

Studies that examine student stress range from
the andototal and descriptive (Ofori and Charlton,
2002; Yonge et al., 2002; Elliot, 2002), to empiri-
cally based research (Radcliffe and Lester, 2003;
Shipton, 2002; Sheu et al., 2002). For nurses, aca-
demic stress includes examinations, long hours of

A study to ascertain the effect of structured student tutorial support 163

study, assignments and grades, lack of free time,
lecturers’ response to students’ needs, academic
ability and lack of timely feedback (Davey and Rob-
inson, 2002; Kirkland, 1998). It is widely accepted
that the experience of academic stress affects stu-
dents’ academic performance (Ofori and Charlton,
2002; Mavis, 2001), their self-esteem (Lo, 2002),
the efficacy of their coping (Shipton, 2002; Jones
and Johnston, 2000; Mahat, 1998) and can lead to
changes in physiological and psychological health
(Aherne, 2002; Jones and Johnston, 1997b).

Research by Marker (2001) examined the percep-
tions of student stress from the nurse educator’s
(n = 308) perspective. The research noted that
nurse educators were aware of the level of stress
among undergraduate students and that most nurse
educators understood the sources of that stress.
However, Marker (2001) argues that nurse educa-
tors expressed frustration at their attempts to help
students and suggested that more time should be
allocated to help students reduce their stress and
support them to develop more effective coping
skills.

Previous research has indicated that certain
interventions have positive influences on the level
of stress students’ experience. For example inter-
ventions have included: use of action learning
groups (Heidari and Galvin, 2003); teaching asser-
tiveness (McCabe and Timmins, 2003); reflection
in groups (Haddock, 1997); teaching stress manage-
ment skills (Jones and Johnston, 1996); compli-
mentary therapies (Lindop, 1993); empowerment
(Chally, 1992); increasing self awareness, goal set-
ting, adapting work situations, social support, and
relaxation (Kunkler and Whittick, 1991) and hu-
mour (Warner, 1991) each have shown a positive
effect on stress and coping. Other research studies,
which have examined a specific intervention, are
highlighted in Table 1.

Benefits of tut

orial support

Litchfield (2001) notes that there exists much
inconsistency in the way students are supported
during their academic studies. Significantly, little
research has been undertaken that investigates
the effects of one-to-one tutorials (Wilson, 1996;
Jacques, 1994) or small group tutorials (Liddell
et al., 2002; Ashton and Shuldham, 1994). How-
ever, some research has examined the effect of
student support on student performance (Heidari
and Galvin, 2003), levels of stress (Radcliffe and
Lester, 2003) and knowledge and skills develop-
ment (Liddell et al., 2002).

An interesting, and innovative study was under-
taken by Heidari and Galvin (2003) who, using focus
groups, evaluated the effect of action learning
groups on student’s learning and education
(n = 288). From their research Heidari and Galvin
(2003) argue that significantly one of the major
advantages of action learning groups, identified
by students, was the support they received from
both lecturers and other students. Students were
able to express their feelings and worries, ‘let off
steam’ and discuss different issues, which Heidari
and Galvin (2003) note facilitated learning and pro-
moted student confidence. Liddell et al. (2002)
utilising a quasi-experimental study, evaluated
the effect of tutorials in supporting medical stu-
dents acquire basic procedural skills. The results
indicated that students in the experimental group
were more confident in applying their skills in prac-
tice and utilised their skills more frequently.

Evident from this small body of research suggests
that providing structured support for an individual
attempting to cope with a stressful academic event
may be an influential variable affecting an individ-
ual’s coping process (Earwaker, 1992).

The effects of self-esteem on education

A considerable amount of research exists that
examines the relationship between self-esteem
and educational ability (Begley and White, 2003;
Hughes et al., 2003; Lo, 2002). Social cognitive the-
ory suggests self-efficacy affects one’s behaviour
(Bandura and Jourden, 1991), and an individuals
perceptions about their own abilities and charac-
teristics, guide their behaviour and how much ef-
fort they will put into their performance
(Bandura, 1977; Bandura and Jourden, 1991). Lo
(2002) evaluated perceived levels of stress, coping
and self-esteem amongst Australian undergraduate
nursing students, suggesting an association be-
tween chronic stress, avoidance behaviour and
negative self-esteem. A higher self-esteem was
correlated with proactive coping and with more se-
nior students.

Methodology

The overall aim for this intervention study was to
investigate and quantitatively measure, the psy-
chological effects of structured tutorial support,
on students’ level of stress, their self-esteem,
and to ascertain its influence on cognitive coping.
In order to test the above, a number of specific
hypotheses were tested:

Table 1 Intervention studies

Research Intervention

Results

Taylor and Lo (2001) Healing touch No effects of healing touch on the
coping ability, self-esteem and
general health. However, subjects
found the experience positive

Grant-Vallone and Ensher (2000) Student peer-mentoring programme.
Psychosocial and instrumental support
given

Students were more satisfied with
increased levels of psychosocial
and instrumental support.

Bolger (1997) Exercise programme Exercise was found to be an
effective stress management and
provided additional benefits

Anshel (1996) A 10-week aerobic exercise and
progressive relaxation training
programme, evaluating it effect on
somatic, emotional, and behavioural
response to acute stress.

Analysis of results indicated that
aerobic exercisers in comparison
with the other research groups
responded to acute stress with
more positive affect, lower stressor
task heart rate, reduced systolic
blood pressure and superior motor
performance.

Jones and Johnston (1996) Stress management skills Stress management significantly
reduced affective distress and
increases adaptive coping in both
clinical and academic settings

Heaman (1995) Didactic information, quieting response
training, biofeedback-aided relaxation

Reduction in anxiety amongst
students in experimental group. No
difference in physiological
measures

Schaufeli (1995) Didactic information giving, relaxation
training and cognitive stress training

Significant reduction in emotional
and somatic symptoms following
intervention

Godbey and Courage (1994) Cognitive behavioural stress reduction
techniques and study skills training

Lower anxiety scores amongst
students in experimental group

Lee and Crockett (1994) Assertiveness training rational emotive
therapy

Experimental group had lower
scores on perceived stress scale
and higher assertiveness scores

Stephens (1992) Imagery, progressive muscular relaxation Greater reduction in anxiety in
imagery and imagery and
progressive muscular relaxation
groups.

Speck (1990) Guided imagery, relaxation training using
audiotapes

Intervention group had lover
anxiety

Michie and Ridout (1990) Two day course. Didactic information
giving, self awareness and skills training

Reduction in anxiety levels and an
increase in job satisfaction

164 J. Gammon, H. Morgan-Samuel

(A) To test whether students who are given struc-
tured tutorial support experience less stress.

(B) To test whether students who are given struc-
tured tutorial support experience a higher
self-esteem.

(C) To test whether students who are given struc-
ture tutorial support personally perceive they
are coping more effectively with the degree
programme and their studies.

Design

This quantitative intervention study utilised a qua-
si-experimental design. Precisely, this was the
post-test only, non-equivalent control group de-
sign, meaning the design did not involve any pre-
testing of the subjects and the two research groups
were not matched to reduce potential confounding
variables.

A study to ascertain the effect of structured student tutorial support 165

Sample

A total of 50 subjects, were randomly selected for
the study, from a total population of 150. This was
achieved by including the names, of all students
meeting the sample criteria, on a data base and
allowing the computer to randomly selecting 50.
Subsequently, subjects were randomly assigned
into the experimental group (n = 25) or the control
group (n = 25), by the use of 25 green and 25 blue
counters, respectively, drawn from a cloth bag. A
subject was defined as an registered nurse, in
full-time employment between the age of 25–55,
and undertaking a part-time BSc (Hons) Nursing
Studies degree programme.

Research procedure

The subjects having met the research sample crite-
ria, and randomly assigned into the experimental
group or the control group were all given a written
explanation, which indicated the purpose of the re-
search and what was expected of them as research
subjects. On agreeing to participate in the study,
subjects were given a written consent form to sign.

Table 3 Levels of helping utilised

Levels of helping

Practical help Doing
Giving information Informing
Allowing the student to ventilate

feelings
Listening

Enabling the student to identify the
problem

Challenging

Helping the student to manage the
problem

Counselling

Experimental group procedure
Structured tutorial support was given for one aca-
demic year, by the researcher, to all subjects in
the experimental group. The precise nature of this
structured tutorial support is noted in Tables 2 and
3. Many of the support interventions utilised have
been used in previous research and noted in the lit-
erature as being effective support mechanisms
(Gammon, 1997; Wilson, 1996; Jones and Johnston,
1996; Warner, 1991).

In addition to the support mechanism listed in
Table 2, the researcher adopted the five levels of
helping proposed by Wilson (1996). Generally,
these helping strategies detailed in Table 3 and
are based on students’ need or desire for practical

Table 2 Interventions utilised to facilitate structured tut

Researcher support interventions for students

Familiarising the student with an unfamiliar situation
Introducing to the student a familiar element to unfamiliar
Physical touch
Conveying emotional stability to the student using non-ver
Counselling and helping the student to use his/her own ski
Clarification of facts
Encouraging verbalisation and ventilation of fears by the st
Facilitating coping techniques and divisional techniques

help, information, to moan or complain, for ad-
vice, or for counselling.

In order to facilitate reliability in the implemen-
tation of the research intervention, the support
and helping interventions were provided only by
the research and were written on an index card,
which acted as a prompt to the researcher to en-
sure that all aspects of the research intervention
were consistently applied where appropriate.

The research intervention was applied in two
ways. First, the tutorial support and helping inter-
ventions were provided to three separate groups of
experimental subjects on a fortnightly basis, gen-
erally, each tutorial lasted for approximately 45
min. The allocation of subjects into one of the
three groups was based on the specific module
the student was studying. Additionally, students
were given the opportunity to see the researcher
on an individual basis, and were supported using
the same research interventions. Following the
implementation of the above research conditions,
post-tests were applied for all 25 subjects.

Control group
Subjects in the control group were not exposed to
the structured tutorial support. The control group
received the tutorial support that was ‘routinely’
provided to students on the BSc (Hons) Nursing Stud-
ies programme by academic staff. Generally, the

orial support

situations

bal communication
lls to overcome their fears

udent

166 J. Gammon, H. Morgan-Samuel

tutorial system was an ‘open door’ tutorial policy
where tutorial support, which was not structured,
was provided on an individual basis when requested
students. All the research post-tests were to this
group applied at the end of the academic year. Tuto-
rial support tended to be reactive and not proactive.

Data collection

Data was collected using structured, previously val-
idated questionnaires and a linear analogue scale.
The research instruments were:

Student nurse stress index
While there is a great deal of descriptive material
describing the sources of stress in nursing students,
few questionnaires with established reliability and
validity exist (Brown, 1996; Snape, 1995; Beck
and Srivastava, 1991). Beck and Srivastava (1991)
have produced a 43 item questionnaire called the
Beck and Srivastava Stress Index (BSSI) which de-
scribes sources of stress facing student nurses.
The BSSI contains many items which do not apply
to the students used in this study. Consequently,
the Student Nurse Stress Index, (SNSI) developed
by Jones and Johnston (1997a, 1999) was consid-
ered pertinent. The SNSI, based on the BSSI, con-
sists of 22 items which ask students to rate on a
five point scale how stressful they find various
events encountered during their period of study.
The SNSI has four factor structure with academic
load, clinical concerns, personal problems and
interface worries as underlying variables. The scale
is quantitative in design and sum scores on items
1–22 give an overall total ranging from 22 to 110.

Self-esteem
This construct was measured using the Self-esteem
Assessment Scale, developed by Rosenberg (1965).
The scale evaluates the self-acceptance (liking or
approval) component of self-esteem. The advan-
tage of this scale is that it has been extensively
used in previous research (Begley and White,
2003; Hughes et al., 2003; Buddington, 2002; Gam-
mon and Mulholland, 1996; Hall et al., 1996;
DeLongis et al., 1988), and the instrument only
consists of 10 questions each having a choice of
four responses scored from zero to three. A cumu-
lative score is derived, the maximum score being
thirty, and thus the instrument predicts that the
higher the score the higher one’s self-esteem.

Linear analogue coping scale
Perceived coping was measured using a Linear Ana-
logue Coping Scale, assessing subjects’ coping abil-

ity in a simple and convenient manner. The linear
analogue scale was 100 mm in length with anchors
at each end to indicate a subject’s assessment of
their coping. Subjects’ coping ability was scored,
by measuring in millimetres, the distance from
the lower extreme of the scale to the subject’s
mark. The lower extreme read: ‘Totally unable to
cope with my course and studies’ and the upper ex-
treme ’Totally able to cope with my course and
studies.’

There exists strong evidence suggesting the util-
ity of linear analogue scales in measuring psycho-
logical and physical outcomes (Cheing et al.,
2002; Gammon, 1997, 1998; Scott, 1994; Gooch,
1989; Gift, 1989; Guyatt et al., 1987), and its valid-
ity (Gift, 1989a; Luria, 1975).

Data analysis

The data for all three research instruments were
numerically scored and quantified. Each of these
quantitative scores were entered on to a raw data
sheet, for each subject and then entered into a
computer for analysis. Inferential and descriptive
statistical tests were performed. Specifically the
independent t-test was applied to calculate any
significant differences between the scores from
each research group and descriptive statistics were
used to calculate means, standard deviation (SD)
and range.

Results

Initially, the scores for each research group were
analysed using descriptive statistics, the results
of which are illustrated in Tables 4 and 5.

Analysis of the data using the independent t-test
demonstrated significant differences between the
two groups for each of the constructs measured.
The mean stress score for subjects in the experi-
mental group (68.7) was lower than the control
group (82.9). The differences in means, shown by
the t-test (t = �3.85), was strongly significant at
a p = 0.001 level. The mean self-esteem score for
subjects in the experimental group (19.48) was
higher than the control group (14.48). The differ-
ences in means, shown by the t-test (4.11) was sig-
nificant at a p = <0.001 level. Lastly, the mean coping score for subjects in the research group (73.8) was higher than the control group (60), indi- cating students who were provided with structured tutorial support believed they coped more effec- tively with the degree programme. The differences in means shown by the t-test (4.65), was significant

Table 5

Descriptive statistics for experimental subjects

Descriptive statistics for control subjects

Variable Mean Median SD Range Min Max No. of subjects

Stress 82.92 87 13.39 50 54 104 25
Self-esteem 14.84 14 3.39 12 10 22 25
Coping 60.0 59 8.66 36 48 84 25

Table 4 Descriptive statistics for experimental subjects

Descriptive statistics for experimental subjects
Variable Mean Median SD Range Min Max No. of subjects

Stress 68.68 67 12.75 44 47 91 25
Self-esteem 19.48 20 4.52 14 12 28 25
Coping 73.76 72 11.98 44 50 94 25

A study to ascertain the effect of structured student tutorial support 167

at a p = <0.001 level. These results are summarised in Table 6.

Discussion: theoretical explanations for
the research findings

Pertinent to discuss, as a consequence of this re-
search is why should students provided with struc-
tured tutorial support have a higher self-esteem,
cope more effectively with their academic de-
mands and the stressful situations associated with
their degree studies? There are numerous possible
explanations for the research findings, which can
facilitate an appreciation of the precise dynamics
that exist between the constructs evaluated in this

Table 6 Table to illustrate the mean scores and observed

Research group (1) Control gro

Mean stress score
68.7 82.9
SD 12.7 SD 13.4
Range 47–91 Range 54–

Mean self-esteem score
19.48 14.48
SD 4.52 SD 3.39
Range 12–28 Range 10–

Mean coping score
73.8 60
SD 12 SD 8.66
Range 50–94 Range 48–

study. However, these results must be considered
with caution, particularly in view of the constraints
of research methodology and the many potential
extraneous variables that could have influenced
the association between the measured concepts.
Consequently, the authority of the research to ar-
gue that structured tutorial support does reduce
student stress, improve their self-esteem and cop-
ing ability may still be called into question.

In their coping model Craig and Edward (1983)
suggest that effective coping results in less stress
and anxiety, while ineffective coping results in
higher levels of stress and anxiety. Similar results
have been noted by Gammon (1997) who in a model
of coping suggests that the provision of support
and information results in more effective coping
and consequently less anxiety and stress, with

t-value for each dependant variable

up (2)

Observed t-value
t = �3.85
(p = 0.001)

104

Observed t-value
t = 4.11
(p = 0.001)

22

Observed t-value
t = 4.65
(p = 0.001)

84

168 J. Gammon, H. Morgan-Samuel

enhanced feelings of control. As previously high-
lighted in the literature review, stress levels are
widely regarded as valid indicators of a person’s
coping ability (Shipton, 2002; Marker, 2001; Jones
and Johnston, 2000; Mahat, 1998; Gammon, 1997,
1998). Tutorial support, like action learning groups
(Heidari and Galvin, 2003) familiarises students
with unfamiliar academic demands (Wilson,
1996), which it is argued, can result in less stress,
a better self-esteem and more effective coping.
The findings of this research would suggest that
these academic demands are ameliorated by tuto-
rial support by enabling students to be familiarised
with the requirements of an academic undergradu-
ate programme and thereby reducing stress, fos-
tering feelings of control, autonomy and
promoting more effective coping.

Studies have shown that self-esteem can be
positively influenced, which consequently affects
coping ability ensuring it is more effective (Hughes
et al., 2003; Lo, 2002; Ofori and Charlton, 2002;
Russler, 1991). It is argued therefore that self-
esteem is influenced by the provision of structured
tutorial support because it enables students to ac-
quire skills and knowledge that affect their accep-
tance, self-confidence, and control of academic
demands. Consequently, students maintain their
independence and a more realistic perspective of
academic and programme demands, ensuring they
feel more positive about actively confronting aca-
demic requirements, demands and situations per-
ceived as difficult, and therefore more able to
cope with them.

Structured tutorial support promotes personal
control, empowerment, assertiveness and confi-
dence, thus students experience less uncertainty
and cope with academic demands more effec-
tively. Uncertainty, academic demands and loss
of control amongst students are derived from many
sources, including the novelty of the environment,
many new and unique academic requirements, the
necessity to demonstrate set learner objectives,
dramatic role changes, role conflicts, over-stimula-
tion with unfamiliar events, and competing de-
mands. All these sources of uncertainty are
particularly apparent in part-time undergraduate
students who are also in full-time employment.
Fundamentally these variables prevent a person’s
coping process being comprehensive and complete,
and consequently, Gammon (1997) notes that
strategies to overcome this can include common
problem focused coping skills such as information
seeking, seeking social support, changing aspects
of the physical environment or exerting role power
to influence a state of events. The research inter-
vention had a noticeable influence in developing

students’ general assertiveness, which as high-
lighted by McCabe and Timmins (2003) improves
communication and personal confidence, both
essential components of effective coping.

A further explanation for the findings of this
study is the role that information plays in promot-
ing an individual’s autonomy (Reeve, 1998), dig-
nity, empowerment and self-respect (Kuokkanen
and Katajisto, 2003). It is argued that information
gives individuals increased participation in their
education (Chally, 1992), and their performance
(Mavis, 2001), the consequences of this is: empow-
erment, control, improved self-esteem, freedom
and improved coping strategies. Information is a
form of self-control and political power, and it pro-
vides a foundation for taking active responsibility
for oneself, enables one to regain self-esteem
and offers a sense of usefulness and satisfaction,
all important for students on undergraduate nurs-
ing programmes.

Limitations

This research has demonstrated some very impor-
tant findings relating to the support of nursing stu-
dents and the role of nurse educators. The study
has shown that students, provided with structure
tutorial support appear to cope more effectively
with their studies and consequently have a higher
self-esteem and decreased levels of stress.

However, it is important to note that these find-
ings must be considered with care for a variety of
methodological reasons. The research, if repli-
cated should have a stronger design and a larger
sample. The study omitted to use a pre-test post-
test design, if utilised a pre-test post-test design
which would establish a baseline and norms of
the dependent variables measured, and a larger
sample would be necessary to improve the validity
and reliability of the research. A further difficulty
was the inability of the researcher to exercise tigh-
ter control over the research conditions because of
the inevitable ethical problems that would result.
Therefore, it must be acknowledged that the sig-
nificant differences measured in this study may
have been due to confounding variables, and the
extent of their influence in this research was un-
known. For example it could be argued that the in-
creased self-esteem in the experimental group was
not solely due to the structured tutorials but may
relate to other factors like academic achievement.
Perhaps if a matched subject design was used then
the potential for differences being due to extrane-
ous variable would have been ameliorated.

A study to ascertain the effect of structured student tutorial support 169

Lastly, it appears from the results that the stress
scale scores may be skewed. Therefore, it could be
argued that because the normal distribution of the
research sample was not demonstrated the use of a
parametric test like the t-test was inappropriate
and perhaps a Mann–Whitney U-test should have
been applied.

Conclusions

Despite the limitations, the utilisation of interven-
tion research is positive, and given the limited
amount of this type of research in nurse education
its design and findings provide a platform for fur-
ther research of this type.

The findings have some implications for nurse
education. This study suggests that nurse educators
have a central role in providing students with infor-
mation and structured tutorial support as part of
their academic studies. Nurse educators should
consider the need to be more proactive and innova-
tive in the support provided to students and recog-
nise the positive benefits it has on learning.
Learning should not be perceived as a stressor, stu-
dents must be supported to ensure that academic
stress is minimised, autonomy is promoted, and
self-esteem developed. Nurse education depart-
ments should examine and evaluate how students
are empowered and their coping abilities maxi-
mised, thus improving their self-esteem and aca-
demic performance. Consideration should be
given to the replication of this study with a stron-
ger research design employed, a larger sample
and ensuring that the effects of the structured
tutorial programme are linked to student learning
outcomes.

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• A study to ascertain the effect of structured student tutorial support on student stress, self-esteem and coping

Introduction
Literature review
Benefits of tutorial support
The effects of self-esteem on education
Methodology
Design
Sample
Research procedure
Experimental group procedure
Control group
Data collection
Student nurse stress index
Self-esteem
Linear analogue coping scale
Data analysis
Results
Discussion: theoretical explanations for the research findings
Limitations
Conclusions
References

Running head: COMPARING QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

1

COMPARING QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH 2

[Fill in your name below. Erase these instructions and any instructions in brackets below before submitting your assignment.]

Comparing Research Reports

First and Last Name

Capella University

Comparison Chart One

[Fill in the following chart. Concise and clear responses are preferred.]

Quantitative Research Article

Qualitative Research Article

Title

A study to ascertain the effect of structured student tutorial support on student stress, self-esteem and coping

Caring and fun: Fostering an adolescent-centered community within an interdisciplinary team

Problem
Statement

Research Purpose Statement

Research Question(s)

Comparing the Quantitative and Qualitative Studies

[Answer the following questions as concisely as possible, approximately 100 words for each question. Remove these instructions.]

Similarities and Differences Between the Problem Statements
Similarities and Differences Between the Purpose Statements
Similarities and Differences Between the Research Questions
Comparing the Quantitative and Qualitative Methodologies

[Concisely describe the similarities and differences between quantitative and qualitative methodologies in terms of the problems each methodology is best suited to, the data that is collected, and how the data is collected. Your response should be about 100 words.]

Expectations when Reading Research

[Concisely describe how knowing the research methodology (quantitative or qualitative) can help set your expectations when reading a research study in terms of the size of the sample of participants, the kinds of data collected, and how the findings are presented. Your response should be about 100 words.]

Comparison Chart Two
[Fill in the following chart. Concise and clear responses are preferred.]

Quantitative Research Article

Qualitative Research Article

Title

A study to ascertain the effect of structured student tutorial support on student stress, self-esteem and coping

Caring and fun: Fostering an adolescent-centered community within an interdisciplinary team

Sample size and sample characteristics

Data collection method

Data analysis procedure

Applying Research Findings to Professional Practice

[One of the more challenging aspects of using the research findings to improve professional practice is making a judgment call about the degree to which the findings transfer into your professional setting. Researchers refer to this as “transferability.” In this context, the term is defined as the extent to which research findings that are produced in the research site can be meaningfully applied in a different context. As a consumer of research, you must consider the differences between the context of the research article and the context of your professional practice. If there is a wide difference, most likely the research results have very little transferability for you. If there are relevant similarities between the research site and your context, the research results will have a higher level of transferability.

For the purposes of the next section of this assignment, imagine that you work for a mid-sized community college and you have been assigned by the president as the student retention coordinator for the entire institution. Your mandate is to improve student retention at the college by five percent during your first year in this role.]

Similarities and Differences between Your Context and the Research Site: Article One

[After reading A Study to Ascertain the Effect of Structured Student Tutorial Support on Student Stress, Self-Esteem, and Coping by Gammon and Morgan-Samuel (2004), identify the primary similarities and differences between your imagined context as described above and the research site where the study took place.

Assessing the Transferability of Research Results: Article One

[Based on the comparison you completed in the previous section, discuss the degree of transferability of the research results of Gammon’s and Morgan-Samuel’s (2004) study in your new role working to improve student retention. Would you take any specific action to improve student retention based on the findings of this research report? If so, what would you do?]

Similarities and Differences between Your Context and the Research Site: Article Two

[For the purposes of the next section of this assignment, imagine that you are a newly appointed principal of a small high school. The high school currently has a poor record for student retention and a large portion of the student body does not graduate. After reading Fostering an Adolescent-Centered Community within an Interdisciplinary Team by Kiefer and Ellerbrock, identify the primary similarities and differences between your imagined context as described above and the research site where the study took place.]

Assessing the Transferability of Research Results

[Based on the comparison you completed in the previous section, discuss the degree of transferability of the research results of Kiefer’s and Ellerbrock’s (2012) study in your new role working to improve student retention. Would you take any specific action to improve student retention based on the findings of this research report? If so, what would they be?]

Conclusion

[Briefly describe the key concepts you have learned about using research results to improve your professional practice after doing this assignment. Be sure to complete the reference section below in APA format for reference lists.]

References