Discussion Post- Due today 11:00pm ET

 

• List at least three major categories of cyber terrorism and/or information warfare. Among the chosen categories, determine the one that should be the top priority for the federal government to address. Provide a rationale to support your response.
• Among the different psychological theories , identify at least two that are relevant to cyber crime. Next, discuss the primary way in which society or an individual could use the psychological theories that you have identified to combat cyber crime. Justify your response.

Attached is chapter 3 which goes over some of the psychological theories 

Pedophiles and Psychological Theory

Many people wonder why pedophiles commit the crimes that they do; what combination of factors leads a person to want to commit sexual offenses against a child? Unfortunately, there are no easy answers. As discussed in 

Chapter 8

, pedophiles commit their crimes for a variety of reasons and go on committing their crimes, with little hope of rehabilitation. Most experts agree that pedophiles develop a sexual interest over a long period of time. Furthermore, there is a variety of reasons and factors that relate to developing pedophilia, none of which fully cause or explain the crime. Most commonly, pedophiles are exposed to some type of sexual abuse or trauma during their childhood. Another common factor is that they have had some type of abuse or other related problem during their sexual development and, as a result, develop an interest in children as sexual objects. Interestingly, the advent of the Internet has led to numerous problems in dealing with and detecting pedophiles.

The Internet serves many purposes for the pedophile of today, the least of which is the dissemination of child pornography. This poses a conundrum for theorists: Which comes first—an interest in computers due to existing pedophiliac interests or an interest in pedophilia as a result of viewing these types of images on the Internet? Some of the pedophiles arrested state that they developed an interest in children as sexual objects as the result of seeing such images on the Internet. Others clearly were pedophiles prior to the advent of the Internet and simply learned another technique for obtaining child pornography. In short, the specific reasons why a person becomes a pedophile are not immediately or clearly understood. Nonetheless, psychological theories posit that a person’s sexual interests and sexual paraphilias develop in much the same way as other interests and our personalities—through a process of learning, cognitive reinforcement, and psychological development. Thus, the specific reasons why a person becomes a pedophile are different from case to case, but the process is relatively consistent. The best explanation for this interest is psychological and cognitive in nature.

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Social Structure Theories

The first set of social theories that will be discussed in this chapter can be classified as social structure theories. When originally developed, social structure theories focused on why lower-class individuals are more likely to commit crime than middle- and upper-class individuals. However, modifications and expansions of the original theories have moved away from this distinction and have attempted to explain criminal behavior by all social classes (e.g., general strain theory). This is important in the study of cyber crime because many offenders come from the middle and upper classes. Traditionally, these theories focus on socioeconomic conditions and cultural values as two prominent factors that impact crime. In this section, two major subtypes of social structure theory will be discussed: strain theory and subculture theory.

Strain Theory

One major type of social structure theory is strain theory. Originally, strain theorists saw crime as a result of a lack of opportunity, in particular economic opportunity. Today, modern-day strain theories are much broader than the original theories. At the time of the development of strain theory, it was argued that U.S. society instills in citizens a desire for financial success but does not provide all individuals equal opportunity to achieve that success. Those who do not have an equal opportunity are strained and thus more likely to be criminal. The most prominent strain theory is the one presented by Robert Merton.

Merton: Strain Theory

There is a unique combination of cultural goals and the means to obtain them in every society. According to Merton, the cultural goal of American society is economic success.

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 It is argued that the primary goal of U.S. citizens is material wealth. This goal is promulgated through a variety of mechanisms, including the media, cultural transmission, and other mechanisms. Along with the goal, there are institutionalized means to obtain the goal, such as education, occupation, and deferral of gratification. However, not everyone has equal access to the institutionalized means to obtain financial success. Members of the lower class have less access to education and good jobs than members of the middle and upper class. Strain theory is sometimes referred to as “blocked opportunity theory.” In other words, people are blocked in their ability to access education and a good job. Therefore, there is a discrepancy between a person’s desire to obtain economic success and their ability to do so. These individuals suffer from strain.

If an individual is strained, how do they adapt to the strain? Merton developed five modes of adaptation.

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 The modes of adaptation vary in their acceptance or rejection of the cultural goal of economic success and the institutionalized means to obtain the goal. They also vary in the propensity for criminal behavior. The first mode of adaptation is conformity. A conformist accepts both the cultural goal of economic success and the institutionalized means to obtain it. A conformist is highly unlikely to commit criminal acts. It is also the most common mode of adaptation.

The second mode of adaptation is ritualism. A ritualist rejects the cultural goal of economic success but accepts the institutionalized means to obtain it. One response to strain is to lower your aspirations. This is what a ritualist does. They have lowered their aspiration for financial success but still abide by the means to obtain it, such as employment and education. It is unlikely that a ritualist will commit criminal acts as well.

The third mode of adaptation is innovation. An innovator accepts the goal of economic success but rejects the institutionalized means to obtain it. In this instance, the individual engages in innovation to find new means to obtain economic success besides education and employment. One such means is likely to be criminal activity. The innovator may commit such offenses as computer crime, fraud, drug dealing, robbery, burglary, auto theft, bribery, and prostitution, among others in an effort to obtain financial success. This is the mode of adaptation that is most likely to lead to criminal activity and to include computer criminals. Basically, the person wants to be financially successful and will commit criminal acts that help to obtain this goal.

The fourth mode of adaptation is retreatism. A retreatist rejects both the cultural goal of economic success and institutionalized means to obtain it. These individuals do not aspire to financial success, nor are they concerned with getting an education and employment. These individuals frequently escape into drug addiction and may commit crimes to support their drug use. Therefore, their strain is reduced by abandoning both the goal and the means to obtain it.

The fifth mode of adaptation is rebellion. A rebel rejects both the cultural goal and means but substitutes new goals and means to obtain them. This adaptation is likely to lead to crime and can be represented by some gangs, militias, cults, and countercultures. Criminality is likely to occur with this mode of adaptation, but it will not be as prevalent as criminal activity among innovators.

White-Collar Crime and Strain Theory

White-collar crimes such as money laundering, corporate espionage, and the numerous varieties of Internet fraud schemes described in 

Chapter 6

 fit neatly into the strain theory school of criminology, which suggests that crime and deviance is largely the result of blocked legitimate opportunities. In this sense, individuals who engage in such schemes can be viewed as “innovators” who pursue illegitimate means in order to achieve the conventional goal of material success.

While Merton’s original formulation of the theory focused on the blockage of legitimate opportunities experienced predominantly by those in the lower economic classes, contemporary strain theorists have sought to extend strain theory in order to explain the instrumental crimes of middle- and upper-class individuals by defining what they have termed the “relative deprivation” experienced by persons of higher economic status. That is, individuals who already enjoy a certain degree of monetary success may engage in instrumental crimes such as money laundering, espionage, and fraud simply because they perceive goal blockage in their attempt to secure ever-increasing wealth. From this perspective, “relative deprivation” offers an explanation as to why crimes such as money laundering and/or corporate espionage are primarily committed by individuals who may already be materially successful.

Agnew: General Strain Theory

A more modern version of strain theory is general strain theory. General strain theory was developed by Robert Agnew and tries to explain why individuals who feel stress and strain in their lives are more likely to commit crimes. Agnew’s theory does not focus on economic success as the prominent goal in U.S. society, but instead offers a broader explanation of crime than focusing exclusively on the lower class. Agnew argues that crime is due to negative affective states. Negative affective states can include anger, frustration, disappointment, depression, and fear, which are obviously experienced by all classes.

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According to Agnew, these negative affective states are caused by several different sources of strain. First, strain can be caused by the failure to achieve positively valued goals. This is similar to the strain discussed by Merton in that it is the result of a disjunction between aspirations (i.e., what one aspires to) and expectations (i.e., what one can expect to achieve). Second, strain can be caused by the disjunction between expectations and achievements. This is different than the first source of strain because it does not focus on aspirations, but on expectations. This disjunction between expectations and achievements frequently occurs when people compare themselves to peers who seem to be doing better than them (e.g., financially or socially). Based on this disjunction, individuals may feel a sense of inequity. Third, strain can be caused by the removal of positively valued stimuli from the individual. This can include the loss of a boyfriend or girlfriend, the death of a relative, the loss of a job, or the divorce of parents, to name a few. Fourth, strain may be due to the presentation of negative stimuli. Examples of negative stimuli include family conflict, school failure, child abuse, and stressful life events. These sources of strain may have a cumulative effect on people in reality. The greater the intensity and frequency strain experiences become for an individual, the more likely the person is to turn to crime.

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There are several cyber crimes where general strain theory can be used as an explanation, especially cyberbullying and stalking. Middle and high school students who feel that they are not as popular or pretty as their peers may choose to gossip or make fun of them through social networking sites like Facebook as a means of dealing with the frustration they experience. For example, a young girl named Piper Smith, in Spanaway, Washington,

Social Process Theories

Social process theories focus on the relationship between socialization and crime. In particular, social process theories analyze the impact of certain factors such as peer group relationships, family relationships, and failure in school on crime. All of these factors are related to crime. Individuals who associate with criminal peers are at significant risk of committing crime themselves. Likewise, individuals who were brought up in an unnurturing, dysfunctional family are at greater risk of committing crime. Finally, individuals who drop out of school are also at risk for committing crime. Two branches of social process theory will be discussed in this section: learning theory and the social control theory of low self-control.

BOX3.4 Largest Known Computer Hacking and Securities Fraud Scheme

A Ukrainian hacker was sentenced on May 22, 2017, to 30 months in prison for his role in an international scheme to hack into three business newswires, steal yet-to-be published press releases containing nonpublic financial information, and use that information to make trades that generated approximately $30 million in illegal profits. Vadym Iermolovych, 29, of Kiev, Ukraine, previously pleaded guilty before U.S. District Judge Madeline Cox Arleo to a three-count information charging him with conspiracy to commit wire fraud, conspiracy to commit computer hacking, and aggravated identity theft.

Iermolovych admitted that he was personally involved in the hacks into Marketwired L.P. (Marketwired), PR Newswire Association LLC (PRN), and Business Wire. He admitted to hacking into PRN’s network between January 2013 and March 2013. He also admitted that he obtained a set of user credentials of PRN employees stolen from a computer hack into a social networking Web site and then used at least one of those credentials to ultimately gain access into PRN’s computer network. Iermolovych also admitted that he sold press releases stolen from the network intrusion into Marketwired, and purchased access into Business Wire’s network, all in furtherance of a larger conspiracy to profit from the stolen draft press releases.

As alleged in the indictments, between February 2010 and August 2015, computer hackers based in Ukraine gained unauthorized access into the computer networks of the Victim Newswires. They used a series of targeted cyberattacks, including “phishing” attacks and SQL injection attacks, to gain access to the computer networks. The hackers moved through the computer networks and stole press releases about upcoming announcements by public companies concerning earnings, gross margins, revenues, and other confidential and material information.

The hackers shared the stolen releases with the traders using overseas computer servers that they controlled. In a series of e-mails, the hackers even shared “instructions” on how to access and use the overseas server where they shared the stolen releases with the traders, and the access credentials and instructions were distributed among the traders. The traders created “shopping lists” or “wish lists” for the hackers listing desired upcoming press releases for publicly traded companies from Marketwired and PRN.

The traders generally traded ahead of the public distribution of the stolen releases, and their trading activities shadowed the hackers’ capabilities to exfiltrate stolen press releases. In order to execute their trades before the releases were made public, the traders sometimes had to execute trades in extremely short windows of time between when the hackers illegally accessed and shared the releases and when the press releases were disseminated to the public by the newswires, usually shortly after the close of the markets. Frequently, all of this activity occurred on the same day. Thus, the trading data often showed a flurry of trading activity around a stolen press release just prior to its public release.

The traders traded on stolen press releases containing material nonpublic information about hundreds of companies, including Align Technology Inc., Caterpillar Inc., Hewlett Packard, Home Depot, Panera Bread Co., and Verisign Inc.

The traders paid the hackers for access to the overseas servers based, in part, on a percentage of the money the traders made from their illegal trading activities. The hackers and traders used foreign shell companies to share the illegal trading profits.

In addition to the prison term, Judge Arleo sentenced Iermolovych to three years of supervised release and ordered him to pay restitution of $3,004,685.06.

Which theory do you think applies best to this case?

Source: U.S. Department of Justice. (May 22, 2017). Hacker Sentenced To 30 Months In Prison For Role In Largest Known Computer Hacking And Securities Fraud Scheme. Retrived from: 

https://www.justice.gov/usao-nj/pr/hacker-sentenced-30-months-prison-role-largest-known-computer-hacking-and-securities

Learning Theory

According to learning theory, individuals commit crime, including computer crime, because they learn the attitudes, skills, and rationalizations necessary to commit these acts. Many times this learning takes place in interaction with parents and peers. Criminals are different from noncriminals in the extent to which they have been exposed to definitions and situations that portray criminal acts as appropriate. There are four interrelated learning theories that will be discussed: Sutherland’s differential association theory, Akers’ social learning theory, Sykes and Matza’s techniques of neutralization/drift theory, and subcultural theories.

Sutherland: Differential Association Theory

The first learning theory to be presented is Sutherland’s differential association theory. At the time of Sutherland’s work, social structure theories such as strain were popular. However, he argued that criminal behavior is a function of learning, not the inability to obtain economic success. He presented nine formal propositions that demonstrate that social interaction and learning leads to criminal activity:

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1. Criminal behavior is learned.

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 Sutherland argued that criminality is not a function of a biological or psychological malady or a function of the social structure, but learning.

2. Criminal behavior is learned in interaction with other persons in a process of communication.

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 This communication is verbal and involves interaction with others.

3. The principal part of the learning of criminal behavior occurs with intimate personal groups.

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 Learning involves interaction with significant others, such as parents, siblings, and peers. Therefore, families and peers have the greatest influence on learning criminal behavior and attitudes. Sutherland did not see much of a role for movies and newspapers to serve as a medium to learn criminal behavior. However, Sutherland developed his theory prior to the development of television and video games.

4. When criminal behavior is learned, the learning includes (1) techniques of committing the crime, which are sometimes very complicated, sometimes very simple, and (2) the specific directions of motives, drives, rationalizations, and attitudes.

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 In the process of learning criminal behavior, an individual will learn how to commit the offense. The individual also learns the attitudes necessary to commit crimes as well as appropriate rationalizations that may justify his or her behavior.

5. The specific direction of motives and drives is learned from definitions of the legal codes as favorable or unfavorable.

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 Sutherland argued that an individual may be surrounded by persons who define the legal codes as rules to be observed. In this case, crime is unlikely because the individual believes the law is something to be followed. However, some individuals associate with people whose definitions of the legal code are favorable to the violation of the legal codes. Obviously, crime is much more likely in the latter situation.

6. A person becomes criminal because of an excess of definitions favorable to violation of the law over definitions unfavorable to violation of the law.

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 This is the principle of differential association. Sutherland argued that people learn definitions favorable and unfavorable to the violation of the law. When an individual, through association with others, has obtained more definitions that are favorable to the violation of the law than unfavorable, then crime is likely to occur. In other words, the individual has learned to commit certain crimes. This principle is important because it can help explain why criminals may think that some crimes are appropriate while others are not. For example, an individual may think that committing fraud via the Internet is appropriate, but robbery is wrong. How can this be justified? According to Sutherland, the individual has received enough definitions in interaction with others to believe that