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2Influences on Child Development

“I can’t go back to yesterday because I was a different person then.”
Alice, from Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland (Lewis Carroll, 1865)

Learning Objective

After studying this chapter you will be able to:

ሁ Distinguish between correlational and causal relationships.
ሁ Name at least five contexts that can put a child at increased risk or improve the child’s resilience.
ሁ Identify three different types of temperament, and describe each briefly.
ሁ Describe four parenting styles and their possible impact on child behavior.
ሁ Describe the importance of early attachment and relationships on future social-emotional health.
ሁ Develop a list of pros and cons for the influence of modern media and technology on children’s
future achievements.

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Section

2.1 Genetics and Other Biological Influences

Chapter Outline
Chapter Overview

2.1 Genetics and Other Biological Influences

2.2 Environmental Contexts

2.3 Cultural and Societal Influences on Child Development

2.4 Influences From the Larger Environment: Community and Neighborhoods

2.5 Child Abuse and Neglect

2.6 Brain Development and Executive Functioning

2.7 Media and Technology

Summary and Resources

Chapter Overview
In the 19th-century classic Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland, by Lewis Carroll (1865), Alice
could not go back to being the person she was at the beginning of the novel because she
changed too much through the course of her experiences in the fantasy world, “Wonderland.”
Of course, extreme experiences at any stage of life can have long-lasting effects on how a
person behaves, but how children grow, develop, and behave later in life is now known to be
influenced by early factors that can be genetic, environmental, or a combination of the two.
This chapter describes what evidence tells us about early influences, the extent to which these
influences are based on speculation or professional judgment, and where more research is
needed. It also provides information about the key debates surrounding these issues, includ-
ing children’s resilience. Resilience is a child’s ability to compensate for negative influences,
to recover from them or, in other words, to “bounce back.”

Child development professionals need to recognize that some factors may be correlated to a
future outcome but may not cause that outcome. Having a correlational relationship to a
future characteristic means that there is a connection between the early factor and the child’s
future outcome, although the early factor may not have caused that particular result. Having
a causal relationship between an early factor and a later outcome means that the factor
produced, at least to some degree, the outcome. An example of a causal relationship is when a
child develops a fear of dogs after being bitten by one. If the child did not have a fear of dogs
prior to the dog bite, you can link the newly developed fear to the occurrence of being bitten.

Before proceeding with this chapter, remember the importance of not generalizing to all chil-
dren. All children develop uniquely as individuals, and simply because one child has been
negatively affected by an early adverse event or experience does not mean that all children
will be affected in the same way.

2.1 Genetics and Other Biological Influences
This section of the chapter provides information that is the basis for the age-old debate on
nature (genetics, heredity, biology, etc.) versus nurture (culture, physical environments,
parenting, etc.). The basic question behind this controversy is whether human character-
istics are affected more by gene inheritance and biology or by the environmental contexts

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Section 2.1 Genetics and Other Biological Influences

and experiences children encounter while growing up. The biological and genetic influences
behind the “nature” component of this argument are presented in this segment. They include
basic gene inheritance, prenatal and intrauterine effects, temperament, and sexual identity.

Gene Inheritance
Every cell in the human body is made up of a complex code that determines a person’s traits.
Half of this biological code comes from the mother and half is contributed by the father.
Together, the codes combine from both parents to create unique segments of DNA called
genes. Genes are responsible for the biological design of many of a person’s traits, including
appearance, talents and abilities, and even certain illnesses. The passing of traits from parents
to their children is called heredity. The study of heredity in biology is called genetics. Genet-
ics and heredity are discussed further in Chapter 4. However, genes are not solely respon-
sible for determining a person’s characteristics and behaviors. Certain chemical compounds
modify genes by turning them “on” and “off.” These chemical compounds are continually built
over time and are influenced by life experiences, nutrition, drugs, and toxins. Therefore, the
previously held belief that genes are the sole and permanent determinant of a child’s future
has been proven incorrect.

These modifications of genes may lead to positive outcomes by forming healthy systems with
strong memory and attention skills. These modifications may also be created through neg-
ative events such as child abuse. If modifications are created through negative events, the
child could develop unhealthy system responses that create poor, lifelong reactions to stress
and other events. Excessive stress or severe negative experiences early in life are known to
alter brain architecture in children in ways that increase the risk for mental illnesses and
major anxiety and depressive disorders (Gillespie et al., 2009). Additionally, these children
are at increased risk for health problems in adulthood, such as heart disease and diabetes
(Shonkoff, Boyce, & McEwen, 2009).

Prenatal and Intrauterine Influences
Because the developing fetus gets nutrients and oxygen from the mother through most of the
pregnancy, it is no surprise that what is harmful to the mother is also harmful to her fetus prior
to birth. Several decades ago, pregnant women commonly drank alcohol and smoked ciga-
rettes, and their doctors even accepted these practices. Such behaviors are now considered
inappropriate and dangerous. Though these behaviors may not cause immediate and severe
harm to a healthy mother, exposure to these elements has been shown to be very harmful to
the fetus. During the prenatal phase, a mother’s exposure to certain substances can strongly
influence pregnancy outcomes, resulting in low birth weight, birth defects, intellectual dis-
abilities, and death. Many potentially harmful agents, like drugs (including prescription and
over-the-counter medications), alcohol, toxic substances, diseases, cigarette smoke and other
harmful vapors, and even the chemicals released by the body as a response to stress, can have
detrimental effects on fetal development.

Over the course of its 38-week development, the fetus is growing at an amazing rate and
is making huge strides in developing limbs, organs, and bodily functions. It is an enormous
amount of work! This rapid growth requires constant energy resources. The nutrition that a
mother provides for her growing baby is crucial for healthy development. In general, a diet
rich in natural, unprocessed fruits, vegetables, grains, and protein is best for the growth of
the fetus during the prenatal period. Chapter 4 discusses prenatal development, healthy preg-
nancy habits, and the intrauterine environment in greater depth.

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Section 2.2 Environmental Contexts

Temperament
Though environment has a strong influence on many of a child’s characteristics, there are
some inherent traits that are present and persist from birth. Temperament refers to a child’s
predominant disposition, activity level, and behavioral style. Differences in temperament
can be observed in how a child responds to commonly occurring events such as being intro-
duced to a stranger. Whether the child is pleasant, curious, distressed, flexible, or cautious can
be related to whether he or she fits into one of three commonly agreed-upon temperament
types. The three temperament categories for children include easy or flexible, active or feisty,
and slow to warm up or cautious (Thomas & Chess, 1977).

Easy or flexible children are generally pleasant and calm. They are not easily distressed; they
rarely get agitated; and their activity, eating, and sleeping patterns are regular. Active or feisty
children are often fussy and inflexible. They are disturbed by new situations and are fearful of
strangers. They are also easily bothered by noise and other stimulation and have intense
reactions when these occur. Additionally, the eating and sleeping patterns of active or feisty
children are not regular. Children with a slow to warm up or cautious temperament may also
be fussy and may react negatively to new situations and strangers. However, with repeated
exposure to such situations and people, these children become more adaptable than do active
or feisty children (Allard & Hunter, 2010). Some temperaments might be more challenging
than others for a parent, but from a child development perspective there is no preferred tem-
perament. Recognizing the different temperaments is important so that caregivers can
respond appropriately to each child.

2.2 Environmental Contexts
Environmental contexts have a varying degree of influence on child development, and they
affect children in different ways. The contexts included in this section are family structures;
parenting styles; maternal depression and other mental health problems; parental substance
abuse; grandparents; and nonparental care, attachments, and relationships.

AT ISSUE: WHAT INFLUENCES SEXUAL ORIENTATION?
Sexual orientation (i.e., homosexuality, heterosexuality, and bisexuality) as a
product of nature versus nurture has long been debated. While many people
accept the idea of a genetic basis for sexual orientation, others believe one’s

sexual orientation is a result of life experiences, environment, or even conscious choice.

Increasing scientific evidence indicates the probable existence of genes that point to sexual
orientation (Dawood, Bailey, & Martin, 2009; Ellis, Ficek, Burke, & Das, 2008; Schwartz, Kim,
Kolundzija, Reiger, & Saunders, 2010). However, existence of these genetic markers does not
definitively determine sexual orientation, but rather points to a predisposition. Many other
factors are at work, including the chemicals that turn genes on and off. Those with more con-
servative perspectives, usually stemming from tradition or religion, typically believe either
that sexual orientation is an individual’s choice or that sexual orientation is inf luenced by fac-
tors in the individual’s environment, like parenting styles.

While inf luences on sexual orientation will continue to be debated, scientific advancements in
the examination of these possible inf luences will also continue. With rapidly improving tech-
nology, new insights will continue to be gained that will inform the dialogue of the debate.

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Section 2.2 Environmental Contexts

Family
The importance of family on child develop-
ment is monumental. In early childhood, it
is the context of the majority of the child’s
experiences. Family is the setting from which
a child learns emotions, behaviors, and day-
to-day interactions. There are many defini-
tions of family, and types of families vary.
For this text, the definition used is broad
and is based on society in the United States.
It is composed of at least one adult and at
least one other dependent person. (Although
couples without children can be considered
a family unit, it is necessary to include a
dependent person in the definition used here
because this book is on child development.)
If there are two parents, the parents do not
have to be of different sexes and they do not
have to be married (Popenoe, 1988).

When discussing the family’s influence on child development, it is important to identify the
influence of siblings. Researchers have found that siblings have a considerable impact on each
other’s development. Some evidence indicates that siblings provide one another with prac-
tice in socializing with peers and a basis for competition and even rivalry. Siblings are role
models, both good and bad (Argys, Rees, Averett, & Witoonchart, 2006). In a study of more
than 20,000 children, those with siblings were consistently rated as having better social skills
than children without siblings (Downey & Condron, 2004). However, this lag in social skills by
those without siblings may be short lived. Although differences in social skills were observed
in children entering kindergarten, the deficit was no longer present as children entered ado-
lescence (Bobbitt-Zeher & Downey, 2012).

Families vary in culture and make-up, but in general, family is the context in which values and
norms are provided. It is where socialization occurs and where behaviors are shaped initially.
If children grow up in nurturing, stable environments that include healthy, secure, and recip-
rocal relationships, their pathway to adulthood will be easier and they will experience more
successes than those who do not. This early context influences brain structures, behaviors,
learning abilities, and mental and physical health.

Parenting Styles
The quality of parenting during early childhood is a significant predictor of children’s social-
emotional well-being (Amato, 2005) and is the basis of future relationships between par-
ents and their children. Although different parenting styles are defined in the literature,
most parents use a combination of styles, generally depending on one style more than the
others. Parenting styles are the parent’s strategies used in rearing children, such as the man-
ner of discipline used, types of control, the level of parental demandingness, the parent’s
expectations of children’s compliance, and the frequency and type of motivators used. This
includes the parent’s warmth and affection as well as behavioral and psychological control.

Ingram Publishing/Thinkstock

▶ Researchers have found that siblings have an
impact on each other’s development, especially
within the social realm.

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UNINVOLVED

AUTHORITATIVEPERMISSIVE

AUTHORITARIAN

(LOW)

(HIGH)

Behavioral control,

demandingness

e
s

o
n

s
iv

e
n

e
s
s
, w

a
rm

th
,

s
u

p
p

o
rt

iv
e
n

e
s
s
(HIGH)

Descriptors: lenient, no
guidelines, indulgent,
over-involved, blurred roles,
appeasing, non-directive,
“you’re the boss”

Descriptors: flexible,
enabling, supportive,
democratic, standards and
guidelines, assertive

Descriptors: neglectful,
distant, absent, passive,
uninterested

Descriptors: punitive,
autocratic, rigid, demands
obedience, rules, directive,
“I’m the boss,” “because I
said so”

Section 2.2 Environmental Contexts

The combination of these dimensions has been associated with the quality of a child’s adjust-
ment (Aunola & Nurmi, 2005).

The literature makes reference
to many parenting styles, such as
positive parenting, over-parenting
(also referred to as helicopter par-
enting), strict parenting, and oth-
ers. For the purposes of under-
standing the influence of parenting
styles on child development, the
four most commonly used parent-
ing styles are referred to as authori-
tative, authoritarian, permissive,
and uninvolved (see Figure 2.1).
Here is a brief description of each
of these styles (Baumrind, 1971;
Maccoby & Martin, 1983):

• Authoritative—
Democratic style of par-
enting in which parents
are attentive and forgiv-
ing, teach their offspring
proper behavior, and have
a set of rules. If a child
fails to follow the rules,
there is punishment. If
rules are followed, there
is reward or reinforcement.

• Authoritarian—Strict parenting style that involves high expectations from parents
with little communication between child and parents. Parents don’t provide logical
reasoning for rules and limits, and are prone to give harsh punishments.

• Permissive—Parents take on the role of friends rather than parents, do not have
any expectations of the child, and allow the child to make his or her own decisions.

• Uninvolved—Parents neglect their child by putting their own lives before the
child’s. They do provide for the child’s basic needs, but they show little interaction
with the child.

Developmental psychologist Diana Baumrind identified these styles in the 1970s. She believed
that differences in parenting styles explained the way children behaved emotionally, socially,
and cognitively (Baumrind, 1971). She found that the most balanced style of parenting is
the authoritative style. The authoritative or democratic style of parenting leads to a child’s
being appropriately independent, mature, and socially responsible. More recently, Milevsky,
Schlechter, Netter, and Keehn (2007) found that this authoritative style was related to the
child’s increased self-esteem and satisfaction with life, and lower rates of depression. Baum-
rind identified the uninvolved style as the most detrimental to a child’s future behavior. This
style is characterized by a lack of affection and care from the parent. Children reared with this
style behave in a way that elicits attention, generally negative. In early childhood, children
reared with this style may act out, with delinquency the likely outcome in adolescence.

Figure 2.1: The four parenting styles
ሁ The four parenting styles lie on intersecting continuums,

based on the parent’s level of warmth and responsiveness
and level of control and demandingness.

UNINVOLVED
AUTHORITATIVEPERMISSIVE
AUTHORITARIAN
(LOW)
(LOW)

(HIGH)
Behavioral control,

demandingness

R
e
s
p

o
n
s
iv
e
n
e
s
s
, w
a
rm
th
,
s
u
p
p
o
rt
iv
e
n
e
s
s
(HIGH)
Descriptors: lenient, no
guidelines, indulgent,
over-involved, blurred roles,
appeasing, non-directive,
“you’re the boss”
Descriptors: flexible,
enabling, supportive,
democratic, standards and
guidelines, assertive
Descriptors: neglectful,
distant, absent, passive,
uninterested
Descriptors: punitive,
autocratic, rigid, demands
obedience, rules, directive,
“I’m the boss,” “because I
said so”

gro81431_02_c02_019-042.indd 24 4/24/14 8:01 AM

Section 2.2 Environmental Contexts

At 8 years old, Shawna felt like she was invisible to her mother. Though she des-
perately wanted her mother’s attention, she had figured out that nothing she
did (either good or bad) could pull her mother from her work. Shawna’s mother
was rarely home, and when she was, she was in her office with the door locked.
Even though Shawna always had good food available and as many toys and
games as she wanted, her mother was never watching her, and no one else was,
either. She realized quickly that she could do anything she wanted without any
reaction from her mother. After school one day, Shawna decided to walk to the
park by herself and found some older kids (who thought she was pretty cool, for
an 8 year old). She spent the whole evening at the park, coming back at 11:00
that night. When she returned, she expected that her mother would be furious,
or at least worried about her. To Shawna’s surprise, her mother’s office door was
closed and locked, with no sign that her mother even knew she was gone. That
night, Shawna realized that her mother didn’t care what she did. She decided
that she would hang out with her new older friends at the park every night and
would do whatever they did, because at least they paid attention to her.

To see how the four parenting styles could play out, let’s look at Jemma, age 5 years. Depend-
ing on the parenting style that Jemma’s mother uses, the outcome of a single scenario can be
very different. Note how her mother’s actions vary, based on the characteristics of each of the
four parenting styles.

Scenario: Jemma sits at the kitchen table with a full plate of carrots. She thinks
she hates vegetables. She starts to get upset, wanting to leave the table to play
a game of Chutes and Ladders with her brothers. They are starting without her.
Jemma says, “I hate carrots,” and moves to get up from the table.

Authoritative: Jemma moves to leave the table to play Chutes and Ladders.
Her mother calls her back to her seat. She says, “Jemma, you didn’t eat any of
your vegetables. They’re so good for you! Eating vegetables makes you big and
strong. Let’s try to eat some.” Jemma looks down to her plate and says, “Mommy,
I don’t like carrots!” Jemma’s mother says, “I know, you’re not a big fan of car-
rots. I’ll eat some with you! Let’s see how many we can eat together. Let’s try.
Then you can go play with your brothers!” Jemma picks up her fork and makes a
face. Her mother picks up a fork, too, and says, “Okay, Jemma. Let’s go for num-
ber one!” Jemma reluctantly puts the carrot in her mouth. She doesn’t love it, but
her mother is so excited that she ate it. Her mother exclaims, “Yay, Jemma. You
did it! You’re going to grow up to be big and strong!” Jemma decides that eating
a few more carrots is okay if her mother is so excited about it and is eating them
with her.

Authoritarian: Jemma moves to leave the table to play Chutes and Ladders.
Her mother immediately says, “Stop! Where, are you going? Finish your carrots.”
Jemma says, “I don’t like carrots. Why do I have to eat them?” Jemma’s mother
says, “You will eat them because I say so. You will not leave this table until all of
those carrots have been eaten.” Jemma begins to cry, looking down at her plate
of gross carrots, and over at her brothers who already started the game without
her. Jemma knew her mother meant business. She struggled to eat the carrots,
and finished an hour later.

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Section 2.2 Environmental Contexts

Permissive: Jemma moves to leave the table to play Chutes and Ladders. Her
mother says, “Jemma, you didn’t eat your carrots.” Jemma says, “Mommy, I don’t
like carrots. They’re gross. I’m going to play Chutes and Ladders. They’re start-
ing!” Jemma’s mother looks at her plate and says, “Hmm. . . . Okay. No problem.
You must still be hungry, though. Take some of these cookies with you, if you
want to.” Jemma looks at her mother and smiles. “Thanks, Mommy! You’re so
cool!” Jemma says, happily grabbing a cookie and running to play the game.

Uninvolved: Though Jemma has a warm plate of food waiting for her when
she and her brothers get home from school, her mother is nowhere to be found.
She looks back in the hall, and of course, her mother is in her office. Jemma
yells through the door, “Mommy, I hate carrots!” Her mother yells back, “I’m
busy, make something else if you’re still hungry.” Jemma goes to the cupboards
and pulls out a box of cereal. Jemma thinks, “Cereal, again. I just wish Mommy
would come eat dinner with me. I want to tell her about what happened in gym
today.” Jemma and her brothers grab their food and huddle around their game
of Chutes and Ladders while they eat.

Notice how differently Jemma’s mother reacts to her dislike of carrots in each scenario. Also
note Jemma’s reaction to the way her mother interacts with her.

Despite over 40 years of subsequent research, the parenting styles identified by Baumrind
and elaborated on by Maccoby and Martin (1983) remain the only parenting styles with a
strong empirical basis—at least in Western cultures. A recent focus has been placed on the
culturally influenced parenting style of the “tiger mom,” based on the popularity of the book
Battle Hymn of the Tiger Mom, by Amy Chua. This parenting style has been discussed as an
intense authoritarian style, with efforts concentrated solely on children’s academic and intel-
lectual accomplishments and success (Lui & Rollock, 2013). Parental control, obedience of
the child, and explicit training by the parent have been identified as characteristic of the “tiger
mom” parenting style (Liu & Rollock, 2013). These characteristics may be influenced by how
Asian cultures emphasize values of “obedience, respect for elders and authority, harmoni-
ous group dynamics and collectivism, and the importance of education” (Liu & Rollock, 2013,
p. 453). Further examination of this culturally influenced parenting style is needed to better
understand its characteristics and use, along with the caution that the findings cannot be gen-
eralized to all parents from Asian cultures. This topic reminds us that cultural perspectives
can have an influence on child development, along with the many other influences at play.

Maternal Depression and Other Mental Health Problems
For children to develop optimal abilities, they must have healthy relationships early in life.
Positive and healthy interactions with adults, especially the primary parent, are essential.
When the parent is responsive to the child’s cues and needs, the attachment intensifies and a
positive relationship evolves. When the primary parent, typically the mother, has a prolonged
illness early in a child’s life, the give and take of building a relationship is interrupted. Chronic
and severe maternal depression is such an illness. Its effects are far reaching in a child’s devel-
opment and possibly long-lasting.

When children grow up in the context of maternal depression, their brain architecture is
affected negatively. If the depression begins before birth, it may affect the fetus’s brain devel-
opment, reduce fetal growth, and increase the risk of premature labor. Studies have shown
that after birth the baby’s immune functions are also affected when mothers experience

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Section 2.2 Environmental Contexts

depression during pregnancy. In addition, prenatal depression is sometimes linked to the sup-
pression of genes that regulate the stress hormones (Oberlander et al., 2008). During their
first year of life, 9 percent of infants will have a mother who is experiencing depression. Rates
of maternal depression are greater for mothers who had previously experienced depression
and for those with significant financial stress. Some 25 percent of mothers in poverty experi-
ence depression during their child’s first year of life. Considering the frequency of maternal
depression, it is striking that only 15 percent of new mothers with the condition get profes-
sional care for it (Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University, 2009).

Research has demonstrated that the young brain needs appropriate responses from the child’s
caregiver. A mother who is severely depressed is unable to give those responses because she is
essentially withdrawn, uninvolved, and emotionally unavailable to the child. However, other
mental health conditions also exacerbate maternal behavior and a mother’s ability to care for
her children. The World Health Organization (2013a) states that a woman affected by mental
disorders during pregnancy is less likely to eat and sleep well; is less likely to receive prenatal
care; and may use harmful substances such as alcohol, cigarettes, and drugs. These disorders
include depression, anxiety, and psychosis (although relatively rare). Poverty, low social sup-
port, exposure to violence, and other stressors increase the risk for mental disorders.

Sofie shouted with excitement, “I’m ready to have this baby!” After 9 months of
planning and waiting to meet her new baby boy, she was so excited that the time
had finally come. When Andrew was born healthy, with all 10 fingers and all
10 toes, Sofie was so happy. She was looking forward to feeling the intensely
warm and close bond with her child that she had heard and read about. After a
couple of days at home, Sofie told her husband, Ryan, that she didn’t feel right.
She tried to explain, but she couldn’t. Sofie did not feel the warm feelings she had
expected to feel toward her baby. She began to feel worse and worse, with added
guilt about not feeling like (she thought) a mother should feel. Within 2 weeks,
Sofie had a hard time getting out of bed, and she had difficulty interacting with
her baby. She cried constantly and had trouble caring for her baby. Ryan and
Sofie’s family and friends urged her to see her doctor. She felt better when she
found out that a lot of mothers felt like this after having a baby, but she knew it
was going to take a long time to feel better. She knew that her baby needed to feel
loved and cared for, even if she was feeling like this. Fortunately, Ryan was very
supportive and understanding, and he took over much of the caregiving. He pro-
vided Andrew with the love and closeness that he needed and was there for Sofie
when she tried to be close with her baby. Over the next few months, Sofie began
to feel better, and was more and more able to feel that closeness with Andrew.

Parental Substance Abuse
Parental substance abuse has a negative effect on family functioning and parent-child attach-
ment and relationships. Substance abuse is the excessive use of a substance, especially alco-
hol or a drug, resulting in negative consequences to oneself and/or others. It is a significant
risk factor for negatively influencing child development, and it is considered an element of
the definition of child abuse or neglect in many states. Negative impacts on the child include
health issues such as malnutrition of the fetus, infant, or older child and neurological dam-
age of the brain and neurons (depending on the timing and severity of the parents’ substance
abuse). But parental substance abuse also affects the parent’s ability to provide appropriate,
warm, and nurturing caregiving and thus creates poor parent-child interactions. Coexisting
risk factors for child development clearly exist when parents are substance abusers.

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Section 2.2 Environmental Contexts

Walsh, MacMillan, and Jamieson (2003) also found a relationship between parental substance
abuse and child abuse. Parental substance abuse is related to significantly increased rates of
physical and sexual abuse among children; rates are even higher when both parents have
substance abuse problems. This and other studies support the notion that parental substance
abuse is a risk factor for child maltreatment.

Grandparents
Grandparents can have a significant role in their grandchildren’s lives. As the make-up of fam-
ilies has changed in recent years, with more mothers working, smaller families, and increased
life expectancy, grandparents have become primary influences on grandchildren. As a result

of these societal changes, parents are rely-
ing more on grandparents to help with child
care while the parents are working. These
same societal changes make grandparents
more physically able to provide this needed
assistance (Dunifon, 2013). In addition,
with fewer children per family, grandpar-
ents reported being more involved and feel-
ing more warmth in their relationships with
their grandchildren (Dunifon, 2013).

In general, grandparents have two general
pathways to shaping their grandchildren’s
outcomes. There are direct effects through
grandparents’ interactions with the grand-
children and indirect effects through their
relationships with their own children, the

parents of the grandchildren. Direct influences include acting as role models, enforcing con-
sistent rules, and intervening when there is a family crisis such as divorce or death of a par-
ent. Indirect influences include supporting the parents to reduce parents’ stress and improve
their mental health (Dunifon, 2013).

John and Helen were happy that they could live so close to their son Matthew
and daughter-in-law Amie (and particularly happy to spend time with their two
beautiful grandchildren, ages 5 and 7). John and Helen had been able to spend
time with their grandchildren several times a week lately, taking them to the
park, to the movies, and out to the lake. They had developed an incredibly close
relationship with both children, with a unique relationship with each one. Sud-
denly, Amie was diagnosed with cancer. Though the cancer was treatable, Amie
needed to travel 2 hours away for the needed treatment. Of course, John and
Helen offered to take the kids for as long as necessary. John and Helen were
able to support Matthew and Amie during the health crisis by providing child
care, sending care packages, and just being there to listen to Matthew or Amie
on the phone. Though they missed their mom and dad, the kids loved staying at
Grandma and Grandpa’s house. They said it was like having a sleepover every
night. John and Helen were so glad that they were in good enough health and
had the resources needed to care for their grandchildren during their family’s
time of crisis.

▶ Grandparents can play a significant role in the
lives of their grandchildren.

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Section 2.3 Cultural and Societal Influences on Child Development

Nonparental Care, Attachments, and Relationships
The discussion of nonparental care in this chapter focuses specifically on the care of chil-
dren who are not able to live with their parents for a variety of reasons such as the death of
a parent, domestic violence, abandonment by the parents, parental substance abuse or poor
mental health, or abuse or neglect of the child. These kinds of situations sometimes result in
children being placed in foster care or, in certain cases, in institutions such as orphanages,
which can have intense long-term effects on children.

Before considering the influences of nonparental care, it is necessary to address the impor-
tance of early adult-child relationships and attachment. Attachment is defined as the emo-
tional bond between children and their caregivers (Commodari, 2013). John Bowlby (1958)
pioneered the theory of attachment. The basis of this theory is that the quality of early attach-
ment between children and their primary caregivers is connected to future development and
behavior. The quality of the attachment affects cognitive and social-emotional growth, and
personality traits such as persistence and self-worth. Attachment is the basis of early rela-
tionships, and positive and secure early relationships are fundamental to future good mental
health. Early relationships are enhanced by stability and consistency of caregivers who have
a warm, nurturing, and give-and-take style of caregiving. Attachment is discussed further in
Chapter 3.

Unfortunately, more than half of American children in foster care stay in the system more
than 3 years and experience three or more placements, resulting in many different caregiv-
ers and the lack of stable relationships. However, since children enter the foster care system
primarily because of severe neglect or abuse, parental substance abuse, or parental mental
health problems, it is not surprising that these children have behavioral, emotional, academic,
and mental and physical health problems.

2.3 Cultural and Societal Influences on Child Development
Cultural and societal influences on child development can be instilled subtly through natural
interactions with others, can be ingrained deliberately early in life, or can arise as a con-
sequence of the family in which the child
is born. These influences include direct
and indirect impacts of culture, race, and
ethnicity as well as the powerful effects of
economics, gender roles, marriage, divorce,
single parenthood, and religion.

Culture, Race, and Ethnicity
Culture, race, and ethnicity have significant
influences on children’s futures. Inherent
in these are traditions that span all aspects
of life such as dress, food, music, dance,
family structures including marriage and
childbearing, and religion. Culture is
the collective knowledge, beliefs, values,
behaviors, and practices of a group of like
people. It is usually handed down from

Fuse/Thinkstock

▶ Many celebrations are based on cultural beliefs
and traditions that have been handed down from
generation to generation, such as parents giving
children red envelopes to celebrate the Chinese
New Year.

gro81431_02_c02_019-042.indd 29 4/24/14 8:01 AM

Section 2.3 Cultural and Societal Influences on Child Development

generation to generation through both formal and informal means. Socialization to culture,
race, and ethnicity is generally the family’s responsibility, but how this is done varies among
families, from teaching children traditional songs and stories to preparing them to cope
with discrimination (University of Pittsburgh Office of Child Development, 2007a).

Race is generally considered to be an individual’s physical and biological characteristics,
including body structure and the color of the skin, hair, and eyes, whereas ethnicity reflects
the socially established characteristics of a group, including language, traditions, heritage,
and nationality. Culture, race, and ethnicity bring with them expectations and values for set
behaviors that can produce stress and conflict in children if they are unable to conform. How-
ever, there are positive consequences of socialization to culture and ethnicity. Research sug-
gests that socialization that emphasizes racial and ethnic pride, as well as history and cultural
traditions, helps children develop a positive sense of their racial and ethnic identity. Cultural
socialization within families is associated with higher self-esteem in the children in those
families (University of Pittsburgh Office of Child Development, 2007a).

Economics
Childhood poverty is rampant in the United States. Some 22 percent of children in this
country live in poverty (National Center for Children in Poverty, 2013). Poverty is formida-
ble as a long-term and pervasive influence on child development in all domains and even
in physical health outcomes. It is related to chronic stress, which has been shown to alter
the brain in ways that produce poor coping and self-regulation skills (Evans & Kim, 2013).
Self-regulation is critical to future success: It is the ability to control physiological func-
tions, attention, thoughts, emotions, and behaviors. Self-regulation skills include self-
control, time management, persistence, self-monitoring, seeking help, and developing strate-
gies (Darshanand, & Zimmerman, 2011). When self-regulation skills are poor, the underlying
processes of executive functioning (discussed later in this chapter), including inhibition and
working memory, are likely to be compromised (Blair & Raver, 2012). Without these regu-
latory abilities, children have difficulty coping with the stressors associated with poverty;
they may succumb to poor psychological outcomes (Blair & Raver, 2012), and therefore they
may develop negative behaviors and emotions such as aggression, intense anger, anxiety, or
depression.

In addition to learning, behavior, and emotional responses, physical health is negatively
affected in impoverished environments in several ways. These include poor nutrition, leading
to obesity or malnutrition; exposure to toxins and allergens; poor health care; and exposure
to multiple stressors. Accumulation of stressors has been proven to produce heart problems,
obesity, elevated blood pressure, and compromised immune systems, all contributing to wear
and tear on the body.

On the one hand, poverty can bring with it many additional problems that contribute to
children’s poor outcomes through multiple stressors like substandard housing, overcrowd-
ing and even homelessness, family and environmental chaos, divorce and marital strife,
and overall unpredictability, which has been found to be a major contributor to poor aca-
demic performance (Simpson, Griskevicius, I-Chun Kuo, Sung, & Collins, 2012). This general
unpredictability can be characterized by an ever-changing environment in which children
never know what to expect (Simpson et al., 2012). Poverty has also been connected with
more harsh styles of parenting (Pinderhughes, Nix, Foster, Jones, & the Conduct Problems
Prevention Research Group, 2001); more exposure to television (Kumanyika & Grier, 2006);
and overall less-stimulating environments in terms of parent attention and time, appropriate

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Section 2.3 Cultural and Societal Influences on Child Development

toys, educational activities, and diminished language stimulation. Therefore, there is much
evidence that children raised in poverty lag behind their affluent peers in almost every way
(Engle & Black, 2008).

On the other hand, affluence provides multiple opportunities for child development. To con-
sider the impact of wealth, one should consider the cumulative effect rather than the compila-
tion of resources. Sherraden (1991) found that the assets of the affluent were correlated with
improved household stability, increased personal efficacy, a future orientation, and a higher
value on education. Children born into affluence have greater access to quality child care, bet-
ter schools, and enrichment opportunities such as visiting museums or involvement in the
arts or athletics. The home environment of children whose parents hold professional careers
was also found to be vocabulary rich. Risley and Hart (1995) found that children of college-
educated parents heard 32 million more words by the age of 4 years, compared to their less
affluent peers. Income also can be associated with other assets tied to the overall well-being
of children, such as access to health care, better nutrition, and living in safer neighborhoods.

Gender Roles
Cultural and societal contributions to children’s future behavior and accomplishments are
many. Some of these contributions are obvious and some are less apparent. An often unstated,
but significant contribution is that of gender roles. Gender roles refer to social and behavioral
norms that are considered appropriate and socially acceptable for children and adults of a
specific sex; they are determined largely by culture (World Health Organization, 2013b).

For instance, in traditional American society in the 1920s and 1930s, the woman stayed home
with her children and the man worked outside of the home for a wage. The woman was the
primary child caregiver, housekeeper, and cook while the man was expected to take care of
finances and home and car repairs. In childhood, girls traditionally played with toys related to
the woman’s gender roles like caregiving (dolls) and entertaining others and cooking (tea sets

and kitchen toys), while boys were encour-
aged to play doctor, toss balls, and play with
cars and trucks.

These traditional gender roles have shifted
in current American society. A study
released by the Pew Research Center found
that married women are either the sole
wage earner or are out-earning their hus-
bands in 40 percent of households with
children under 18 years old (Wang, Parker,
& Taylor, 2013). This study also found that
mothers are generally more educated than
their husbands and those women who out-
earn their husbands are a highly educated
group. Thus, gender roles related to educa-
tional achievement, providing financially for
the family, type of occupations, and home
responsibilities have changed considerably.

Jeff Randall/Digital Vision/Thinkstock

▶ Gender roles in American society are quite
different than they were in the 1920s and 1930s.
It has been reported that married women are the
sole income earner or out-earn their husbands in
40 percent of households with children under
18 years old.

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Section 2.3 Cultural and Societal Influences on Child Development

Marriage and Divorce
Marriage is considered a traditional social institution but is on the decline in the United States.
In fact, the percentage of married adults is at an all-time low in this country, with just 51 per-
cent of all adults aged 18 and over married in 2010 (Cohn, Passel, Wang, & Livingston, 2011).
In a discussion of the impact of marriage on children it is important to recognize that in the
United States there is not a single type of marriage. The most traditional marriages are civil
marriage and religious marriage, but we also consider partners legally joined through civil
unions and domestic partnerships. Studies have shown that children reared in a civil union
of parents benefit from the legal rights and protections given to their parents. Also, years of
study have found that children raised by same-sex parents do as well as those raised by het-
erosexual parents (Pawelski et al., 2006). Therefore, what is most relevant to this discussion
is the quality of nurturing and age-appropriate parenting that is provided to the children.

Since the type of marriage (or alternative to marriage) is less related to child outcomes
than is the quality of the relationship between the spouses and the children, this chapter
focuses on the impact of parental partnerships in general, rather than on the differences
among partnership types. As with other early factors, relationship strength and quality and
parental support are inseparable from child development (National Scientific Council on the
Developing Child, 2012b).

Marriage has been linked to a family’s financial resources and thus provides opportunities
for a child to develop optimally. According to Fry and Cohn (2010), people with more educa-
tion are more likely to be married, with higher education leading to higher income. Dual-
earner families have also become more common in recent decades; based on these trends,
married couples generally have a higher household income than unmarried couples (Fry
& Cohn, 2010). Single-headed households fare the worst in comparison, and many strug-
gle with several negative outcomes connected to poverty (see next section). Because fam-
ily income has been linked to child development (Aughinbaugh & Gittleman, 2003; Taylor,
Dearing, & McCartney, 2004), this association between marriage and higher income has
implications for child development outcomes.

Divorce has become viewed as common in the United States, reducing the stigma previously
associated with it. Yet, divorce inevitably disrupts family life for children. The effects of dis-
ruptive family life on children depend on many circumstances. These circumstances include
(a) the reason for the disruption, such as whether it was unavoidable, due to death or illness
of a family member, (b) the child’s age at the time of the disruption, and (c) the qualitative
context of the disruption, as in the case of divorce (e.g., whether the divorce was amicable or
hostile and high conflict, and how long, how intense, and how open the conflict was preceding
the decision to divorce).

Parent-child separation is the source of immediate distress in most cases, and, although it is
correlated to later antisocial behavior, it is not the cause of such behavior. Rather, long-term
problems in children who are separated from their parents through divorce are likely to be
caused by the familial conflict that preceded and accompanied the separation and not by the
separation itself (Rutter, 1971). Averaging across measures of adjustment, Lansford (2009)
found that children in high-conflict, intact families fared worse than children in divorced
families, suggesting that exposure to high levels of conflict was more detrimental to children
than was parental divorce. Conversely, a good relationship with at least one of the parents
can partially defuse the detrimental effects of a disrupted marriage (Lee, 2002; Rutter, 1971).

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Section 2.3 Cultural and Societal Influences on Child Development

Children of divorced parents often present with stress-related symptoms such as anxiety in
forming later attachments (Wallerstein, 1991). These children also have more frequent health
problems, are more likely to drop out of school, often show poorer academic achievement, are
at greater risk for the use of tobacco and other substances, and have an increased risk of being
involved with the law (Hansen, 2013). To add to these developmental risks, recent research
suggests that if divorce occurs when children are between birth and ages 3–5 years old, they
have more difficulties in establishing close relationships to their parents than older children
who may have already established good relationships with the parents prior to the divorce
(Fraley & Heffernan, 2013).

There is, however, evidence for a child’s resilience in coping with the parents’ divorce. Chil-
dren have been shown to have different levels of adjustment based on their unique personal-
ity and temperament characteristics, including self-esteem, intelligence, a feeling of control
over their circumstances in general, humor, and an easy temperament (Hetherington, 2003).
Children who are less well-adjusted before the divorce may have a more difficult time cop-
ing with the divorce, whereas children who are more well-adjusted can have an easier time
adapting to the stress and changes of divorce (Hetherington, 2003). Parents can contribute to
children’s coping and adjustment based on the quality of parenting, the relationship between
the child and each parent, and the resulting relationship between the parents (Hethering-
ton, 2003). Because each situation is unique to the family experiencing the divorce, a child’s
adjustment will be based on that child’s unique characteristics and circumstances.

Single Parenthood
A single parent is a parent with one or more children and no other resident parent. Today,
approximately 35 percent of all U.S. families with children are being raised by a single parent
(Kids Count Data Center, 2013). A single-mother home is more common than a single-father
home, though the number of single-father homes is at a record high (Ketteringham, 2007; Liv-
ingston, 2013). Once again, the circumstances surrounding the reason for single parenthood
have a significant effect on children’s outcomes: It makes a difference if the parent is divorced,
widowed, or never married.

Single-parent families are predominantly economically disadvantaged, and their children
often experience poor parenting due to the parents being less emotionally supportive of the
children, being harsher and inconsistent with disciplinary tactics, and being in more conflict
with their children (Amato, 2005). In addition, single parents tend to move more frequently
due to new relationships or economic problems. This increases stress for the children and
thus increases the risk for academic and behavioral problems. There is also a prevalence of
higher death rates among infants in single-parent households and more depression, criminal
activity, and drug and alcohol use in later childhood (Ketteringham, 2007).

Nevertheless, there can be some positive advantages for children of single parents. These
include spending quality time with the single parent, sharing real responsibilities for run-
ning the household rather than doing token tasks, and learning how to handle conflict and
disappointment (Wolf, 2013). Also, single parents with good resources can provide stability
and solid nurturance so that their children will do as well as children from two-parent homes
(Kelly, n.d.).

Though it was difficult, Barb felt good about the way she was able to take care
of her daughter, Lee, on her own. At 35 years old, Barb knew that things would

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Section 2.4 Influences From the Larger Environment: Community and Neighborhoods

not have worked out between her and Lee’s father, Dan. He helped out some
financially, and spent time with Lee every once in a while, but he was less than
involved. It took her a while to do so, but Barb got over the pain she felt about
losing the relationship she had with Dan, and also about how little time he spent
with his daughter. She decided that she had to focus on taking care of Lee the
best way that she could. Though they struggled financially at times, they were
always able to make ends meet. With Barb’s mother living only 25 minutes away
and with the many friends Barb saw as sources of support, they were doing okay.
Despite Barb’s struggles as a single parent, Barb and Lee developed a very close
relationship. At first she didn’t think she could do it, but looking back over the
past 7 years, Barb knew she had done a good job taking care of her daughter.
Lee is a happy, healthy, energetic, silly, and athletic second grader. Lee’s teach-
ers love having her in class, as they have said how well-behaved, generous, and
friendly she is, not to mention hard-working on class topics that are difficult
for her. Lee takes good care of her cat, Snuggles, and loves spending time at the
library with Barb. Even though the single-parent thing was hard, Barb knew she
could continue to be a great mom for Lee, even on her own.

Religion
A child’s exposure to religion also has an influence on the child’s outcomes. Children whose
parents practice an organized religion by attending services and talking about religion typi-
cally have better self-control, social skills, and approaches to learning than children with non-
religious parents. Their caregivers describe these children as better behaved and adjusted
than other children, according to a study that looked at the effects of religion on young child
development (Wenner, 2008). These outcomes are likely the result of more consistent parent-
ing due to the social support that religious networks provide. Although many positive attri-
butes are associated with being raised in a religious household, parents in such households
are more likely to use more physical discipline methods such as spanking (Bartkowski, Xu,
& Levin, 2008). Furthermore, when parents disagree on religion it can be a source of con-
flict for families. Ultimately, parenting practices may be influenced based on whether or not
religion is practiced in the home (Horwath, Lees, Sidebotham, Higgins, & Imtiaz, 2008), with
parenting practices shown to influence a child’s development.

2.4 Influences From the Larger Environment:
Community and Neighborhoods

When one considers the environmental influences on a child, it is important to look beyond
the home. The community in which a child is raised also affects child development. One can
imagine that a child nurtured in a safe community with ample parks, supportive neighbors,
and high-quality schools would have a different life course than a child raised in a high-crime
neighborhood where broken glass and boarded windows line the streets, with frequent drug
exchanges and acts of violence witnessed. The witnessing of even one violent event could
invoke trauma for a child and this trauma is heightened if the violence directly involves a fam-
ily member.

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Section 2.4 Influences From the Larger Environment: Community and Neighborhoods

Communities and neighborhoods can have substantial influence on child development based
on the availability and quality of local resources, including schools, hospitals, and health care,
as well as the availability of community-based extracurricular programs, such as scouting,
arts, and sports (Ellen & Turner, 1997). Also, adults in the community can influence a child by
showing the child what behaviors are acceptable as the child can readily observe adults in
public, and community members are also able to watch children’s behavior—providing guid-
ance toward certain behaviors, and away from others (Ellen & Turner, 1997). The influence of
peers in the community, social connectedness, community safety, and the proximity to jobs
for the child’s parents or guardians also may contribute to child development progress and
outcomes in the community context (Ellen & Turner, 1997).

Early care and education programs and
schools can either mitigate or compound
issues related to a high-risk community. If
the program fosters high-quality instruc-
tion through a warm and supportive pro-
vider, it can support a child’s physical,
emotional, social, and intellectual develop-
ment (Scarr, 1998). Schools can build from
a quality early start, but if the child has
poor attendance, receives poor instruction,
or is the victim of bullying, that child could
begin on a path to disengagement and even-
tual dropout. The number of days a child is
out of school could also be affected by ties
to either high-quality or inadequate health
care. Each year, children miss a significant
number of school days due to asthma or
increased colds and flu.

In the cognitive development domain, schools provide children with the opportunity to learn
and explore, by both formal and informal means. Even before the formal teaching of skills
and information, schools offer children experiences that are new and different, with new
experiences in what they see, hear, smell, taste, and touch. Because schools (including pre-
schools) are likely more structured in some ways than the home environment, children must
learn how to navigate the differing rules and expectations of caregivers and teachers. Schools
also have a substantial influence in the social-emotional realm (Sylva, 1994). Children must
learn how to understand and regulate their emotions, build friendships, and solve problems,
with progressively less adult involvement. It can be argued that as children progress through
school, the school’s influence on a child’s development becomes more profound and complex
as a substantial amount of time is spent in the school environment learning new and different
things over time, with constant interaction with adults and peers.

The extent to which a child’s school has a positive influence or a negative influence on child
development hinges on characteristics such as student effort, the relationship between the
child and the teacher, peer influence, and parent involvement (Bergin & Bergin, 2009; Stew-
art, 2008). Additionally, the child’s feeling of connectedness to his or her school contributes
substantially to the direction and magnitude of the school’s influence (Bergin & Bergin, 2009).

▶ Caregivers in early care and education programs
are important people in a child’s life and can have a
significant influence on a child’s development.

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Section 2.5 Child Abuse and Neglect

2.5 Child Abuse and Neglect
There is no doubt that child abuse and neglect are among the most hurtful and stress-laden
contexts a child can endure. Abuse and neglect are considered to have extreme and long-
lasting negative impacts on child development, including brain anomalies, deficient learn-
ing, personality disorders, relationship difficulties, and poor physical and mental health. Any
form of child abuse or neglect is a serious risk to a child’s well-being. At its most basic form,
it strips the child of a trusting relationship with the caregiver, particularly if it occurs in early
childhood. Severe neglect can cause more harm to a young child than physical abuse. It is
the most prevalent form of child maltreatment and is linked to poor brain development and
resultant negative psychological and educational outcomes (DeBellis, 2005). Specifically, the
results of severe neglect include cognitive delays, poor executive functioning (discussed later
in this chapter), and problems with the body’s ability to cope with stress (National Scientific
Council on the Developing Child, 2012a). See Table 2.1 for legal definitions and examples of
forms of child abuse and neglect.

Table 2.1: Legal definitions and examples of forms of child
abuse and neglect

Term Definition Examples

Child abuse
and neglect

Any act or failure to act on the part of a
parent or caretaker which results in death,
serious physical or emotional harm, sexual
abuse or exploitation; or an act or failure
to act which presents an imminent risk of
serious harm.

Physical abuse, neglect, sexual abuse, emo-
tional abuse, abandonment, or substance
abuse.

Physical abuse Nonaccidental physical injury (ranging
from minor bruises to severe fractures or
death) that is inflicted by a parent, care-
giver, or other person who has responsibil-
ity for the child.

Punching, beating, kicking, biting, shaking,
throwing, stabbing, choking, hitting (with
a hand, stick, strap, or other object), burn-
ing, or otherwise harming a child.

Neglect The failure of a caregiver to provide for a
child’s basic needs.

Failure to provide necessary food or shel-
ter, lack of appropriate supervision, failure
to provide medical treatment, failure to
educate a child, or inattention to a child’s
emotional needs.

Sexual abuse Persuasion, inducement, enticement, or
coercion of a child to engage in sexually
explicit conduct or simulation of such
conduct for the purpose of producing a
visual depiction of such conduct; or the
rape, statutory rape, molestation, prostitu-
tion, or other form of sexual exploitation
of children.

Fondling a child’s genitals, penetration,
incest, rape, sodomy, indecent exposure,
and exploitation through prostitution or
the production of pornographic materials.

Emotional
abuse

A pattern of behavior that impairs a
child’s emotional development or sense of
self-worth.

Constant criticism, threats, or rejection,
as well as withholding love, support, or
guidance.

(continued)

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Section 2.6 Brain Development and Executive Functioning

Term Definition Examples

Abandonment Often defined as a form of neglect. The parent’s identity or whereabouts are
unknown, the child has been left alone
in circumstances where the child suffers
serious harm, or the parent has failed to
maintain contact with the child or provide
reasonable support for a specified period
of time.

Substance
abuse

The excessive use of a substance, especially
alcohol or a drug, resulting in negative
consequences to oneself and/or others.
Often a contributing element of child abuse
or neglect.

Prenatal exposure of a child to harm due
to the mother’s use of an illegal drug; the
selling, distributing, or giving of illegal
drugs or alcohol to a child; and the use
of a controlled substance by a caregiver
that impairs the caregiver’s ability to
adequately care for the child.

Source: Modified from Child Welfare Information Gateway. (2013). What is child abuse and neglect? Recognizing the signs and
symptoms. Retrieved from www.childwelfare.gov/pubs/factsheets/whatiscan.cfm.

2.6 Brain Development and Executive Functioning
The brain is the center of the nervous system and develops over time beginning before birth
and continuing into young adulthood. Many factors in the environment interact with the
brain and have some effect on its development, but the intensity of that effect depends on
the type of factor (positive or negative), dose, duration, and timing of interaction. Chapter 4
describes in detail how the environment affects early brain development and future behavior
of children.

Prolonged exposure to stress hormones such as cortisol has been found to damage parts of
the brain. Cortisol is the human stress hormone that determines the body’s response to fear
and stress through the “fight or flight” reaction. In the course of a typical day, cortisol in most
people has a specific pattern of high and low levels that pose no problem. If the cortisol level
becomes elevated due to unusual stress, a person typically may have an urge to get out of the
situation (flight) or to react aggressively (fight) but controls those urges and acts appropri-
ately. However, children who experience adverse events early in life may not react appropri-
ately and are more at risk for later stress-related problems such as heart disease, diabetes,
hypertension, stroke, and mental health problems such as depression, anxiety, and alcohol
and drug problems (Evans & Kim, 2013).

Stress is also found to impair parts of the brain responsible for executive functioning. Execu-
tive functioning includes cognitive processes that provide the foundation for goal-directed
behavior by altering positively or negatively the prefrontal cortex and amygdala of the brain
(Best & Miller, 2010). Executive functioning skills are adaptive behaviors that enable children
to override thoughts and responses that would be more automatic for them.

Executive functioning tasks include inhibition, working memory, and shifting. Inhibition is
the child’s ability to respond in a way that conflicts with his or her natural response tendency.

Table 2.1: Legal definitions and examples of forms of child
abuse and neglect (continued)

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www.childwelfare.gov/pubs/factsheets/whatiscan.cfm

Section 2.7 Media and Technology

For example, if asked not to play with a musical roll ball in the bedroom, an 8-month-old can
inhibit the behavior 40 percent of the time (Kochanska, Tjebkes, & Fortnan, 1998), but at
22 months the child can inhibit this behavior 78 percent of the time, and at nearly 3 years
old the child is able to comply 90 percent of the time (Kochanska, 2002). Therefore, develop-
mental scientists know that this ability to suppress a dominant response begins to develop
in the first year.

Working memory, another aspect of executive functioning, is the ability to hold information
in memory and use it over a brief period of time without external cues (Alloway, Gathercole,
& Pickering, 2006). Working memory improves during the preschool years (Garon, Bryson,
& Smith, 2008) with less demanding tasks mastered earlier in development, like finding a toy
hidden under a box lid. Shifting, the third component of executive functioning, is the ability
to move from attending to one rule to another or from one task to another. An example of
shifting is seen when a child is asked first to sort forms by shape (e.g., squares with squares,
circles with circles) and then is asked to switch the task to sort the same forms by color
(e.g., red forms of any shape with red, yellow forms with yellow).

2.7 Media and Technology
Media and technology refer to electronic outlets for information, social networking, and
entertainment. These include the traditional television and radio as well as computers, cell
phones, electronic tablets, video games, and other mobile devices. Media and technological
devices are everywhere and have become a fundamental part of most children’s lives. It is
important to consider the influence on children when these devices become integral at an
early age.

Researchers believe that the qualitative
influence of media and technology depends
on the child’s age in addition to the content
of the media. For instance, infants and tod-
dlers need practice and interaction with
people, activities, and objects through sight,
sound, and touch in order to learn best
(Krikorian, Wartella, & Anderson, 2008).
Studies have found that the repetition of
images and sounds that media and technol-
ogy provide are helpful to children starting
at around age 3 years and that the bene-
fits peak at about 1–2 hours at a time, but
then drop with more time. This is the case
when the content is educational, but much
of media and technology is not educational,
but rather entertainment for preschool chil-
dren (Brooks-Gunn & Hirschhorn Donahue,
2008). Because many children of all ages
routinely have access to and use comput-

ers, computer tablets, television, smart phones, iPods, and video games (with content that
ranges from purely educational to purely entertainment with much ambiguity in between),

Blend Images–JGI/Jamie Grill/Brand X Pictures/Getty Images

▶ With smart phones, tablets, and computers
now the norm in today’s society, many children
have these devices available to them at all
times, allowing easy access to media and instant
communication.

gro81431_02_c02_019-042.indd 38 4/24/14 8:02 AM

Summary and Resources

it is imperative that caregivers understand the effects that all types of technology may have
on a child’s development.

Recognizing that media and technology are here to stay and will continue to be a domi-
nant factor in children’s lives, the National Association for the Education of Young Children
(NAEYC) and the Fred Rogers Center for Early Learning and Children’s Media have joined to
establish a position statement on technology and interactive media in early childhood pro-
grams (see Table 2.2). This statement focuses on the uses of technology and media in early
childhood programs for children from birth to age 8 years. Though a significant contribution
to the framing of the place of technology in child development, this statement is only the
foundation for a more complex and multifaceted examination and discussion of the possible
impacts of technology on child development.

Table 2.2: NAEYC and Fred Rogers Center position statement
on technology and media

Key Messages

• When used intentionally and appropriately, technology and interactive media are effective tools to
support learning and development.

• Intentional use requires early childhood teachers and administrators to have information and resources
regarding the nature of these tools and the implications of their use with children.

• Limitations on the use of technology and media are important.

• Special considerations must be given to the use of technology with infants and toddlers.

• Attention to digital citizenship and equitable access is essential.

• Ongoing research and professional development are needed.

Source: Adapted from National Association for the Education of Young Children and the Fred Rogers Center for Early Learning and
Children’s Media. (2012). Technology and interactive media as tools in early childhood programs serving from birth through age
8. Retrieved from http://issuu.com/naeyc/docs/ps_technology_issuu_may2012/1?e=2112065/2087657.

Summary and Resources
Significant advances have been made recently in understanding biological, cultural, and envi-
ronmental effects on child development. Awareness of the potential connections between
influences and outcomes is the first step to understanding the type, strength, and impor-
tance of the connections and what can be done to lessen the negative effects or increase the
positive effects. Parenting styles as well as siblings, grandparents, and other early relation-
ships and their influence on future child behavior have been studied, and evidence suggests
that they may have considerable effects on child development. Similarly, evidence shows the
effects of divorce, sexual identity, religion, and ethnicity on development. We also know that
other influences, such as gender roles and culture, affect how children respond to experi-
ences. Moreover, all children develop in a variety of environmental contexts, such as families
and communities, that can put children at increased risk or improve their resilience. Other
developmental considerations involve biological traits, cultural inheritance, and the impor-
tance of early attachment and relationships on future social-emotional health. Newer con-
cerns involve the effect of media and technology on child development.

gro81431_02_c02_019-042.indd 39 4/24/14 8:02 AM

http://issuu.com/naeyc/docs/ps_technology_issuu_may2012/1?e=2112065/2087657

Summary and Resources

attachment The emotional bond between
children and their caregivers.

authoritarian A strict parenting style, with
high expectations, harsh punishments, little
communication between child and parents,
and the lack of logical reasoning for rules
and limits provided for the child.

authoritative A democratic style of parent-
ing in which parents are attentive and for-
giving, teach their offspring proper behavior,
and have a set of rules. Appropriate punish-
ment and reinforcement of behavior are
used.

causal relationship When referring to the
connection between an early factor and a
later outcome, the case in which the early
factor produced, at least to some degree, the
later outcome.

child abuse and neglect Any act or failure
to act on the part of a parent or caretaker
which results in death, serious physical or
emotional harm, sexual abuse, or exploita-
tion; or an act or failure to act which pres-
ents an imminent risk of serious harm.

correlational relationship A connection,
an association, or a relationship between an
early factor and a later outcome.

cortisol The human stress hormone that
determines the body’s response to fear and
stress through the “fight or flight” reaction.

culture The collective knowledge, beliefs,
values, behaviors, and practices of a group of
like people.

ethnicity Socially established character-
istics of a group, including language, tradi-
tions, heritage, and nationality.

executive functioning The use of the
cognitive processes of inhibition, working
memory, and shifting; provides the founda-
tion for goal-directed behavior.

family A social unit composed, at mini-
mum, of one adult and one other dependent
person.

gender roles The social and behavioral
norms that are considered appropriate and
socially acceptable for children and adults of
a specific sex.

genes Segments of DNA that control what
traits are inherited.

genetics The study of heredity in biology.

heredity The passing of traits from parents
to their children through genes.

inhibition The ability to respond in a way
that conflicts with an individual’s natural
response tendency.

permissive A parenting style in which par-
ents take on the role of friends rather than
parents, allowing the child to make his or
her own decisions.

race The physical and biological character-
istics of a person.

resilience A child’s ability to compensate
for negative influences.

self-regulation The ability to control physi-
ological functions, attention, thoughts, emo-
tions, and behaviors.

self-regulation skill Independent skills
including self-control, time management,
persistence, self-monitoring, seeking help,
and developing strategies.

Key Terms and Concepts

gro81431_02_c02_019-042.indd 40 4/24/14 8:02 AM

Summary and Resources

Discussion Questions

1. A mother is at the playground with her 2-year-old son. Her predominant parenting
style is permissive. Today she is with a friend whose parenting style is extremely
authoritarian. Describe each mother’s parenting behavior with their own child and
what conflicts these two friends may face today.

2. Describe what aspects of the community or neighborhood influence a child’s
development.

3. Discuss the influence that a family’s income can have on a child’s development
before the child is born.

4. A 3-year-old boy in your care loves to use your electronic tablet to play games. How
can you help make it a richer and more developmentally appropriate experience for
him?

Web Resources

National Center for Children in Poverty

www.nccp.org
This website provides national and state data, publications, and tools to better understand
the impact of poverty on children.

Pew Research Center

www.pewresearch.org
This nonpartisan “fact tank” informs the public about issues, attitudes, and trends shaping
the United States and the world.

Center on the Developing Child

http://developingchild.harvard.edu/index.php/resources/multimedia/interactive_features/
This website translates what experts know about the science of early childhood into facts that
the public understands.

shifting The ability to move from attending
to one rule to another rule or from one task
to another.

substance abuse The excessive use of
a substance, especially alcohol or a drug,
resulting in negative consequences to one-
self and/or others.

temperament A child’s predominant dispo-
sition, activity level, and behavioral style.

uninvolved A parenting style in which par-
ents neglect their child by putting their own
lives before the child’s.

working memory The ability to hold infor-
mation in memory and use it over a brief
period of time without external cues.

gro81431_02_c02_019-042.indd 41 4/24/14 8:02 AM

www.nccp.org

www.pewresearch.org

http://developingchild.harvard.edu/index.php/resources/multimedia/interactive_features/

gro81431_02_c02_019-042.indd 42 4/24/14 8:02 AM

6Toddler Development (1–3 years)

Christina Groark

“Sometimes the smallest things take up the most room in your heart.”
Winnie the Pooh (A. A. Milne)

Learning Objectives

After studying this chapter you will be able to:

ሁ Identify major physical changes in toddlerhood.
ሁ Describe the typical motor milestones in toddlerhood.
ሁ Name five best practices for keeping toddlers safe.
ሁ Distinguish between abilities and limitations of a toddler’s cognitive development.
ሁ Sequence the typical stages of language development in children ages 1–3 years.
ሁ Describe strategies for supporting appropriate social-emotional development in toddlers.
ሁ Identify three signs of readiness for toilet training.
ሁ Describe typical toddler advances toward independence in bathing, feeding, and dressing.
ሁ Identify the typical developmental milestones during toddler development by age, and explain
how developmental red flags are identified.

gro81431_06_c06_121-146.indd 121 4/24/14 11:54 AM

Section 6.1 Physical Development and Growth Patterns in Toddlerhood

Chapter Outline
Chapter Overview

6.1 Physical Development and Growth Patterns in Toddlerhood

6.2 Motor Development in Toddlerhood

6.3 Cognitive Development in Toddlerhood

6.4 Communication Development in Toddlerhood

6.5 Social-Emotional Development in Toddlerhood

6.6 Self-Help Development in Toddlerhood

6.7 Developmental Red Flags and Where to Get Help

Summary and Resources

Chapter Overview
An infant’s entering toddlerhood can be seen as a somewhat natural progression. But the
comparison of a 3-year-old child to the 1 year old he or she once was can tell us a much
more astounding and marvelous story. A closer look at the changes that take place from the
beginning of the second year of life through the fourth year takes us on a journey from a
dependent baby focused only on survival, to a running, jumping, problem-solving little per-
son with a unique personality. This journey consists of physical growth, motor development,
cognitive advancement, evolved communication, social-emotional progress, and emerging
self-help abilities.

Advances made in each of the developmental domains introduced in Chapter 1 play interre-
lated roles in sculpting the unique toddler. Coordinated actions, both physical and emotional,
are the true triumph of the typical toddler. Through the toddler’s recognition of self, indepen-
dence is sought and skills flourish. Behaviors such as tantrums or acts of aggression, used to
gain this newly sought-after independence, can appear startling to the naive onlooker. Most
of this chapter describes the advances made from 12 months to 3 years.

Developmental growth can vary across toddlers of the same chronological age, and develop-
ment does not always occur evenly across all developmental domains for an individual child.
While taking into account this expected variation, caregivers should be ready to identify and
quickly address any substantial delays in typical milestones during toddlerhood.

6.1 Physical Development and Growth
Patterns in Toddlerhood

During toddlerhood, much of a child’s physical development (including muscle growth, bone
growth, tooth development, and brain development) is a continuation of that which began
during infancy, though some changes can be observed within these growth processes at this
time. During this stage, a toddler’s height, weight, and other physical characteristics can be
indicators of the child’s overall health. Because physical development continues to be a key
process, proper nutrition also remains an important topic of discussion.

gro81431_06_c06_121-146.indd 122 4/24/14 11:54 AM

In the
embryo

Young
person

Adult

Growth
plate

Section 6.1 Physical Development and Growth Patterns in Toddlerhood

Physical Growth of Muscle and Bones
Once children reach toddlerhood, their rates of growth slow significantly compared to the
rates of growth observed in infancy. Children begin to take on a form that more closely resem-
bles the adult structure by lengthening and slimming. Many factors contribute to this shift in
overall appearance. Baby fat is replaced by muscle and the center of gravity, which is in the
chest area for an infant, moves downward toward the core region, as it is in adults. This
center-of-gravity shift helps a toddler become more mobile (discussed in the section on motor
development). Through these years, toddlers have an abdomen that protrudes due to a lack
of developed abdominal muscles. Another important factor in a toddler’s changing appear-
ance is the lengthening of the long bones of the body. The long bones are found in the arms,
legs, and fingers. At the end of the long bones are areas around the cartilage known as growth
plates. New bone tissue is formed around the growth plates, hardening and strengthening
the bones. This process is called ossification (see Figure 6.1). Ossification helps to guard
against injury by providing a stronger, more solid frame.

Figure 6.1: Ossification of bones
ሁ New bone tissue is formed around the growth plates. This is where the hardening and strengthening

of bones occurs.

In the
embryo
Young
person
Adult
Growth
plate

gro81431_06_c06_121-146.indd 123 4/24/14 11:54 AM

Upper teeth

central incisor

Lower teeth

second molar

first molar

canine (cuspid)

lateral incisor

central incisor
lateral incisor
canine (cuspid)
first molar
second molar

Age at eruption
(approx.)

8–12 months

25–33 months

14–18 months

17–23 months

10–16 months

6–10 months

9–13 months

16–22 months

13–19 months

23–31 months

Section 6.1 Physical Development and Growth Patterns in Toddlerhood

Tooth Development
Toddlerhood also sees children through the process of developing a full set of 20 baby teeth.
This process begins in infancy with the eruption of the incisors and typically is complete
toward the end of the third year with the appearance of the molars (see Figure 6.2). These
teeth will be shed later in childhood and replaced with permanent teeth. These first teeth are
called deciduous teeth, which refers to their process of shedding.

Brain Development
The important brain development that takes place in the prenatal, neonatal, and infancy
stages continues in toddlerhood. By the time a child is 2 years old, many of the neurons are
connected and significant pruning has occurred. The brain continues to advance. During this
time, a fatty coating is produced on the axons that send signals between the neurons. This
process is called myelination. Surprisingly, myelination continues throughout life as the
brain continuously refines the way information is processed.

Figure 6.2: Tooth eruption chart
ሁ The eruption of teeth occurs according to an approximate schedule during early childhood.

Source: Essentialbaby.com. (2012). Baby teeth eruption chart. Retrieved from http://www.essentialbaby.com.au/baby/baby-stages-of-development/baby
-teeth-eruption-chart-20120917-261k2.html.

Upper teeth
central incisor
Lower teeth
second molar
first molar
canine (cuspid)
lateral incisor
central incisor
lateral incisor
canine (cuspid)
first molar
second molar
Age at eruption
(approx.)
8–12 months
25–33 months
14–18 months
17–23 months
10–16 months
6–10 months
9–13 months
16–22 months
13–19 months
23–31 months

gro81431_06_c06_121-146.indd 124 4/24/14 11:54 AM

http://www.essentialbaby.com.au/baby/baby-stages-of-development/baby-teeth-eruption-chart-20120917-261k2.html

Section 6.2 Motor Development in Toddlerhood

Physical Growth: Height, Weight, and Physical Characteristics
One of the most easily measured indicators of proper development in a child is the rate of
physical growth. Parents often look to their child’s height, weight, and other physical char-
acteristics to identify proper overall health. Pediatricians will monitor these indicators also.

By 12 months, children are typically three times their birth weight, gaining another
3–6 pounds in the next year and growing another 2–3 inches taller. A typical toddler’s head
circumference will grow about 1 inch this year, but the chest circumference is larger than
the head circumference. At 2 years, children usually weigh around 30 pounds, gaining about
5 pounds throughout the year, and will reach roughly 36 inches in height by their third birth-
day. A 3 year old typically weighs 30–40 pounds, and by age 3, the child’s head and chest
circumference are roughly equal. Of course, genetics and ethnicity play a role in the child’s
expected height and weight. For example, children of African descent tend to be taller than
those with Asian or Latino ethnic backgrounds (see Figure 5.2).

Nutritional Concerns
In some parts of the United States and other developed countries, and especially in low-
resource countries, a child’s nutritional needs are jeopardized more frequently by a lack of
food availability in general than by poor eating habits and food allergies. Worldwide, many
children go without the proper amount and types of food. This lack is known widely as
malnutrition. Malnutrition can lead to wasting, a process in which the body’s muscle and fat
tissue begin to degrade. When malnutrition is sustained over a longer period of time, with or
without wasting, it can lead to permanent growth stunting.

When the residents of an area do not have enough available food, or access to food, they
are known as food insecure. The U.S. Department of Agriculture Economic Research Service
reports that 14.5 percent of U.S. households were food insecure in 2012 (Coleman-Jensen,
Nord, & Singh, 2013). In low-income households with children under age 3 years, children
experiencing food insecurity are at more developmental risk than are those who are food
secure (Rose-Jacobs et al., 2008).

Unfortunately, young children are also suffering from another health risk at alarming rates
in recent years, especially in the United States. In areas where food is abundant, especially
processed food that is high in caloric content from sugars and fats and low in nutritional
value, childhood obesity is of growing concern. The Centers for Disease Control and Preven-
tion (2014a) estimates that 17 percent of children ages 2–19 years are obese. Childhood
obesity leads to a litany of concerns. In the short term, obese children suffer from negative
self-esteem and body image, digestive disorders, and conditions of the pulmonary and endo-
crine systems. Later in life, childhood obesity can lead to adult obesity, cardiovascular risks,
and even premature death (Must & Strauss, 1999).

6.2 Motor Development in Toddlerhood
Typically by around 12 months, children are able to use their developing leg muscles, strength-
ening long bones, and improved coordination to take their first steps. Parents eagerly await
the development of this motor skill. Once children are able to walk, a whole new world is open
for exploring and toddlers’ seemingly endless energy and boundless curiosity drives them to

gro81431_06_c06_121-146.indd 125 4/24/14 11:54 AM

Section 6.2 Motor Development in Toddlerhood

take advantage of their newfound skill. At this age, children will start off fairly wobbly but will
practice walking over and over again to master the skill. Crawling and standing have been
mastered. Walking is a typical example of gross motor skill development. Other gross motor
skills that typically emerge at this age include throwing overhand, pushing and pulling objects
like a toy on a string, and raising arms to be picked up.

The 1-year-old child also further develops
fine motor skills. Typically developing chil-
dren at this age are fairly skilled at using
the pincer grasp (see Chapter 5) to retrieve
smaller items like Cheerios. As children
begin to use this grasp to bring solid food
to their mouths, they are able to practice
fine motor movements with the lips and
tongue to move food into the mouth and
to the back of the mouth for swallowing.
The debut of new teeth also allows them
to practice jaw movements to learn how to
chew bits of food.

By age 2, walking is becoming more refined,
with heel-to-toe movements, including the
ability to walk backward. By this time, most
children have practiced enough to be able to

go up a set of stairs unassisted, although they may have to come down backward or on their
behinds. The more children are able to move around to explore their environment, the more
skills they are able to develop. At age 2, children are able to grasp a marker or crayon with
their full fist and make repeated lines and circles. They often want to do things by themselves
and generally enjoy turning pages of a book, helping to prepare food in the kitchen, and gen-
erally insist on dressing themselves. However, many of these needed skills are at a novice
level so, following Vygotsky’s idea of scaffolding (see Chapter 3), caregivers need to reduce
assistance gradually.

The 3-year-old child is typically able to jump, dance, balance on tiptoes, and walk in a straight
line. At this age, children can go up and down steps using alternating feet without help and
can even pedal on a tricycle. This is a lively time as children begin to engage in games with
rules and use skills like throwing underhand, kicking, and catching. Using their fine motor
skills, children find that large buttons and zippers are becoming easier to manage now.
A marker or crayon is held with the index and middle finger and the thumb. This is called a
tripod grasp. Children begin to favor one hand over the other when completing these tasks
but at this age may not yet demonstrate a consistently favored hand. This favoritism is referred
to as hand dominance. Historically, hand dominance was approached differently in various
cultures. Not long ago, U.S. schoolchildren were forced to use the right hand even when they
favored the left. Table 6.1 provides examples of typical motor skills by age.

▶ A 1 year old develops fine motor skills,
becoming fairly skilled at using the pincer grasp to
pick up and hold small objects.

gro81431_06_c06_121-146.indd 126 4/24/14 11:54 AM

Section 6.2 Motor Development in Toddlerhood

Table 6.1: Observable motor development by age

1 Year 2 Years 3 Years

Crawls

Stands

Walks (wobbly)

Lowers self to floor

Releases objects voluntarily

Pushes and pulls

Walks up stairs (on all fours)

Scribbles (large movements)

Stacks up to 4 objects

Throws overhand

Brings food to mouth

Runs and stops

Walks skillfully

Jumps with both feet

Squats and rises easily

Turns pages

Helps with dressing

Walks up stairs unassisted

Grasps a marker or crayon with
whole hand

Stacks up to 6 objects

Throws underhand

Holds a cup

Balances on one foot

Balances on tiptoes

Jumps up and down–
alternating feet

Walks a straight line

Climbs a ladder

Dresses unassisted

Walks up and down steps with
alternating feet

Traces objects with marker
or crayon

Stacks up to 10 objects

Pumps on a swing

Feeds self with better precision

Source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2014b). Developmental milestones. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov
/ncbddd/actearly/milestones/.

At this stage, caregivers should be aware of the increased opportunity for injury because of
the combination of improvements in skill and mobility with insatiable curiosity. Proper pre-
cautions and supervision are critical throughout the years when toddlers insist on handling
jobs by themselves and frequently explore uncharted territory, but still lack physical control
and coordination. Safe Kids Worldwide (2008) reports that “children ages four and under
have the highest fatality rate from unintentional injury, more than twice that of all other age
groups.” Caregivers are responsible for making sure that the child’s environment is safe. The
following describes best practices for childproofing the home:

• Cover electrical outlets.
• Put harmful chemicals, cleaners, paints, and medication well out of children’s reach.
• Install gates at the top of steps.
• Turn off and unplug heating appliances (i.e., irons, stoves, curling irons) when

finished using them.
• Install childproof locks on cabinets and rooms that contain dangerous items.
• Secure loose fabric and cords like curtains, tablecloths, blind cords, and bedding.
• Make sure that smoke and carbon monoxide detectors are functioning properly.
• Cover sharp edges on furniture.
• Secure heavy furniture like bookcases.
• Empty any standing liquids, such as in sinks, buckets, and bathtubs, and secure

toilet lids.

Wobbly toddlers who are bravely on the move are bound to get bruises and scrapes. Practic-
ing the proper precautions will minimize harm. It is important to allow children the freedom
and creativity to explore their world, test the laws of nature, create new things, try to accom-
plish tasks on their own, and understand rules and boundaries for themselves, but it is also
caregivers’ job to provide an environment that is completely safe for children to use.

gro81431_06_c06_121-146.indd 127 4/24/14 11:54 AM

http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/actearly/milestones/

Section 6.3 Cognitive Development in Toddlerhood

Dana has agreed to watch the neighbor’s boys every day after her morning
classes. Ryan, Ethan, and Austin are 6, 3, and 2 years old and are very well
behaved. They get along great with Dana, and she loves the time she spends with
them, though until today she has only watched the boys at their house down the
road. Today, she is going to watch the boys at her apartment, as their mother
needs some time to work at their house without the boys there. Although Dana
does not have children of her own, she has remembered the important warnings
about keeping children safe with childproof locks and gates, especially during
the years when children are excited and eager to explore their environment. She
had known for a week that the boys would be at her house today, so during
that time she was able to get some childproof locks and a gate from the boys’
mother. Before the children arrived at her apartment, she put childproof locks
on all of her floor-level cabinets in her bathroom, laundry room, and kitchen
(except the cabinet with pots, pans, and bowls that are safe for children’s play).
She also used the gate to block off the stairs that lead down to the back door
from the kitchen. When the boys came to the door, they had an armful of toys to
bring inside. Dana thought, “They will be so busy with those toys. I’m not sure
if they will even want to explore my apartment.” Just 20 minutes later, though,
the toys were left in the living room, and the boys ventured into the kitchen to
explore. Once there, Dana watched as they tried to pull open all of the cabinet
doors. Dana was so happy that she had planned ahead to keep the boys safe.
Finally, Ethan reached the unlocked cabinet, and looked up at Dana, seemingly
to ask, “Is this okay?” Dana smiled and nodded her head, and the boys opened
the cabinet and pulled out all of the pots and pans. Dana gave each of the boys a
wooden spoon to bang on the pans, and she joined in the musical parade around
the kitchen. She felt good about getting her apartment ready for the boys, as she
knew that her efforts had kept them safe.

6.3 Cognitive Development
in Toddlerhood

Significant transformations begin to take place in the
domain of cognitive development during toddlerhood. At
this age, children can follow simple directions, like “go
to the table” or “put down the toy.” Scaffolding is also an
important practice for caregivers as toddlers develop in
the cognitive domain.

Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development (see Chap-
ter 3) consists of four main stages. In the first year of
life, children begin to combine their senses with their
motor responses, mostly in the form of reflexes at this
time, called the sensorimotor stage. Object permanence
is an important part of Piaget’s sensorimotor stage (see
Chapter 5). In the second year of life, children transition
into the last half of the sensorimotor stage. Experimenta-
tion plays a large role as toddlers begin to consider the
properties of the people, objects, animals, and foods in

Stockbyte/Thinkstock

▶ Toddlers from about 12 to
18 months of age will conduct
their own experiments to learn
about their world. This includes
stacking blocks until they fall
over, or knocking the blocks down
themselves.

gro81431_06_c06_121-146.indd 128 4/24/14 11:54 AM

Section 6.3 Cognitive Development in Toddlerhood

their world. Once toddlers are aware of these properties, and are no longer solely focused on
themselves or the people close to them, their curiosity builds and builds. From approximately
12 to 18 months, children will actively conduct their own experiments to test their world and
learn from it. This is when children are often dubbed “little scientists.” Their experiments now
go beyond simply mimicking the behavior they see. Favorite activities include emptying and
filling containers, stacking objects until they fall, and taking things apart. These are all ways
to test variations in the “rules” of their world. For example, “When I pull the string on my toy
and walk, it follows me, but when I pull the string by the window it stays.” This trial and error
experimentation is called tertiary circular reactions.

Shane is seated at the table for lunch when he accidentally knocks a couple of his
blueberries on the floor. He stares at them for a while. His expression is so intent
that his aunt decides to watch Shane for a minute before cleaning up the blue-
berries. Shane picks up another blueberry and drops it next to the others. After
staring for a few more seconds, he picks up his cup of milk and throws it at the
floor. The lid pops off and milk spills out around the blueberries. Shane’s aunt
now decides to step in and clean up after Shane’s little experiment.

While some caregivers might view Shane’s actions as a messy annoyance, Piaget would
argue that Shane was actively testing his environment through tertiary circular reactions.
First, he attempted to repeat the behavior of the first two blueberries with an intentionally
dropped blueberry. Second, he tested whether the properties of the fallen blueberry would
be the same as the properties of a fallen cup of milk. Once the milk behaved differently than
the blueberries, Shane would have to change his mental schema (see Chapter 3) to accom-
modate that change.

The final period of the sensorimotor stage involves solving problems by mentally combining
new information taken in about the world around the child. From about 18 to 24 months,
children begin to take their experimental “findings” and apply them to form simple solutions
to problems in their world. If Shane repeats his experiment with enough variables, he may be
able to learn that the food goes away once it lands on the ground. The next time Shane is given
a food he does not want to eat, he might be able to solve his problem by dropping it on the
floor. Children in the last year of the sensorimotor stage also enjoy hiding and naming objects,
and offering toys to others. They are able to understand the relationship between objects, like
putting toy people in the toy car, putting a necklace around a stuffed animal’s neck, and keep-
ing a plate with a cup. Simple puzzles with large pieces can be accomplished because spatial
recognition is formed.

During the end of the sensorimotor stage, a child’s urge to explore might be so strong that it
overcomes previous learning about dangers. It is important that curious, mobile children be
supervised closely.

As children enter their third year of life, they typically also enter into new territory in cogni-
tive development. Piaget calls this the preoperational stage. This stage lasts from 2 years
until 6 or 7 years of age. The main function of this stage is to bridge the child’s cognitive
development from the sensorimotor stage to the operational stage (Piaget & Inhelder, 1969).
In the operational stage, children are able to process thoughts, understand time and quantity,
categorize based on more than one dimension, and more (see Chapter 8). However, Piaget
describes three main challenges that need to be overcome before a child can move into the
operational stage. The first challenge is the child’s inability to take another’s perspective. Dur-
ing the preoperational stage, children are still focused solely on themselves. This self-focus is

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Section 6.4 Communication Development in Toddlerhood

known as egocentrism. The second challenge is referred to as the confusion of appearance
and reality. A preoperational child believes that if the appearance of something is changed,
the object’s identity changes also. For example, imagine that you show a child an apple and
then you glue a perfectly formed orange peel to the apple. The child would believe that the
apple is now an orange. The final challenge is creating relationships between two unrelated
ideas without a chain of logic. This is called precausal reasoning. For example, if asked why
the mail carrier comes to the house, a child might answer, “Because I finished my breakfast!”
Often, precausal reasoning is related to a child’s egocentrism. Children believe events occur in
response to their own actions or what is occurring in their immediate world.

During the preoperational stage, 2 and 3 year olds can categorize objects, correctly name
shapes and colors, try to make mechanical objects work, and use their imagination with
objects (e.g., sweeping the floor with a toy truck). Preoperational stage toddlers will also
begin to engage in realistic dramatic play, like tying a rope to a stuffed dog to take it for a walk
and then offering the toy a drink of water when the walk is over. Table 6.2 offers examples of
typical cognitive skills by age.

Table 6.2: Cognitive development by age

1 Year 2 Years 3 Years

Explores objects in various ways,
including by shaking, banging, or
throwing

Can find objects even when
they are hidden under two or
three covers

Can make toys work with but-
tons, levers, and moving parts

Can find hidden things easily Is beginning to sort shapes
and colors

Pretends with dolls, animals,
and people

Looks at the correct picture or
object when it is named

Can complete sentences and
rhymes words that are familiar

Can do puzzles with three or
four pieces

Can copy gestures Plays simple pretend games Understands the concept of two

Begins to use objects correctly,
including drinking from a cup,
brushing own hair

Can stack four or more blocks Can copy a circle with a pencil
or crayon

Can bang two objects together May use one hand more than
the other

Can turn book pages one page at
a time

Can put things in a container and
take things out of a container

Can follow two-step instructions Can stack more than six blocks

Can follow simple directions
such as “pick up the ball”

Names items in a picture book Can screw and unscrew lids on
jars and can turn a door handle

Source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2014b). Developmental milestones. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov
/ncbddd/actearly/milestones/.

6.4 Communication Development in Toddlerhood
Communication is an essential part of learning and growing. It involves both language and
speech, which are not the same thing. Language refers to the way that people communicate
their ideas. It follows rules that are understood. It can be done verbally or by writing, signing, or

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Section 6.4 Communication Development in Toddlerhood

making other gestures, such as eye blinking or mouth movements (U.S. Department of Health
& Human Services, 2010). Speech is just one method of expressing language. That method
involves talking using the structures of the mouth, which are the tongue, lips, teeth, and jaw. To
be considered as speech, talking must include sounds that are recognizable by others.

Perhaps one of the most captivating changes a toddler goes through is the acquisition of lan-
guage and speech to communicate needs, emotions, and ideas. Around the child’s first birth-
day, he or she is usually able to say a few one- or two-syllable words like dada, more, and sleep.
Although these words are almost always more distinguishable to the caregiver, to outsiders
they may sound no different than the babble that has been going on for months. What is inter-
esting is that very young children start by expressing their thoughts through only one word.
Hearing a dog barking next door, a child might look at the caregiver and say “dog,” rather
than “The dog is barking.” The use of one word to convey an idea is called a holophrase. As
language acquisition progresses, more specific ideas are expressed using two-word phrases.
In this case, only the most essential words are used to convey the thought, for example,
“dog bark.” Communication of thoughts through these short, two-word phrases is called
telegraphic speech. Gestures may accompany these phrases to show the context of the idea.
In the case of the barking dog, the child may point toward the house next door.

The expressive vocabulary of a 1 year old develops from 5 to 50 words; however, children at
this age can understand much more than they are able to verbalize (Schafer, 2005). Once at
50 words, a child nearing age 2 will experience a surge of acquired vocabulary referred to
as a word explosion. Children at 2 years communicate their own ideas through very short
phrases, usually consisting of no more than five words. These words tend to focus on objects,
people, and actions. Even as children’s vocabulary grows from 50 to 300 words or more, they
continue to understand much more than their vocabulary would indicate. Singing and rhym-
ing are fun ways to practice vocabulary, pronunciation, and sentence structure.

At around age 3, children begin to add more information to their ideas. These ideas are now
expressed as short sentences, often using adjectives. A typically developing 3 year old may
know up to 1,000 words. Children also recognize the importance of the order of the words
early, even when they are still using only two words. A toddler recognizes the difference
between “that dog is barking” and “is that dog barking.” We also do not hear children chang-
ing the order of words to say nonsense like “barking is dog that.” At age 3, children also enjoy
story time and actively participate by following along in a book or adding their own lines
if given the opportunity. Questioning to engage others in conversation is also prevalent at
3 years. Children may ask “why” or follow up on an idea with a question, like “Did she go?”

Children acquiring language for communication also understand the importance of aspects
outside of vocabulary and word structure to convey their ideas. Cadence, tone, volume, and
inflection are all used to change meaning, and are often paired with appropriate gestures and
facial expressions. Table 6.3 summarizes typical communication skills achieved, by age.

Madison ran to her father on the playground. “Oh! Swing, daddy!” she yelled.
“Okay, Maddy. I’ll push you on the swing,” her father replied. “What color?” she
asked, pointing to the swing as they walked holding hands. “You know what color
that is, Maddy. What color is the swing?” he asked her. “Blue!” she exclaimed and
smiled widely at her father, waiting for a reaction. “Really?” asked her father.
“No!” She burst into giggles. “It’s red. Red. Red, red, red. RED!” she repeated in a
sing-song tone while she swung her father’s hand back and forth. “Yes, Maddy,
the swing is red. Now let’s swing!”

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Section 6.4 Communication Development in Toddlerhood

Table 6.3: Communication development by age

1 Year 2 Years 3 Years

Can respond to simple verbal
requests

Can use gestures, like shaking
head “no” or waving “bye-bye”

Can make sounds with a change
in tone; beginning to sound more
like speech

Can say mama and dada and
some exclamations like uh-oh!

Tries to say words that others say

18 months: Can say many
single words

18 months: Can say and shake
head “no”

18 months: Can point to show
someone what she or he wants

Can point to things when they
are named

Can point to pictures when they
are named

Can say sentences with two to
four words

Can follow simple instructions

Can repeat words that were
heard in others’ conversation

Can point to things in a book

Knows names of people who
are familiar

Knows names of body parts

Can follow instructions with two
or three steps

Is able to name most familiar
things

Can understand prepositions
such as in, on, and under

Can say first name, age, and sex

Can name a friend

Can say words like I, me, we, and
you and some plurals like dogs
and cats

Can talk well enough for strangers
to understand much of the time

Can have a conversation with
two to three sentences

Source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2014b). Developmental milestones. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov
/ncbddd/actearly/milestones/.

How children develop language has been debated. Behaviorist B. F. Skinner (1957) describes
the theory that language is taught to children through everyday interactions and immersion
in language in their environment, and that parents and caregivers are the primary “teach-
ers.” They are in fact quite suited for this role because they, sometimes unknowingly, provide
all of the right encouragement, instruction, and reward for language to develop in small
children. Many parents will mimic their child’s babbling back to them. When children make
sounds, the behavior is reinforced by parents picking them up, smiling, and talking to them.
Parents and caregivers alike naturally point to objects and repeat their names. If a child
repeats the name back, he or she is praised and cheered. When children reach the develop-
mental stage of using one word, parents add words to help them complete their thoughts.
According to Skinner, parents’ repetition of words and sentences is the instruction neces-
sary for verbal development.

Noam Chomsky (1986) disagreed with Skinner. He wrote that language is too complex to
learn through informal or formal instruction. Sentences can be created that have never been
produced before, with the speaker having no exposure to that sentence in the environment.
The number of sentences one can create is limitless, and one is not limited by experiences
(Wen, 2013). Chomsky believed that humans have an innate ability to develop language.
According to Chomsky, we have an inherent and unconscious understanding of the system
and structure of language, called universal grammar, with a genetic capacity to acquire lan-
guage, called a “language acquisition device” (Chomsky, 1986). With regard to this innate
ability of learning language, humans do not need to rely solely on the external environment
to attain the use of language.

Alternatively, the social-pragmatic language development theory states that humans are all
social beings. Because communication is inherent to social beings, infants instinctively seek
to learn language because of their desire to communicate with other humans. In this theory,
the emotional draw behind conveying messages is more important than learning the words

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Section 6.5 Social-Emotional Development in Toddlerhood

themselves. In one study, infants and toddlers learned language better from an in-person
instructor than from watching that instructor on video (Roseberry, Hirsh-Pasek, Parish-
Morris, & Golinkoff, 2009). This indicates that the social component of language develop-
ment is key.

Following up on this idea of the integration of social and language learning and putting it
into the current context, caregivers must recognize that technology and interactive media
are here to stay and will be part of most children’s lives. Therefore, if used appropriately,
technology can be introduced as early as toddlerhood in a way that supplements their learn-
ing and development. For instance, toddlers can become intrigued and comfortable with
interactive components of technology by learning that when they push buttons, toggle
switches, or turn handles, the toy responds in specific ways, as in the case of a traditional
jack-in-the-box. Children between 12 months and 3 years of age enjoy exploration through
manipulation, fitting the requirement of many aspects of technology. They are also progress-
ing in social and communication skills. Thus, interactive media and social networking, when
in the context of interacting with adults and enhancing relationships, can complement other
methods of learning.

6.5 Social-Emotional Development in Toddlerhood
Toddlerhood is a noteworthy time in the social-emotional domain of development. Infants
spend the first year of life consumed with survival and comfort. In many ways they are aware
of only their own existence. As a child enters into the second year of life, an important trans-
formation takes place. Typically at this age, children develop an awareness of their existence
as a separate entity from other people, other animals, and other objects around them. Even
though 1 year olds are still concerned primarily with their own needs, recognizing that others
exist in their world is essential for developing an understanding that others have thoughts and
feelings that may be different from their own. As 1 year olds embark on this journey of discov-
ery, they are also likely to experience very powerful emotions, positive and negative. Children

MEDIA, TECHNOLOGY, AND EARLY CHILDHOOD:
TODDLERS AND TECHNOLOGY, LET’S STAY IN TOUCH

At the age of 30 months, Timmy enjoys looking in his dad’s computer “photo file”
at digital pictures of family members. He recognizes and names grandparents and
other extended family members who live in another state and loves their actual vis-

its during the holidays. To further his interest in them and their daily surroundings and activ-
ities, Timmy’s parents have begun to use Skype. Timmy uses this software to connect with
his Aunt Bridget almost every Sunday. He looks forward to that time of the week and seems to
talk more and more each time, answering her simple questions, such as what he has done that
week and what mischief his dog, Buddy, has gotten into. He ends each Skype visit by sending
Aunt Bridget kisses and hugs.

As Timmy nears his third birthday, his parents are helping him use parts of the computer
independently. He sits on his mother’s lap and with her hand over his, she gently guides him
through correct movements while talking and pointing out what is happening on the com-
puter screen. He is getting particularly good at using the mouse and the keyboard arrows to
initiate and practice age-appropriate educational games. Timmy’s parents report that he is
becoming comfortable with these basic computer skills and is likely to be ready to participate
in his child-care setting’s “technology play area” when he moves into preschool next year.

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Section 6.5 Social-Emotional Development in Toddlerhood

might be extremely excited in anticipation of something they enjoy, or express intense anger
when a situation does not go their way. Sometimes these intense waves of emotion may seem
irrational or nonsensical and toddlers may have a hard time recovering. This can be extremely
frustrating for caregivers and they need to be immensely patient. As the recognition of others’
emotions becomes more sophisticated, toddlers will also begin to express the same emotions
they see others experiencing, like crying when someone else is hurt or sad. This identification
and appreciation for another’s emotions is called empathy. Empathy is an important step for
later social-emotional development and is cultivated gradually over years.

Interest in peers also tends to emerge at this time, although not necessarily interaction. Often,
as 1 year olds begin to notice other children, their first reaction is curiosity. At this age a
child might approach another child quietly, watch the other child play independently, and
even play separately but alongside the child. This early stage of peer-to-peer interest is called
parallel play (see Table 6.4 for a more detailed look at the categories of social participation,
identified by sociologist Mildred Parten). As this scenario plays out more often and interest
in other children is apparent, caregivers encourage interactions. Caregivers can facilitate and
encourage peer-to-peer interaction by asking both children questions, closely supervising
turn-taking activities, and helping to resolve conflict. It is the adult’s role to support positive
interactions with other children. For example, it can be helpful to redirect a child’s attention
if interactions turn negative or tense.

Table 6.4: Parten’s categories of social participation

Category Definition

Unoccupied behavior The child is not playing but is occupied by watching anything of interest from
moment to moment.

Onlooker The child watches other children play, sitting or standing near the other chil-
dren to observe what is happening. The child talks to, asks questions of, and
gives suggestions to the children observed, but does not take part in the play.

Solitary play The child plays alone and with different toys than children who are playing
near the child. No effort is made to move nearer to the other children.

Parallel activity The child plays beside other children, not with them. Though the child plays
independently, he or she chooses a toy or an activity that is similar to that of
children playing near.

Associative play The child plays with others. The children talk about the toy or activity and chil-
dren exchange play items. All children take part in very similar play, but each
child plays as he or she wants, and no organization of the play occurs.

Cooperative or organized
supplementary play

A group of children is organized for some end, including making something,
achieving a goal, engaging in dramatic play, or playing a formal game. A child
either belongs or does not belong in the group. Play is directed by one or
two group members. Different roles are taken and a division of labor can be
observed with aims at achieving the goal.

Source: Parten, M. B. (1932). Social participation among pre-school children. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 27(3), 243.

A strong bond with caregivers, often parents, is also an important benchmark in social-
emotional development. By around age 1, a child should have a strong and healthy attach-
ment to the primary caregiver (see Chapter 3). As children begin to experience intense
emotions, this bond may make it difficult to leave the caregiver at times. It is most important
that children experiencing these emotions feel safe and secure at all times, even when it is
necessary to leave the ones with whom they have bonded. Adult-child relationships are

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Section 6.5 Social-Emotional Development in Toddlerhood

essential for optimal social-emotional development of a toddler. Often, a toddler’s bond with
a caregiver, combined with recognition of others and newly found motor skills, will lead to a
strong desire to help the caregiver with daily routines and tasks. Even though it may not be
most efficient, allowing a toddler to safely help with a job can be valuable to development
across domains.

During the third year of life, a child continues to
grow in the different areas of social-emotional
development discussed previously. Recogni-
tion of others’ thoughts and feelings develops
into a truer sense of empathy. A 2 year old will
begin to interact more with peers and engage
in turn-taking games and role-playing. Play
incorporates more activity and creativity, often
modeling adults’ daily behaviors such as shop-
ping, cleaning, and eating meals together. Play-
ing interactively in roughly structured ways is
referred to as associative play. Sharing skills
will begin to emerge in 2 year olds and mature
by age 3, although it is a gradual process. Shar-
ing is often a difficult social-emotional skill for
toddlers to master and may require a lot of
supervision and support from caregivers. Set-
ting rules with appropriate consequences for
2 year olds can help foster appropriate social
interactions overall. Adults can also help to
keep a positive focus on friendships by talking

about good qualities of peers in a toddler’s social circle, taking pictures of friends and revisit-
ing them later, and remembering positive interactions with the toddler.

Every morning at the child-care center, Justin and Steven are so excited to see each
other. They both smile and run to each other. For the past few weeks, without fail,
there has been screaming and tears within 5 minutes if a teacher isn’t available to
help them play together. Steven has been coming to this particular center for over a
year, since he was about 8 months old. He has grown personally attached to many
of the toys. Although Justin is newer to the center, he is almost 3 years old. Justin
does not have any siblings, so he is not used to sharing toys at home. The three
teachers in the room have quickly picked up on this routine interaction between
Justin and Steven. It would be easier to keep the boys separated while they play, but
the teachers agree that there is a special bond between them that could develop
into something wonderful for everyone if it is cultivated correctly. The teachers
have decided to take shifts helping the boys share toys, take turns, and talk about
their interactions. The teachers think that after a few months the boys may be
able to play independently. Today, Justin and Steven built a railroad out of blocks
together without any help from the teachers. Then they included another toddler
in taking turns to ride the tricycle down the railroad. The peaceful playtime lasted
almost 25 minutes without needing a teacher to intervene. A huge improvement!

Although more social interactions take place at this age, it is also a time when toddlers
strongly value their independent existence. This can be observed easily in toddlers who
quickly answer no to any request or suggestion. Their sense of self as an individual includes

▶ Within their social-emotional
development, toddlers learn to share and take
turns with friends.

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Section 6.6 Self-Help Development in Toddlerhood

a recognition of separate thoughts and feelings and an appreciation for the freedom to act
on those perspectives. This is known as autonomy. Toddlers who have developed a sense
of autonomy without the ability to compromise can be tough for caregivers to handle, but
autonomy is an essential component of social-emotional development and will lead to the
skills required for a well-balanced, happy child. Along with autonomy, awareness of different
genders and conventional gender roles form at this age, and a rudimentary understanding of
behavior as good versus bad emerges.

Across all aspects of toddlers’ social-emotional development, emphasis on the process and
not just the result is important (see Table 6.5). Talking about social interactions, both positive
and negative, can be a helpful exercise for toddlers. Discussing what events occurred during
the interaction, what happened as a result of the behaviors, and what alternative options
were available can help children begin to recognize cause and effect. Talking about situations
that have just transpired is also helpful to acknowledging emotions, accepting why there are
certain emotions, and developing an internal process for considering alternatives to aggres-
sive behavior. Discussions should always be developmentally appropriate.

Table 6.5: Social-emotional development by age

1 Year 2 Years 3 Years

Is shy or nervous around
strangers

Cries when primary care-
givers leave

Shows preference for certain
things and people

May show fear in certain
situations

Gives a caregiver a book when
wanting to hear a story

Tries to gain attention by repeat-
ing sounds or actions

Helps with dressing by putting
out an arm or a leg

Plays games including peek-a-
boo and pat-a-cake

Copies other individuals, particu-
larly adults and older children

Gets excited when around other
children

Is gaining more and more
independence

Shows defiant behavior at times

Mainly plays beside other chil-
dren, but begins to include other
children in play

Copies adults and peers

Without prompting, shows affec-
tion for friends

Can take turns when playing
games

Shows concern for a friend who
is crying

Understands what is meant by
mine and his or hers

Shows a variety of emotions

Is able to separate easily from
primary caregivers

Sometimes gets upset with
routine changes

Can dress and undresses himself
or herself

Source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2014b). Developmental milestones. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov
/ncbddd/actearly/milestones/.

6.6 Self-Help Development in Toddlerhood
Typically developing toddlers are well equipped to start their journey toward independence
with everyday tasks like dressing, bathing, and feeding. Although a long road remains to reach
true independence, children can start assisting with these self-help tasks at 1 year of age.
Often children at this age take pride in accomplishing these tasks rather than having a care-
giver do it for them.

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Section 6.6 Self-Help Development in Toddlerhood

Sleeping
Sleep patterns and habits are a function of a child’s genes, routines, and environment. One
study estimated that up to 30 percent of children younger than age 3 suffer from sleep prob-
lems (Sadeh, Mindell, Luedtke, & Wiegand, 2009). A toddler typically sleeps 10–12 hours a
night and takes midday naps. If a nap is missed or the daytime was particularly active, a child
of this age may nod off early or sleep a bit longer than usual. This should not be concerning. At
age 3, children often begin to phase out daytime naps, although this is almost always a gradual
process. To help with the transition, a set “quiet time” midday is helpful.

Toddlers may have trouble falling asleep at night and may talk to themselves, sing, play with
pillows and covers, or even escape bed and wander. Having a nighttime routine like a bedtime
story or a soothing song often aids a child to transition to sleep time. By age 3, children may
want to practice their bedtime routine independently or even begin to transition away from
the bedtime routine altogether.

Toddlers may also test the idea of getting up early with renewed energy and excitement for a
new day. Rewarding very early risers with food and activity reinforces the behavior and may
result in regular early risers and very tired parents. Although proper sleep for the child is of
the utmost importance, overtired parents may be irritable and less alert. If a parent is suffer-
ing from sleep deprivation, it is much more difficult to be responsive to the child’s needs.
Children who develop habits of short sleep duration under age 3 and a half have lower cogni-
tive performance by age 6 (Touchette, Petit, Tremblay, & Montplaisir, 2009). However, forcing
very young children to sleep according to the parents’ schedule may not be productive either.
Establishing routines as early as possible is an effective way to reinforce sleep patterns.

TIPS ON TODDLERS AND SLEEP
• Stick to the same set bedtimes and wake-up times each day. Don’t shortchange

naptime, either—make sure that it does not occur too late in the day and that
it is not too brief—either situation will result in lack of a good night’s sleep.

• Maintain a consistent bedtime routine. Establish calm and enjoyable activities in the
30 minutes right before bedtime, such as taking a bath or reading bedtime stories to
help a child wind down. It is helpful to set clear limits as to how many books you will
read or songs you will sing. Allow the child to choose routines such as which pajamas
to wear and which stuffed animal to take to bed. The choice of security object (stuffed
animal or blanket) helps a child feel more relaxed at bedtime and all through the night.

• Make sure the bedroom environment is quiet, cool, dark, and comfortable for sleeping.
A nightlight or area light on the very lowest dimmer setting is fine. Playing soft,
soothing music is fine. Remember to reserve the bed for sleeping only. It should not
be used as a platform for playing. Television watching in the bedroom should not be
allowed. Any other form of screen time (e.g., tablets, smart phone) should not be part
of the bedroom environment. These technologies can overstimulate the child and make
it harder to fall asleep later.

• Limit food and drink (especially any drinks containing caffeine) before bedtime.
Remember that many clear beverages contain caffeine, so read labels.

• Tuck a child into bed in a sleepy but awake state. This will help the child learn to fall
asleep on his or her own and help the child return to sleep in the event of a middle-of-
the-night awakening.

Source: From Cleveland Clinic. (n.d.). Sleep in toddlers and preschoolers. Copyright © The Cleveland Clinic Foundation.
Reprinted by permission. Retrieved from http://my.clevelandclinic.org/disorders/sleep_disorders/hic_sleep_in
_toddlers_and_preschoolers.aspx.

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Section 6.6 Self-Help Development in Toddlerhood

Feeding and Eating
Mealtimes provide great opportunities
for toddlers to explore new textures and
tastes, learn new words, test social expec-
tations, and develop new motor skills. At
12 months of age, a child will have a
decreased appetite, compared to infancy.
Children will often go through periods in
which they have a limited number of pre-
ferred foods, leading adults to label them
as “picky eaters.” These periods of nar-
rowed food preferences are called food
jags (Groark & Song, 2012).

Tania will only eat her grandmother’s
tomato sauce right now. Breakfast,
lunch, snacks . . . . I don’t really know
what to do. It’s frustrating when we
are out somewhere, but more than that I worry that she’s not getting enough
different kinds of nutrition. Tania’s pediatrician said it’s just a phase and she’ll
grow out of it. So as long as she’s eating something, it will be just fine. I guess she
[the pediatrician] knows best. I’ll just keep trying to put tomato sauce on differ-
ent things to trick her into eating other foods. Maybe she’ll find other things that
she likes that way!—Mother of 16-month-old Tania

At about age 1, children begin to learn to feed themselves by picking up small food pieces with
their hands, holding a spoon, and maneuvering a cup for drinking.

▶ With the ability to hold and maneuver a spoon,
toddlers can feed themselves independently.

TIPS ON FEEDING A TODDLER
• Set a good example. Eat healthy and simple meals yourself so that the child can

see how he or she should also be eating.
• Toddlers learn about their food by playing with it, so let them! Don’t punish

the child for touching what’s on the table.
• Encourage the child to learn to eat independently by letting him or her practice with

cups and silverware.
• Snacks should be treated like small meals, offered every 2–3 hours. Children under

2 years of age typically only eat 1–2 tablespoons of each different food, so start by
offering them these small amounts.

• Allow the child to let you know when he or she is satisfied, or is still hungry, rather
than making the decision for him or her.

• Offer soft foods such as fresh fruit (bananas, peaches, pears, watermelon) and cooked
vegetables. Don’t give toddlers raw vegetables, because they can choke on them.

• Small bites are best, so cut up anything big into more manageable pieces for the child.
• Keep track of the number of bottles the child drinks in a day in order to make sure the

child is balancing those calories with calories from healthy meals.

(continued)

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Section 6.6 Self-Help Development in Toddlerhood

At age 2, toddlers may still have strong food preferences, but the variety of foods they are
willing to eat begins to broaden. They might express a preference for foods they can eas-
ily identify, avoiding foods that are blended or foods that are new to them. Healthy snacks
between meals should be provided. At about this age, children can begin to learn manners at
mealtime by mimicking the behavior displayed by older children and adults and also by being
told the appropriate behaviors and expected responses like please and thank you.

At age 3, children are often open to trying different foods, although certain preferences or dis-
likes may persist. Eating independence also is taking shape so that children may want to take
their own servings and make their own decisions about which foods to eat. However, they may
need help judging portions. In addition, healthy eating habits should already be encouraged by
providing nutritious foods. See the section on physical growth for more about nutrition.

Many infants transition from breast milk or formula to solid foods at no later than 12 months
of age. Proper nutrition for a toddler is crucial for optimal function of the systems that regu-
late sleep, digestion, cognition, and emotions. Because the growth rate is beginning to slow,
toddlers’ appetites may begin to decrease. At the same time, the introduction to a whole new
world of solid foods may leave children wanting sweets and processed foods that offer calo-
ries and fill them up without providing the appropriate nutrition for growth. Vitamins and
nutrients such as iron, calcium, and zinc need to find their way into a child’s diet. Proteins and
carbohydrates also are important components of a healthy diet, encouraging physical growth
in these early years. A serious complication at this age is the prevalence of food allergies.
Many children cannot consume foods like peanuts, tree nuts, soy, wheat, shellfish, and even
dairy (including cow’s milk), all of which offer specific nutritional benefits. Finding substitu-
tions for the nutrition these foods provide can be difficult. Thankfully, many children grow
out of food allergies later in life.

Elimination
From ages 1–3 years, an important transformation in elimination takes place. The process
starts with the child’s recognition of a soiled diaper. At around age 1, the child will often
start to let a trusted adult know when the diaper needs to be changed. As awareness pro-
gresses, the child may become uncomfortable or embarrassed in a soiled diaper. This is the
time when toddlers begin to develop some bladder control and the duration between soiled
diapers lengthens as their muscles allow them to control bowel function. Toddlers show their

• Toddlers typically love cereals and grains, so offer them things such as crackers, bread,
pancakes, noodles, rice, and hot and cold cereal.

• A toddler should have about 16 ounces of whole milk or other dairy per day. Whole
milk is preferred over low-fat or skim because it better promotes brain growth.

• Ultimately, children eat whatever their caregivers feed them, so make sure that the food
you are offering is healthy. Only offer treats like candy, sweetened beverages, chips, and
fried food sparingly.

Source: Adapted from University of Pittsburgh Office of Child Development. (2007b). My toddler won’t eat. Retrieved from
http://www.ocd.pitt.edu/Default.aspx?webPageID=298&parentPageId=6.

TIPS ON FEEDING A TODDLER (continued)

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http://www.ocd.pitt.edu/Default.aspx?webPageID=298&parentPageId=6

Section 6.6 Self-Help Development in Toddlerhood

interest in the act of toileting by watching others use the toilet and mimicking the behavior
themselves. True bladder and bowel control is not achieved until age 3. At this time, toilet
training is usually well under way and toddlers have fewer accidents than before. Some may
even stay dry through the night; however, there is no cause for concern if a child still has
frequent accidents at night.

It is important not to force toilet training until the child has the necessary skills and abilities
(see Table 6.6). Toilet training too early can cause stress for the child and may actually delay
toileting.

Table 6.6: Time to toilet train
The American Academy of Pediatrics suggests the following signs that a child is ready for toilet training:

• The child can imitate his or her parents’ behavior.
• The child can put things where they belong.
• The child can demonstrate independence by saying no.
• The child can express interest in toilet training.
• The child can walk and is ready to sit.
• The child can communicate his or her need to eliminate.
• The child is able to pull clothes up and down.

Source: From American Academy of Pediatrics. (1999). Toilet training guidelines: Clinicians—The role of the clinician in toilet
training. Pediatrics, 103(6), 1364–1366. Copyright © 1999 American Academy of Pediatrics. Reprinted by permission.

TIPS ON TOILET LEARNING

• Pay attention to his or her behavior in order to recognize the signals that he or
she has to use the bathroom.

• Lots of toddlers tend to go to the bathroom at the same times every day, so
keep an eye on the time.

• Teach the child proper bathroom hygiene, such as wiping front-to-back for girls, and to
always wash hands after going.

• If the child is having trouble going to the bathroom, try running the water in the sink
or tub.

• Show him or her how to check for dryness. This will give him or her a greater sense of
independence about his or her progress while learning.

• Make sure that all of the child’s caregivers are offering their consistent support and
encouragement to him or her.

• When using a child’s potty, make sure the child sees you put the contents of the potty
into the toilet after he or she is done. However, don’t flush the toilet until the later
stages of toilet training.

• Dress the child in bottoms that he or she can take off easily, like a skirt or pants with an
elastic waistband instead of a zipper or buttons.

• Most importantly, be patient with the child, and try to understand his or her feelings.
Don’t shame or embarrass the child, or force him or her to use the toilet. Don’t fight
about toilet training or talk about the child’s progress with other people in front of him
or her. Never withhold fluid from the child, and never punish him or her for having an
accident; frequent accidents may be a sign that the child just isn’t ready to toilet train yet.

Source: Adapted from University of Pittsburgh Office of Child Development. (n.d.). Toilet learning. Retrieved from http://
www.ocd.pitt.edu/Files/PDF/Foster/27758_ocd_toilet_learning .

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http://www.ocd.pitt.edu/Files/PDF/Foster/27758_ocd_toilet_learning

Section 6.7 Developmental Red Flags and Where to Get Help

Hygiene
Since a toddler should never be left alone in a filled bathtub, bathtime provides the caregiver
and child an opportunity to communicate and play. This is a time when the child can begin
to learn the importance of cleanliness and the actions needed to bathe. At about 1 year, chil-
dren may mimic the actions of a caregiver by attempting to wash themselves. They may also
express interest in the ritual by holding the washcloth and exploring the soap. Many toddlers
enjoy baths and like to take time to play. Encouraging time for play during baths keeps the
outlook on bathing positive. By age 3, children will usually be able to actively participate in
the bathing process by washing themselves and can even begin to brush their own teeth.
These activities should be monitored to ensure proper hygiene.

Dressing
Toddlers will continue to develop the skills needed for dressing. Many of these abilities come
from their physical growth and develop in the motor domain, as discussed earlier in this
chapter. Initially, children express an interest in helping with simple dressing activities like
finding armholes and stepping into pant legs. Later, at around age 2 years, children begin to
practice this important daily task by taking on and off clothes, often throughout the day and
regardless of their location. As their fine motor skills develop, children are able to assist with
buttons, zippers, snaps, and Velcro.

6.7 Developmental Red Flags and Where to Get Help
As discussed in previous chapters, a young child’s development occurs through a series of
progressive stages with periods of alternating large and small gains. The timing of typical
developmental milestones may vary greatly over a wide age range. Temporary delays are not
considered developmental delays. Similarly, not reaching a milestone by the indicated age
does not confirm the presence of a developmental delay. Even so, there are certain milestones
that should occur to indicate typical development in a child. Because early identification of
any developmental delays results in earlier treatment options and services, leading to better
results for the child, it is best practice to seek professional assistance if a child does not align
with the developmental milestones indicated in Table 6.7.

Table 6.7: Developmental milestones

At 12 months:

• Uses a few gestures, one after another, to get needs met, like giving, showing, reaching, waving, and pointing.

• Plays peek-a-boo, patty cake, or other social games.

• Makes sounds, like ma, ba, na, da, and ga.

• Turns to the person speaking when his or her name is called.

At 15 months:

• Exchanges many back-and-forth smiles, sounds, and gestures.

• Uses pointing or other “showing” gestures to draw attention to something of interest.

(continued)

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Section 6.7 Developmental Red Flags and Where to Get Help
At 12 months:

• Uses different sounds to get needs met and to draw attention to something of interest.

• Uses and understands at least three words, such as mama, dada, bottle, or bye-bye.

At 18 months:

• Uses lots of gestures with words to get needs met, like pointing or taking others by the hand and saying,
“Want juice.”

• Uses at least four different consonants in babbling or words, such as m, n, p, b, t, and d.

• Uses and understands at least 10 words.

• Shows that he or she knows the names of familiar people or body parts by pointing to or looking at them
when they are named.

• Demonstrates simple pretend play, like feeding a doll or stuffed animal, and attracting the attention of
others by looking up at them.

At 24 months:

• Participates in pretend play with more than one action, like feeding the doll and then putting the doll to bed.

• Uses and understands at least 50 words.

• Uses at least two words together (without imitating or repeating) and in a way that makes sense, like
“Want juice.”

• Enjoys being next to children of the same age and shows interest in playing with them, perhaps giving a
toy to another child.

• Looks for familiar objects out of sight when asked.

At 36 months:

• Enjoys pretending to play different characters or talking to dolls or action figures.

• Enjoys playing with children of the same age, perhaps showing and telling another child about a favorite toy.

• Uses thoughts and actions together in speech and in play in a way that makes sense, like saying, “Sleepy,
go take nap” or “Baby hungry, feed bottle.”

• Answers what, where, and who questions easily.

• Talks about interests and feelings about the past and the future.

Source: Copyright © 2001–2014 by First Signs, Inc.; http://firstsigns.org. The key social, emotional, and communication
milestones were compiled from the following sources: Greenspan, S. I. & Lewis, N. (2000). Building healthy minds; Prizant, B. M.,
Wetherby, A. M., & Roberts, J. E. (2000). Communication disorders in infants and toddlers. In C. Zeannah (Ed.) Handbook of infant
mental health (2nd ed.) New York: Guilford Press; Wetherby, A. M. (1999). Babies learn to talk at an amazing rate, First words
project. Florida State University.

Any significant delays in the milestones described in Table 6.7 are considered develop-
mental red flags. Concerns caused by red flags should first be discussed with parents in a
sensitive and respectful manner. It is important that parents understand that investigating
red flags is a precautionary measure. Parents should be advised to speak with their child’s
pediatrician for more information, or can be connected directly with a developmental
specialist for further assessment. If a delay is identified, the earliest possible intervention
yields the best developmental results for the child. Early intervention services may include
speech and language, audiology, medical, nutritional, physical therapy, occupational therapy,

Table 6.7: Developmental milestones (continued)

At 15 months: (continued)

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http://firstsigns.org

Summary and Resources

associative play Play that is interactive
and roughly structured, with no formal
organization.

autonomy The sense of the self as an
individual, with a recognition of separate
thoughts and feelings and an appreciation
for the freedom to act on those perspectives.

deciduous teeth The first set of teeth,
named for their process of shedding.

egocentrism A child’s sole focus on himself
or herself with an inability to take another’s
perspective.

empathy The identification and apprecia-
tion for another individual’s emotions.

food jags Periods of narrowed food
preferences.

growth plates The areas surrounding the
cartilage at the end of long bones that form
new bone tissue.

hand dominance The favoring of one hand
over the other.

holophrase The use of one word to convey
an idea.

malnutrition The lack of proper amounts
and types of food, which can lead to the deg-
radation of muscle and fat tissue in the body.

myelination The process by which a fatty
coating is produced on the axons that send
signals between the neurons.

ossification The process of the hardening
and strengthening of bones.

parallel play An early stage of peer-to-peer
interest in which a child watches another
child play independently or plays separately
but alongside another child.

precausal reasoning The creation of
relationships between two unrelated ideas
without a chain of logic, often related to
egocentrism.

family counseling, assistive technologies, and more. Many low- or no-cost services are avail-
able for families that qualify. More information can be found in the Web Resources provided
at the end of this chapter.

Summary and Resources
Toddlerhood is a significant stage in a child’s development. Progress in each domain is inter-
connected. Communication skills are essential for social-emotional development and cog-
nitive advancement, just as physical growth is necessary for improvement in motor skills.
Attentive and responsive care from trusted adults is essential for optimal development in all
domains. Caregivers who interact regularly with young children, discuss life’s challenges in
age-appropriate ways, and provide scaffolding support for emerging skills help toddlers to
develop communication, social-emotional, cognitive, and gross and fine motor skills along
with increased independence in daily tasks.

By the age of 3, a child has an emerging personality, a special way of interacting with adults
and peers, individual likes and dislikes, and a unique way of viewing the world. Each of these
differences lays the groundwork for further advancement in the developmental domains in
the years to come and eventually leads to a unique individual.

Key Terms and Concepts

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Summary and Resources

preoperational stage Piaget stage of cogni-
tive development that occurs from 2 to 6 or
7 years of age, bridging the child’s cognitive
development from the sensorimotor stage to
the operational stage. During this stage, chil-
dren can categorize objects, correctly name
shapes and colors, try to make mechanical
objects work, use their imagination with
objects, and begin to engage in realistic dra-
matic play.

telegraphic speech Communication of
thoughts through short two-word phrases,
sometimes with accompanying gestures.

tertiary circular reactions The trial-and-
error experimentation that children carry
out while actively trying to learn about their
environment.

tripod grasp A fine-motor grasp in which
an object is held with the index and middle
fingers and the thumb.

wasting A process by which the body’s
muscle and fat tissue begin to degrade as an
outcome of malnutrition.

word explosion A surge of acquired vocab-
ulary at around the age of 2 years.

Discussion Questions

1. Why is safety an essential consideration when caring for a toddler? Discuss key rec-
ommendations for keeping the child’s environment safe.

2. You are working with a mother and her 12-month-old child. She is frustrated that
her daughter “keeps being bad” by repeatedly throwing her food on the floor. How
would you reframe this behavior to the mother, based on what you know about
development at this age? What recommendations would you give the mother for
dealing with this behavior?

3. Discuss the three main challenges that children need to overcome in order to move
from Piaget’s preoperational stage to the operational stage. What can caregivers do
to support children in mastering these concepts?

4. Explain the various theories of language development in toddlers. Which theory do
you feel best explains the rapid acquisition of language in this age group?

5. If a toddler is removed from her home due to neglect, how might this affect her
social-emotional development? What can the child’s foster family do to help her dur-
ing this transition?

6. How might a child’s culture affect his or her acquisition of self-feeding skills and
food preferences?

7. How do you know when a child is ready to begin toilet training? What are potential
drawbacks to starting this process too early?

8. Why is early detection of developmental delay important? How will you determine if
the child is “significantly delayed,” warranting a referral for further evaluation? Pro-
vide examples of two or three red flags for each age group.

Observational Activities

The following activities encourage opportunities to see child development in action. Arrang-
ing occasions to observe or interact with children of various ages creates critical moments to
synthesize the learning in this text.

1. Witnessing motor progression; park it. Children of various ages can be seen at parks
or indoor play spaces. As you observe children’s motor activities in one of these

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Summary and Resources

settings, use Table 6.1 to predict the age group into which the children at play fit. If
you are comfortable, introduce yourself to the parents, explain this class activity, and
inquire about the ages of their children.

2. Witnessing language growth; monkey around. Observing children interacting with
or observing animals is an excellent way to hear the range of words, sounds, and
gestures they know. Visit a zoo, an aviary, or a pet store and watch children of vari-
ous ages talk about or mimic the animals they see. Take note of the number of words
and sentences used and the depth of vocabulary, by age.

3. Witnessing empathy; face time. Toddlers love silly faces. Arrange a time (and obtain
permission from the parents) to play an interactive game with a toddler. Begin by
introducing the feelings game and asking the child if he or she can guess what you
might be feeling. Cover your face with your hands and then show various emotions
(e.g., happy, sad, angry) when you reveal your face. See if the child would like to quiz
you on the faces he or she can make.

Web Resources

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

http://www.cdc.gov/obesity/childhood/
This website provides basic information about childhood obesity, facts about the epidemic in
the United States, causes, and strategies. It also provides tools and resources, such as a body
mass index (BMI) calculator, and further information on nutrition.

U.S. Consumer Product Safety Division

http://www.cpsc.gov/en/Safety-Education/Safety-Guides/Kids-and-Babies/Childproofing
-Your-Home–12-Safety-Devices-To-Protect-Your-Children/
This webpage provides tips for childproofing your home for optimal safety with a young child
in the house.

Safe Kids Worldwide

http://www.safekids.org/safetytips/field_age/little-kids-1%E2%80%934-years
This webpage provides safety information for “little kids” ages 1–4 years. Topics include
safety related to biking, boating, medications, playgrounds, toys, and sports as well as pedes-
trian and water safety, and more.

First Signs

www.firstsigns.org
This one-page summary aims to educate caregivers on screening, diagnosis, and treatment of
autism and other disorders.

National Early Childhood Technical Assistance Center

http://www.nectac.org/~pdfs/pubs/nnotes21
This document provides information on state requirements for eligibility for services under
the Individuals With Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004.

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http://www.cdc.gov/obesity/childhood/

http://www.cpsc.gov/en/Safety-Education/Safety-Guides/Kids-and-Babies/Childproofing-Your-Home–12-Safety-Devices-To-Protect-Your-Children/

http://www.safekids.org/safetytips/field_age/little-kids-1%E2%80%934-years

www.firstsigns.org

http://www.nectac.org/~pdfs/pubs/nnotes21

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5Infant Development (Birth–12 months

)

“Even miracles take a little time.”
Cinderella’s Fairy Godmother

Learning Objectives

After studying this chapter you will be able to:

ሁ Name six infant reflexes.
ሁ Explain the two typical motor development patterns seen in infants.
ሁ Describe how an infant learns through the five senses.
ሁ Explain the development of attachment in the first year of life.
ሁ Describe the basic behaviors infants use in communication.
ሁ Identify five red flags in infancy that require attention from a professional.

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Section

5.1 Areas of Development in Infancy

Chapter Outline
Chapter Overview

5.1 Areas of Development in Infancy

5.2 Physical Growth and Brain Development in Infancy

5.3 Motor Development in Infancy

5.4 Cognitive Development in Infancy

5.5 Communication Development in Infancy

5.6 Social-Emotional Development in Infancy

5.7 Attending to the Infant’s Basic Needs

5.8 Developmental Red Flags and Where to Get Help

Summary and Resources

Chapter Overview
At birth, human babies enter the world as entirely dependent and helpless organisms. How-
ever, infancy, the period from birth until 12 months of age, is a period of rapid and amazing
development. Infancy begins with a newborn who is completely reliant on others, and who is
unguarded from all environmental influences. The nervous system and all components of the
brain are developing and are vulnerable in this early stage of life, so much so that attention
and memory may be affected far into the future by experiences that occur at this time. For
infants, not only do their basic needs require careful attention, but also their sensory abili-
ties, reflexes, self-regulation, and temperament need consideration, so that appropriate levels
of stimulation can be offered and so that any serious atypical development can be identified
early. This first year of life brings about major changes in communication; self-recognition;
and the development of trust, autonomy, and emotional relationships with others.

As discussed in Chapter 4, the first 4 weeks of life are known as the neonatal period. During
this period, an infant learns the early skills of survival and independence. This is where the
discussion in this chapter begins. In addition to focusing on the infant’s rapid physical growth
and continued neurological development, this chapter details the infant’s progress in each
of the developmental domains, emphasizing reflexes, social-emotional competencies, com-
munication, learning through the senses, and the infant’s basic needs of nurturance, feeding,
diaper changing, rest, and appropriate levels of stimulation.

5.1 Areas of Development in Infancy
As introduced in Chapter 1, child development is the dynamic process of acquiring increas-
ingly more complex motor, cognition, communication, social-emotional, and self-help skills
from the stage of conception through adolescence. Development includes milestones that
follow a fairly predictable path but are influenced by genetics, experiences, and the environ-
ment; as a result, development is very individualized.

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Section 5.2 Physical Growth and Brain Development in Infancy

It can be argued that infancy is one of the most fascinating of all of life’s developmental stages.
A child’s innate abilities at this stage have been debated for years. Early beliefs held that the
newborn comes into the world with little to contribute to the learning of skills and ideas,
having to be taught everything from motor skills to self-help skills. Although current think-
ing recognizes the newborn as completely dependent on others for survival, new knowledge
has transformed beliefs about infants’ abilities. Through high-tech intrauterine observa-
tions, neurological imaging, and other technological methods, information about life before
birth and immediately after is growing tremendously. Learning is now known to begin in the
womb, and most systems necessary for survival and intellectual advancement are ready at
the time of birth.

The sections that follow provide detailed information regarding physical growth and brain
development in infancy, as well as typical infant progress toward developmental milestones
in the areas of motor, cognition, communication, and social-emotional skills. Several areas of
caregiving related to an infant’s basic needs also are discussed, with caregiving behaviors set-
ting the stage for the infant’s future development of self-help skills. These sections allow us to
view the newborn within all areas of development, incrementally from birth until the child’s
first birthday. This detailed view is necessary in order to best illustrate the capabilities the
infant has at birth as well as the progress that is made over the first 12 months of life.

5.2 Physical Growth and Brain Development in Infancy
An infant’s physical growth is quite impressive, and shows a wide range of what is considered
“normal.” An infant’s physical growth is a composite of three measurements: weight, height
(or length), and head circumference. Each of these measures is discussed in this section. In
addition, because so much brain growth and development takes place during this period, that
topic is addressed here as well.

Weight
As noted in Chapter 4, the typical neonate weighs 7–7.5 pounds at birth. Most newborns lose
weight in the first few days after birth. An average weight loss is about 5 percent of the infant’s
birth weight. But after this loss, the typical infant gains about 5–7 ounces every week in the
first month, doubles birth weight by 5 months, and typically triples birth weight by the first
birthday (Hoecker, 2011). As pointed out in one of the early books on infant development,
Infants, if this growth rate continued at the same rate as it does in the first 6 months, a 10 year
old would be 100 feet tall and weigh about 240,000 tons (McCall, 1979). This certainly puts
an infant’s early growth rate into perspective.

Infant weight gain is generally monitored regularly through well-child or pediatric visits. Clin-
ical charts for infants are published in various forms. The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention (CDC) provides a commonly used set of 10 charts (5 for boys and 5 for girls), with
the 5th, 10th, 25th, 50th, 75th, 90th, and 95th smoothed percentile lines shown on all charts,
and the 85th percentile line shown for body-mass-index-for-age and weight-for-stature (see
Figure 5.1). These charts are available in English, Spanish, and French and cover not only
weight but also head circumference.

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lb kg

6
4
8
10
12
14
16
18

Age (months)

Weight-for-age percentiles:
Girls, birth to 36 months

30 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33 36

97th

95th

90th

75th

25th

10th
5th

50th

2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
lb kg
6
4
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
38
40
30 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33 36
97th
95th
90th
75th
25th
10th
5th
50th
3rd
Age (months)

Weight-for-age percentiles:
Boys, birth to 36 months

Section 5.2 Physical Growth and Brain Development in Infancy

Failure to thrive refers to infants whose weight or rate of weight gain is significantly
lower than that of other infants, at times presenting with diminished growth after typi-
cal growth patterns had been observed previously (MedlinePlus, 2011). Failure to thrive
can be due to a medical problem or the result of environmental issues such as abuse or
neglect, poverty, poor eating habits, or parents’ lack of understanding about proper infant
nutrition. Often, however, the cause of failure to thrive cannot be specifically identified.
Children who are characterized by failure to thrive may show delays in their milestone
skill development, and severe and prolonged failure to thrive may have long-term effects
on a child’s developmental growth. However, if a cause can be determined and/or treat-
ment can be provided quickly, a child’s developmental growth may not be severely affected
(MedlinePlus, 2011).

Figure 5.1: Clinical charts, birth–36 months
ሁ Clinical charts can be used to monitor infants’ weight gain. The U.S. Centers for Disease Control

and Prevention publishes a series of such charts. The child’s age and sex determine which version of
the chart should be used.

Source: Adapted from Kuczmarski, R. J., Ogden, C. L., Guo, S. S., Grummer-Strawn, L. M., Flegal, K. M., Mei, Z., . . . , Johnson, C. L. (2002). 2000 CDC growth charts for

the United States: Methods and development. National Center for Health Statistics. Vital and Health Statistics 11(246).

2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
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18
19
lb kg
6
4
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
38
40
Age (months)
Weight-for-age percentiles:
Girls, birth to 36 months
30 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33 36

97th
95th

90th
75th

25th
10th
5th

50th
3rd
2
3
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5
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19
lb kg
6
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38
40
30 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33 36
97th
95th
90th
75th
25th
10th
5th
50th
3rd
Age (months)
Weight-for-age percentiles:
Boys, birth to 36 months

gro81431_05_c05_093-120.indd 96 4/24/14 12:50 PM

Months

Age (completed months and years)

L
e
n

g
th

/H
e
ig

h
t

(c
m

)

1 yearBirth 2 years 3 years 4 years 5 years

100

105

110

115

120

2 4 6 8 10 2 4 6 8 10 2 4 6 8 10 2 4 6 8 10 2 4 6 8 10

3rd
97th

50th
85th

15th

Section 5.2 Physical Growth and Brain Development in Infancy

Length
Along with weight, measurement of an infant’s length is needed to assess physical growth at
this stage. Recumbent length is a measure of an infant’s physical growth (analogous to the
height of older children and adults), and refers to the length of the infant while lying down.
The CDC and the American Academy of Pediatrics recommend the use of the 2006 World
Health Organization (WHO) international growth charts to monitor growth in children in the
United States under age 24 months (WHO, n.d.). Growth curves are graphed by these growth
charts from birth to age 2, by gender. (For one example of a growth chart, see Figure 5.2.)

There are general patterns that are considered typical for an infant’s growth. If an infant is
determined to be far off the pattern for several routine pediatrician visits, a red flag should
be raised to identify the cause and to decide whether an intervention is needed. For instance,
extreme chronic malnutrition may produce stunted growth in children. The term stunted
growth is generally used for children who fall below the 5th percentile of the reference popu-
lation in height for age. This is where culture comes into play. The reference population for
Asian children is different than that for children from the United States. Stunting is commonly
found where poverty is extreme (including in the United States), with the conditions of pov-
erty affecting how children are fed. Children below the poverty threshold experience stunt-
ing at much higher rates (7–13 percent) than do those living above the poverty threshold
(4–5 percent), as shown in Figure 5.3 (Lewit & Kerrebrock, 1997).

Figure 5.2: Length-for-age and height-for-age, for boys, birth–5 years
ሁ This chart is a standard growth chart showing that the precise point where an infant lies on the

chart is not as important as the overall trend of growth.

Source: WHO Child Growth Standards (2014). Length/height-for-age: Birth to 5 years. Retrieved from http://www.who.int/childgrowth/standards/cht
_lhfa_boys_p_0_5 ?ua=1.

Months
Age (completed months and years)
L
e
n
g
th
/H
e
ig
h
t
(c
m
)
1 yearBirth 2 years 3 years 4 years 5 years
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
105
110
115
120
2 4 6 8 10 2 4 6 8 10 2 4 6 8 10 2 4 6 8 10 2 4 6 8 10
3rd
97th
50th
85th
15th

gro81431_05_c05_093-120.indd 97 4/24/14 12:50 PM

http://www.who.int/childgrowth/standards/cht_lhfa_boys_p_0_5 ?ua=1

12
10
8
6
4
2
14

0
2 to 5 years old 6 to 11 years old 12 to 17 years old

P
e

rc
e

n
ta

g
e

s
tu

n
te

Age

Below poverty

Above poverty

Section 5.2 Physical Growth and Brain Development in Infancy

Important relationships have been
identified between the number of years
of malnutrition early in life and lower
scores on tests of cognitive develop-
ment (Korenman, Miller, & Sjaastad,
1995). However, research over the past
three decades has shown that good
nutrition after age 2 years can restore
cognitive development (Brown & Pol-
litt, 1996; Bryan, Osendarp, Hughes,
Calvaresi, Baghurst, & van Klinken,
2004).

Head Circumference
The third measurement of physical
growth in infants is that of head cir-
cumference. Head circumference is
indicative of brain volume and is mea-
sured by a tape around the forehead.
An unusually shaped head is com-
mon immediately after birth due to
the birthing process through the birth

canal, but it lasts only hours or a few days. The infant head is large in proportion to the rest
of the infant’s body, usually about one-fourth the size of the infant’s body length (Gairdner &
Pearson, 1971). The skull also may appear large for the face and has parts that are soft because
the bones have not fused yet. These soft
spots are known as fontanels. The anterior
fontanel can be found at the front top part of
the head, a smaller one (the posterior fon-
tanel) can be found at the back of the head,
and smaller soft areas also may be found in
other areas of the skull (Children’s Hospital
of Wisconsin, 2013). The anterior fontanel
is the one generally referred to when iden-
tifying the soft spot. The posterior fontanel
will close within the first few months, while
the anterior fontanel will close at around
2 years (Children’s Hospital of Wisconsin,
2013). The American Academy of Pediat-
rics (2013d) describes fontanels as being
fairly durable but cautions against applying
extreme pressure anywhere on a newborn,
including the fontanels.

Brain Development
The architecture of an infant’s brain is constructed from genetic information, with successive
brain development shaped largely by experiences. During early gestation, brain cells called

▶ The Moro reflex can be a response to a loud
noise or sudden loss of support. It includes rapid
extension of arms followed by bringing them back
to midline.

Figure 5.3: Stunting and the effects
of poverty

ሁ Depending on age, children living below the official
federal poverty threshold varied widely in the
percentage falling in the range of stunting, whereas
children in families over the poverty threshold have a
much lower percentage of stunting.

Source: Lewit, E. M., & Kerrebrock, N. (1997). Population-based growth stunting. The
Future of Children, 7(2), 149–156.

12
10
8
6
4
2
14
0
2 to 5 years old 6 to 11 years old 12 to 17 years old
P
e
rc
e
n
ta
g
e
s
tu
n
te
d
Age
Below poverty
Above poverty

gro81431_05_c05_093-120.indd 98 4/24/14 12:50 PM

Amygdala
(emotions)

HippocampusHippocampus

(memory)

Prefrontal
cortex

Amygdala
(emotions) Hippocampus

(memory)
Section 5.2 Physical Growth and Brain Development in Infancy

neurons are developing by the millions. These neurons then travel to sites determined by
genetics and form the layers of the brain. Neurons cluster together by the function they per-
form. The clusters are connected to each other through a system of synapses, which are gaps
between the clusters of neurons through which messages are sent.

All functioning, whether sensory or cognitive, is determined by this connecting of neurons. At
the end of neurons are chemical messengers, such as adrenaline and serotonin, called neu-
rotransmitters. Neurotransmitters activate areas of the brain at different times so that it can
produce thoughts, emotions, and behaviors. The critical connections of groups of neurons
are strengthened and become denser by being used, and are eliminated by not being used.
The elimination of these unneeded connections or synapses is called pruning (Webb, Monk,
& Nelson, 2001).

Before birth and into early infancy, the less complex parts of the brain are developed. These
parts include the brain stem and the midbrain, which control bodily functions such as breath-
ing, blood pressure, heart rate, and sleeping. Over the rest of the first year and through the
next 2 years, the more complex parts of the brain in the limbic system are shaped and devel-
oped (see Figure 5.4).

The limbic system is responsible for processing experiences and developing controls for emo-
tions. Not until adolescence are the prefrontal cortex and the rest of the cortical areas that
control abstract thinking and executive functioning (see Chapter 2) fully developed. There-
fore, early experiences teach the brain how to react and also continue to influence develop-
ment of the brain through adolescence. It is quite clear that early childhood caregivers have
a huge influence in shaping the brain and, hence, the child’s future abilities and behaviors.

Although a critical amount of brain development occurs early and is influenced immensely
by experiences, for young children who have difficult beginnings, researchers have identi-
fied the brain’s ability to change, and its ability to change in a positive way. As described in

Figure 5.4: The limbic system
ሁ This lateral view of an adult brain illustrates the prefrontal cortex, amygdala (emotions), and

hippocampus (memory).

Amygdala
(emotions)

HippocampusHippocampus
(memory)

Prefrontal
cortex
Amygdala
(emotions) Hippocampus
(memory)

gro81431_05_c05_093-120.indd 99 4/24/14 12:50 PM

Section 5.3 Motor Development in Infancy

Chapter 1, the brain’s natural ability to change is called plasticity. Researchers have found that
in the early stages of brain development there is a great deal of plasticity. Plasticity can com-
pensate for areas in the brain that have been damaged or did not develop typically. Because
of this plasticity, experiences in the early years have a substantial influence on the brain’s
development and functioning. Although negative experiences can have a detrimental influ-
ence on brain development in early childhood, later experiences also have a significant influ-
ence because of plasticity, which means that care from responsive and nurturing caregivers
can compensate for earlier problems.

A group of infants to consider when examining brain development are those born prema-
turely. With every additional week of gestation, the fetus’s brain is more developed. Risks
to fetuses born prematurely include future problems with language, learning, coordination,
and behavior (e.g., attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder); the more premature the birth,
the greater the risks (Black et al., 2008). In addition, extremely premature infants may have
brain hemorrhages, which can cause a variety of deficits in cognitive and motor functioning
(Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000).

5.3 Motor Development in Infancy
Infants are born with protective reflexes in the motor domain. Most reflexes disappear within
the first year, but some play a protective function for survival and remain throughout life.
Reflexes specific to the period of infancy are identified in Table 4.5 of Chapter 4. These reflexes
will be observed following birth but fade over the first year of life. Reflexes that serve a pro-
tective function during infancy and that remain throughout life include the gag reflex, which
protects an infant from choking while sucking and drinking; the blink reflex, which protects
the infant’s eyes from foreign particles; and the shiver reflex, which signals to caregivers that
the infant is experiencing uncomfortable temperatures (Muller et al., 2013). Although suck-
ing is considered a reflex at birth, it becomes voluntary at about 2 months and becomes per-
manent. In coordination with the suck reflex, the swallowing reflex is established at birth.
Voluntary swallowing develops sometime in the middle of the first year in time for solid foods
to be introduced into the infant’s diet.

Other infant reflexes disappear within the first year as maturation of the central nervous
system allows voluntary movements to take their place (Zafeiriou, 2004). The palmar grasp
reflex is produced by putting pressure on an infant’s palm. The fingers will curl and grasp the
pressure-producing object. This reflex weakens in the third month and disappears by the end
of the first year. The stepping reflex is observed immediately after birth in full-term infants
and disappears at around 2 months. It is elicited when the child is held upright with toes
touching a surface and reciprocal “walking” movements of the legs are observed. This pattern
of movement is a precursor to independent walking later in life (Bradley, 2003).

Even more reflexes disappear at around 4–5 months. One such reflex is the rooting reflex.
This reflex occurs when an infant’s cheek is stroked lightly. The head turns in the direction
of that cheek; the infant opens his or her mouth, and attempts to suck. The asymmetrical
tonic neck reflex is sometimes referred to as the fencing position because the infant’s head
turns to one side, while the arm and leg on that side extend and the limbs on the other side

gro81431_05_c05_093-120.indd 100 4/24/14 12:50 PM

Section 5.3 Motor Development in Infancy

flex, making the infant look like a fencer (Clopton, 2000). The Moro reflex, also called the
startle reflex, is a reaction to a startling stimulus such as a sudden loud noise. This stimulus
causes the infant’s arms to extend and rapidly come back to midline while the fingers close
and release in a grasping motion (Ronnqvist, 1995).

Newborns’ skills in the fine and gross motor domains are limited, as is seen in the uncoordi-
nated movements of the legs and arms. However, their motor development follows two pat-
terns that, once understood, make infant motor development seem very orderly and logical.
These two patterns—cephalocaudal and proximodistal development—take motor develop-
ment from the simple to the advanced.

Cephalocaudal development refers to how body growth and muscular control proceeds
from top down or from the head to the legs. The infant smiles, gains head control, and is able
to lift the upper trunk, in that order. This is followed by arm control, which comes before sit-
ting up (which requires trunk or core control), followed by the gaining of strength and coor-
dination in the legs.

Proximodistal development is motor development progressing from the center of the
body to the extremities. The infant must first gain proximal stability in the musculature of
the trunk before mastering more refined distal movements. An infant’s muscle strength fol-
lows the same pattern. In the first month, an infant attains good muscle strength in the
upper body. Control of the upper trunk and shoulders will be followed by reaching, which is
then followed by grasping or object manipulation. This pattern is also observed in the motor
sequence of crawling: As core control improves, the child will begin to rock on all fours until
proximal extremity strength is achieved, allowing progression of strength development to
the limbs. Based on this proximodistal motor development, it makes sense that, depending
on the progressive development of strength and stability of musculature, the infant smiles
at 2 months, then lifts the shoulders and chest at 3 months. At 3–5 months, the infant is able
to hold the head steady and can roll over, bear weight on legs, reach out for toys, and play
with hands and feet.

Finally, the infant is able to sit independently at about 5 months and can creep, crawl, and
cruise along furniture by the second half of the first year. Walking is a milestone that parents
often anticipate with special joy. As with other motor milestones, the ability to walk varies in
its precise age of onset, but it typically appears at approximately 12 months.

These cephalocaudal and proximodistal growth patterns explain why fine motor skills develop
after many of the gross motor skills are achieved. Different from the innate palmar grasp
reflex discussed previously, infants develop the voluntary motor skill of grasping objects with
the palm, called the palmar grasp. This palmar grasp typically develops before the more
advanced pincer grasp, in which infants use the index finger and thumb to pick up objects. At
about 3 months, infants typically can bring their hands toward midline. Midline refers to the
center of the body if a line were to be drawn from head to toe with left and right sides of the
body equivalent. At about 6–9 months, infants are able to use this skill to transfer toys from
one hand to the other. From 9 to 12 months, infants develop the ability to isolate the index
finger to point and to push buttons, and many motor skills combine to enable infants to feed
themselves finger foods at this time.

gro81431_05_c05_093-120.indd 101 4/24/14 12:50 PM

Section 5.4 Cognitive Development in Infancy

5.4 Cognitive Development in Infancy
Cognitive development in newborns and infants is interrelated with each of the other devel-
opmental domains. However, this cognitive development initially is based in the five senses of
hearing, vision, touch, smell, and taste. Each of the senses is functional at birth and becomes
refined in the first year (see Table 5.1).

The infant is born with selective but good hearing. Many studies have demonstrated infants’
ability to discriminate among voices, especially responding to female voices with preference
for the mother’s voice (Fernald, 1985). Within a few months, the infant can coordinate the
behaviors of listening and looking, and turning voluntarily toward sounds. Infants also seem
to enjoy musical sounds at this time.

Visually, newborns attend more readily to moving objects than to static ones. They are able to
follow moving objects if the objects are close enough to see. Infants cannot yet distinguish all
colors, but they are able to see and focus on black-and-white patterns. Acuity, or visual clarity,
is weak in early infancy, and two-dimensional visual skills likewise are poor. However, acuity,
visual tracking of a moving object in all directions, and depth perception improve in the first
6–8 months so that by the second half of the year vision is comparable to that of an adult. This
means that infants recognize color and shapes and see at a distance.

Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development (see Chapter 3) identifies four main stages. In
the first year of life, children are within what Piaget referred to as the sensorimotor stage.
Object permanence is an important part of Piaget’s sensorimotor stage. Object permanence
is the ability to know that objects exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched.
It is thought to be an important cognitive milestone that usually occurs after the age of
4 months. Object permanence is connected to the senses since the object first must be recog-
nized through the senses, usually by vision. It is a significant milestone because it also signals
that the infant is developing memory and some abstract thinking.

The sense of touch is also not very sophisticated at birth, but it is present. Newborns’
responses to touch often are by reflexes, but gradually they begin to discriminate between

TIPS ON PROMOTING MOTOR DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY
• Engage an infant in play.
• Present toys that stimulate the infant’s senses to encourage the infant to move

eyes, head, and neck to see what you have. This can also encourage older
infants to reach and grab for toys, promoting fine motor skills.

• Without causing frustration, place a toy just out of the infant’s reach to encourage the
development of skills used to move toward and grasp objects.

• Use tummy time (occasionally placing a supervised infant on his or her stomach during
awake time) to help strengthen muscles and improve motor skills. Provide interesting
toys and interact with the infant during this activity.

• Before an infant begins to stand and cruise, make sure furniture and items low to the
floor are safe and stable for the infant to hold onto and walk around.

• Allow an infant to self-feed (when ready) with finger foods. This helps the child to
develop fine motor skills.

Source: Harding, S. (2013). Activities to encourage the motor development of a baby. Retrieved from http://www.livestrong
.com/article/82666-activities-encourage-motor-development-baby/.

gro81431_05_c05_093-120.indd 102 4/24/14 12:50 PM

http://www.livestrong.com/article/82666-activities-encourage-motor-development-baby/

Section 5.4 Cognitive Development in Infancy

touch that is preferred and touch that is not. For instance, infants may like being patted on
the back to fall asleep and may enjoy skin-to-skin cuddling. Mouthing is another way infants
experience touch and exploration. This behavior begins in the first half of the year, but an
infant needs more developed motor skills in order to bring an object, whether a toy or body
part, to the mouth.

Researchers have found that neonates are able to discriminate between odors by looking in
the direction of the more pleasant ones, with their favorite being their mothers’ (Cernoch &
Porter, 1985). Taste is also somewhat selective. Most infants prefer sweet tastes to salty or
tasteless ones.

Table 5.1: Senses in infancy

Sense Characteristics

Hearing Infants are born with selective but good hearing, as they have been shown to discriminate
among voices.

Within a few months, infants can coordinate the behaviors of listening and looking, turning
voluntarily toward sounds.

Vision Newborns attend more readily to moving objects than to static ones.

Newborns can follow moving objects if the objects are close enough to see.

Infants cannot yet distinguish all colors, but they are able to see and focus on black-and-
white patterns.

Acuity (visual clarity) is weak in early infancy.

Two-dimensional visual skills are poor in early infancy.

Acuity, visual tracking of a moving object in all directions, and depth perception improve in
the first 6–8 months; by the second half of the year vision is comparable to that of adults.

Touch The sense of touch is also not very sophisticated at birth, but it is present.

Often the newborn’s responses to touch are by reflexes, but gradually they begin to discrimi-
nate between touch that is preferred and touch that is not.

Smell Neonates are able to discriminate between odors by looking in the direction of the more
pleasant ones, with their favorite being their mothers’.

Taste Most infants prefer sweet tastes to salty or tasteless ones.

TIPS ON PROMOTING COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY
• Provide infants with interesting toys and experiences.
• Talk to infants. Respond to infants’ smiles and vocalizations.
• Read and sing to infants.
• Provide infants with adequate nutrition.

• Provide infants with sensitive and responsive care.
• PLAY!
• Allow infants to touch and mouth objects that are safe. Infants learn through all of

their senses.
• Provide toys that stimulate all of an infant’s senses.
• Follow an infant’s cues for the need for more or less stimulation.

gro81431_05_c05_093-120.indd 103 4/24/14 12:50 PM

Section 5.5 Communication Development in Infancy

5.5 Communication Development in Infancy
Communication and language are key to social interactions, building relationships, and other
critical skills later in life. In addition to being directly related to the social-emotional domain,
it is difficult to separate communication skills from the cognitive domain since an infant’s
communication is often seen as the vehicle by which cognition and intelligence are assessed.
For example, if a baby cannot communicate with caregivers, the caregiver could not know
what the baby understands, or develop a reciprocal relationship.

Communication is typically separated into two categories: receptive and expressive. Receptive
communication skills are generally apparent sooner than are expressive skills. Receptive
communication includes symbols like words, sounds, and gestures that an infant under-
stands. Receptive communication skills are important for current and future learning;
however, it is sometimes difficult to recognize if the infant is having challenges with these

MEDIA, TECHNOLOGY, AND EARLY CHILDHOOD:
INFANTS AND TECHNOLOGY: A LOST OPPORTUNITY

Nancy cares for two infants, Louise and Carol (9 and 11 months old, respectively), in
her home child care. Several times a day, she needs to prepare food, change bedding,
and complete other chores related to their care. Nancy finds that leaving the infants

in safe seats to watch television during these times keeps them quiet. In addition, when she
returns to the room they are in, the quiet suggests to her that she can leave them in front of the
television longer so that she can have some quiet reading time for herself.

Screen time for children under 2 years old is discouraged by experts in child development
(National Association for the Education of the Young Child and the Fred Rogers Center for
Early Learning and Children’s Media, 2012) for many reasons but especially because children
under age 2 need direct adult interaction and relationship-building activities. Therefore, if
Nancy changes her use of technology for the infants in her care from passive watching of
television to interactive activities led by her, she can supplement Louise’s and Carol’s oppor-
tunities for improved development. For instance, Susie, another home child caregiver, folds
her children’s laundry in the same room in which the children in her care are listening to soft
music. She talks with the infants about what she is doing and sings with the music.

▶ Intentional communication
occurs when infants use actions
(like pointing) or vocalizations to
influence a caregiver.

gro81431_05_c05_093-120.indd 104 4/24/14 12:50 PM

Section 5.5 Communication Development in Infancy

receptive skills. Expressive communication includes
how infants express themselves and communicate to
others. Expressive communication is an equally impor-
tant component of communication, and it signals to
caregivers that receptive skills are being used.

Infancy is a time when many communication skills are
gained, but researchers also recognize that infants
are born with many capabilities to communicate. For
instance, infants communicate specific needs early
(Owens, 2001). The earliest forms of infant communi-
cation are nonverbal or preverbal communication. The
typical infant often begins communication with crying.
The infant cries to signal the need for food, nurturance,
and comfort, including the need for a diaper change. Gen-
erally in the first 3 months, infants also coo and use other
similar sounds of pleasure as well as smiling to commu-
nicate contentment.

Infants also use early nonvocal communication through
facial expressions, head turning, and reaching. They
react to loud sounds, recognize familiar voices, and
calm down to those voices if they are upset. In the next
3 months, infants pay attention to changes in voice

tones and to music. They can follow sounds with their eyes and are aware of toys that make
sounds. They express themselves with even more sounds than in the first 3 months by
adding babbling and gurgling sounds. They begin to laugh out loud and babble in response
to emotions like being excited (American Speech-Language-Hearing Association, 2013;
National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders [NIDCD], 2010).

During the second half of the first year, infants imitate speech sounds and may say one or
two simple words like “dada,” “up,” and “mama.” This stage in communication development is
called the sound imitation period. One form of sound imitation is echolalia. Echolalia is when
infants imitate sounds, not real words, they hear in their environments, including sounds
from people. It occurs at around 9 months.

At about this same time, infants begin to attend more carefully when caregivers talk to them.
Thus it becomes apparent through the infant’s communication skills that infants under-
stand some words for common items like “milk” and “dog” and react to simple phrases
like “come here.” The use of gestures to communicate desires, such as wanting to eat or
wanting to be picked up, begin at 7–12 months of age (NIDCD, 2010). This is the beginning
of intentional communication. Intentional communication is demonstrated when infants
deliberately communicate by using either actions or vocalization to get something (Owens,
2001). The difference in this type of communication, as compared with other types, is in its
use as the means to get a response from another. See Table 5.2 for distinctions among types
of infant communication.

A relatively recent debate among caregivers is the use of technology and media with infants.
The American Academy of Pediatrics (2011a, 2011b), the National Association for the Educa-
tion of the Young Child and the Fred Rogers Center for Early Learning and Children’s Media
(2012), and the White House Task Force on Childhood Obesity (2010) discourage the use of
screen media for children under 2 years of age in early childhood programs. However, there
is agreement that some technology such as music and audio recordings, if used intentionally
and in an age-appropriate manner, can enhance the quality of programs. Mixed messages
about the use of technology for infants has much to do with the use of passive technology like
television versus the use of interactive technology that, when combined with adult involve-
ment such as modeling its use and partnering in play, can help build relationships, feed curi-
osity, and improve communication and social skills (Plowman & Stephen, 2005).
5.5 Communication Development in Infancy
Communication and language are key to social interactions, building relationships, and other
critical skills later in life. In addition to being directly related to the social-emotional domain,
it is difficult to separate communication skills from the cognitive domain since an infant’s
communication is often seen as the vehicle by which cognition and intelligence are assessed.
For example, if a baby cannot communicate with caregivers, the caregiver could not know
what the baby understands, or develop a reciprocal relationship.
Communication is typically separated into two categories: receptive and expressive. Receptive
communication skills are generally apparent sooner than are expressive skills. Receptive
communication includes symbols like words, sounds, and gestures that an infant under-
stands. Receptive communication skills are important for current and future learning;
however, it is sometimes difficult to recognize if the infant is having challenges with these
MEDIA, TECHNOLOGY, AND EARLY CHILDHOOD:
INFANTS AND TECHNOLOGY: A LOST OPPORTUNITY
Nancy cares for two infants, Louise and Carol (9 and 11 months old, respectively), in
her home child care. Several times a day, she needs to prepare food, change bedding,
and complete other chores related to their care. Nancy finds that leaving the infants
in safe seats to watch television during these times keeps them quiet. In addition, when she
returns to the room they are in, the quiet suggests to her that she can leave them in front of the
television longer so that she can have some quiet reading time for herself.
Screen time for children under 2 years old is discouraged by experts in child development
(National Association for the Education of the Young Child and the Fred Rogers Center for
Early Learning and Children’s Media, 2012) for many reasons but especially because children
under age 2 need direct adult interaction and relationship-building activities. Therefore, if
Nancy changes her use of technology for the infants in her care from passive watching of
television to interactive activities led by her, she can supplement Louise’s and Carol’s oppor-
tunities for improved development. For instance, Susie, another home child caregiver, folds
her children’s laundry in the same room in which the children in her care are listening to soft
music. She talks with the infants about what she is doing and sings with the music.
© R. Eko Bintoro/iStock/Thinkstock
▶ Intentional communication
occurs when infants use actions
(like pointing) or vocalizations to
influence a caregiver.

gro81431_05_c05_093-120.indd 105 4/24/14 12:50 PM

Section 5.5 Communication Development in Infancy

Table 5.2: Types of infant communication

Type of
Communication Description Approximate Age

Nonverbal/
preverbal

Cries to signal needs, including the need for food, nurturance,
and comfort.

Coos and uses other similar sounds of pleasure

Smiles to communicate contentment

Pays attention to music

Laughs

Understands basic sounds of native language

Obviously listens to words by turning and physically reacting

Birth–9 months

Simple words/
intentional
gestures

Waves, holds up arms to be picked up

Understands common words

Responds to simple requests

Imitates speech sounds

Has one or two words

9–12 months

Some language specialists believe that before infants can move on to using words and sen-
tences, they must have a conceptual framework of their environment and intentional com-
munication is the last step in this framework. This framework is made up of three sequential

TIPS ON PROMOTING COMMUNICATION DEVELOPMENT
IN INFANCY
• Be engaging when talking to infants; respond to their vocalizations.
• Engage in joint attention. Point to objects and talk about what you and the

infant see.
• Describe to infants the objects they see, the activities in which they take part, and

events that occur.
• Use a variety of words and grammar.
• Label objects and actions.
• Let infants take part in interesting activities.
• Read books (and read them over and over!).
• Introduce and talk about new and interesting objects.
• Involve infants in musical activities; sing nursery rhymes and children’s songs.
• Use gestures or simple signs when talking.

Source: Gardner-Neblett, N., & Gallagher, K. C. (2013). More than baby talk: 10 ways to promote the language and com-
munication skills of infants and toddlers. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, FPG Child Development Institute.

Figure 5.5: Three components necessary
for first words and sentences

ሁ For infants to begin to use words and sentences,
some language specialists believe that they must have a
conceptual framework of their environment, which is
made up of conceptual development, speech/signal
decoding, and intentionality.

Source: From De Villiers, J. G., & De Villiers, P. A. (1999). Language development. In Develop-
mental psychology: An advanced textbook (4th ed.). Copyright © 1999 Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates, Inc. Reprinted by permission.

Conceptual
Development

Speech/Signal
Decoding

First Words and Sentences

Intentionality

gro81431_05_c05_093-120.indd 106 4/24/14 12:50 PM

Conceptual
Development
Speech/Signal
Decoding
First Words and Sentences
Intentionality

Section 5.6 Social-Emotional Development in Infancy

components. First, infants must have
the cognitive development skills to
know that objects and people are
stable and that there are categories
of objects. Second, they must sepa-
rate speech into words and phrases
by decoding speech or other symbols.
This decoding helps the infant to rec-
ognize the same word or symbol when
used at different times and when used
by different people. Third, they must
learn how to be intentional when they
want something, meaning that they
are communicating for a particular
purpose. Only after all three steps are
achieved can the infant begin to use
words and sentences (see Figure 5.5)
(de Villiers & de Villiers, 1999).

5.6 Social-Emotional Development in Infancy
Infant social-emotional development begins with the neonate’s bonding experience described
in Chapter 4, as well as all social interactions and early relationships. Early behaviors that
demonstrate that infants have emotions include laughing and smiling, showing anticipation
and excitement (possibly through arms and legs flailing), and switching from quiet to alert
states when paying attention to the environment.

The intense closeness an infant feels to the attachment figure is part of social-emotional
development. The infant sends out signals that encourage relationships by mutual gazing,
cooing, cuddling when held, and smiling. Some researchers say the grasp reflex is demonstra-
tive of this innate desire, based on the infant’s strong grasp of a parent’s fingers, but there is
no evidence for this interpretation.

According to attachment theory (see Chapter 3), attachment is the basis for social-
emotional well-being, which is the basis for good future mental health. Attachment behaviors
are observed in all healthy infants. These behaviors include clinging to a caregiver, crying
when the attachment figure leaves the infant, and in later infancy, clinging and crying when
a stranger approaches. In addition, infants use different strategies to seek out a familiar per-
son or object, at first visually and later with locomotion, given that making eye contact and
physical touching are also behaviors that promote relationships. Those individuals who most
often become attachment figures are caregivers who are responsive to the infant’s cues and
signals, are typically sensitive in their style of caregiving, and who are stable in the infant’s
life (Ainsworth, 1979).

Table 5.2: Types of infant communication
Type of
Communication Description Approximate Age
Nonverbal/
preverbal
Cries to signal needs, including the need for food, nurturance,
and comfort.
Coos and uses other similar sounds of pleasure
Smiles to communicate contentment
Pays attention to music
Laughs
Understands basic sounds of native language
Obviously listens to words by turning and physically reacting
Birth–9 months
Simple words/
intentional
gestures
Waves, holds up arms to be picked up
Understands common words
Responds to simple requests
Imitates speech sounds
Has one or two words
9–12 months
Some language specialists believe that before infants can move on to using words and sen-
tences, they must have a conceptual framework of their environment and intentional com-
munication is the last step in this framework. This framework is made up of three sequential
TIPS ON PROMOTING COMMUNICATION DEVELOPMENT
IN INFANCY
• Be engaging when talking to infants; respond to their vocalizations.
• Engage in joint attention. Point to objects and talk about what you and the
infant see.
• Describe to infants the objects they see, the activities in which they take part, and
events that occur.
• Use a variety of words and grammar.
• Label objects and actions.
• Let infants take part in interesting activities.
• Read books (and read them over and over!).
• Introduce and talk about new and interesting objects.
• Involve infants in musical activities; sing nursery rhymes and children’s songs.
• Use gestures or simple signs when talking.
Source: Gardner-Neblett, N., & Gallagher, K. C. (2013). More than baby talk: 10 ways to promote the language and com-
munication skills of infants and toddlers. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, FPG Child Development Institute.
Figure 5.5: Three components necessary
for first words and sentences
ሁ For infants to begin to use words and sentences,
some language specialists believe that they must have a
conceptual framework of their environment, which is
made up of conceptual development, speech/signal
decoding, and intentionality.
Source: From De Villiers, J. G., & De Villiers, P. A. (1999). Language development. In Develop-
mental psychology: An advanced textbook (4th ed.). Copyright © 1999 Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates, Inc. Reprinted by permission.
Conceptual
Development
Speech/Signal
Decoding
First Words and Sentences
Intentionality

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Section 5.6 Social-Emotional Development in Infancy

Attachment and relationship building have been described as having phases within the
infancy stage (Ainsworth, 1982; Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters, & Wall, 1978). In phase 1, which
is approximately the first 2 months of infancy, there is little discrimination among caregivers
or objects. However, infant behaviors of crying, cuddling, and smiling promote caregivers’
interactions. In phase 2, during the next 4 months and sometimes much later, differentiation
among caregivers becomes the typical behavior, with obvious preferences for familiar indi-
viduals. Beginning at about 6 or 7 months but by 2 years, the toddler is clearly attached to
one or more figures (Lamb, Thompson, Gardner, & Charnov, 1985). See Table 5.3 for a more
detailed look at the phases of attachment according to John Bowlby (1969). This forming of
attachments early in life is believed to be important throughout life.

Table 5.3: Phases of attachment according to Bowlby (1969)

Phase Approximate Age Characteristics

Phase 1: Orientation
and signals with limited
discrimination of figure

Birth to 2 months (but
may last up to 3 months
or later)

Little discrimination among caregivers or objects.

Infant behavior of crying, cuddling, grasping, reach-
ing, and smiling promotes caregivers’ interactions
and proximity.

Phase 2: Orientation
and signals directed
toward one (or more)
discriminated figure(s)

Following phase 1 until
about 6 months of age
or later

Differentiation among caregivers with obvious
preferences for familiar individuals.

Continued friendly behavior toward others, but
more distinctly toward the primary attachment
figure than toward others.

TIPS ON FOSTERING THE ATTACHMENT RELATIONSHIP
• Be sensitive and responsive to children’s needs; be warm and affectionate.
• Read and respond to the cues that children show.
• Engage children by taking turns during interactions and when communicating.
• Be physically and emotionally available when children explore the environment.

• Provide comfort when children are distressed.
• Enthusiastically follow a child’s lead during play, and provide help to support a child’s

problem-solving skills.
• Keep in mind that relationships can be built and strengthened at any time during the day.
• Communicate to children that you will keep them safe.
• Provide consistency in the care that children receive (including primary caregivers and

child-care providers).
• Maintain consistent caregiving, especially when a child’s environment changes (e.g.,

moving to a new home, transitioning to a new child-care classroom).
• As a caregiver, locate any needed mental health support or other needed resources so

that you can maintain warm and responsive interactions with the children in your care.
Source: Modified from Wittmer, D. (2011). Attachment: What works? Retrieved from http://csefel.vanderbilt.edu/briefs
/wwb_24 .

(continued)

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Section 5.6 Social-Emotional Development in Infancy
Phase Approximate Age Characteristics

Phase 3: Maintenance
of proximity to a
discriminated figure by
means of locomotion as
well as signals

Begins at 6–7 months
and continues into the
third year

Increasing discrimination in the way caregivers
are treated.

Follows a preferred caregiver when she leaves;
greets a preferred caregiver when she returns.

Uses preferred caregiver as a safe base in order
to explore.

Other caregivers can be identified as secondary
attachment figures.

Strangers are treated with increasing caution and
become cause for alarm.

Some behavior becomes organized and goal-
directed toward the primary attachment figure.

Proximity to attachment figure is beginning to be
maintained.

Phase 4: Formation
of a goal-directed
partnership

Begins about the
middle of the third year

The child gains insight into the primary attachment
figure’s “feelings and motives” (p. 219).

A more complex relationship develops, which
Bowlby refers to as a partnership.

Source: Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and loss. Vol. 1: Attachment. New York: Basic Books.

Social-emotional characteristics that infants are considered to be born with include tempera-
ment and personality traits. Evidence indicates that temperament and personality traits are
stable over time, but how a child expresses them later depends on early relationships, culture,
and other environmental factors (Lamb, 1988; Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000). Emotions and their
expressions are other characteristics in an infant’s early social-emotional development. These
expressions of emotion are often related to the infant’s response to stress and are identified
in the infant’s ability to self-control or regulate stress. Behaviors include crying, tantrums,
rocking, and turning away. Controlling nega-
tive emotions early is viewed as the healthy
interaction between reflex responses and
cognitive abilities (Kopp, 1989).

Some child psychologists believe that the
emotion of empathy, or the concern for oth-
ers in distress, is vital in life. In the past, this
experience was believed to develop some-
time after the child’s second birthday, as
developmentalists reasoned that younger
children could not yet see themselves as
separate from others, and thus could not
feel empathy or concern for another individ-
ual (Hoffman, 2000). Infants were thought
to experience emotional distress but not to

▶ Empathetic concern is demonstrated by
infants’ attention to a crying peer.

Table 5.3: Phases of attachment according to Bowlby (1969) (continued)

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Section 5.7 Attending to the Infant’s Basic Needs

have the ability to distinguish whether this distress was their own or another’s. This would
cause infants to soothe themselves. Recent research finds this not to be the case. Empathic
concern is shown to exist during the first year of life and is evident through infants’ social
nature (Davidov, Zahn-Waxler, Roth-Hanania, & Knafo, 2013) and their behaviors of focusing
attention on crying peers through gesturing or touching.

5.7 Attending to the Infant’s Basic Needs
The infancy period cannot be discussed without addressing the infant’s basic needs. This
period of life is dominated by changes, questions, and concerns about how best to care for an
infant. Close attention to an infant’s needs may offer many clues to the health and early devel-
opment of that infant. Infants are born with many skills that their caregivers underestimate.
However, infants need caregivers to meet their needs through attentive and responsive care
during the first year of life. Infants change a great deal in these first 12 months, with appropri-
ate care allowing for an infant’s developmental gains and the early stages of important skills
in the self-help domain. The self-help domain becomes a prime focus during toddlerhood (see
Chapter 6). For the first year, however, the focus is placed instead on the caregiver’s identify-
ing how to best meet the infant’s needs.

For instance, after the neonatal period, an infant’s sleeping patterns make many parents
think they will live the rest of their lives sleep deprived. Then a few months later the infant
is sleeping peacefully for long stretches of time. Elimination initially is a constant clean-up
task and every aspect of it is examined by the new parents, who see it as a window to inter-
nal health. Then patterns develop and consistency and frequency are possible to determine.

Next, feeding a newborn seems like a continuous activity because soon after one feeding it is
time for the next. This leaves parents wondering if the infant ate enough, is eating enough, or
will eat enough during the next feeding. Bathing and dressing are not as routine as sleeping,
eliminating, and feeding because it seems that all newborns do is sleep, eliminate, and eat,
so they are changed often with no bathing schedule. Infants sometimes get rashes or peel-
ing skin even if hygiene is conducted with care and deliberation. In reality, each infant has
unique patterns in these areas, but all have the same basic caregiving needs. The following
subsections provide a glimpse into what can be expected or not expected in meeting infants’
basic needs.

Sleeping
Newborns and infants need a lot of sleep. As described in Chapter 4, neonates can sleep
as much as 18 hours a day. This diminishes by about 4–6 months, when infants may sleep
approximately 9–12 hours a night (waking several times for feeding) with several naps dur-
ing the day lasting 30 minutes to 2 hours. They do not have regular sleep cycles until about
6 months. Helpful to sleeping through the night is “growing out” of nighttime feedings. Impor-
tant for getting infants to sleep on their own is to develop consistent bedtime routines and
to put them to bed when they are drowsy but not asleep (National Sleep Foundation, 2013).

Infants go through six states of consciousness through most days of their first month. Two
are sleep states (see Table 5.4) and four are states of relative alertness. State 1 is deep sleep.
The infant does not move while in this state. During more active, lighter sleep, considered to
be state two, noise may awaken the infant. During state 2, rapid movements of the eyes while

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Section 5.7 Attending to the Infant’s Basic Needs

closed can be seen. Infants typically alternate between these two states. State 3 is when the
infant starts to fall asleep. In state 4, the infant may be awake but generally will be quiet and
inactive. State 5 is an alert and active state. State 6 is when the infant cries and seems upset
(American Academy of Pediatrics, 2013c).

Table 5.4: Infant sleep states

Sleep State Description

Non-REM sleep Non-REM sleep is actually made up of 4 sleep stages. They are separate from
one another because of the distinct brain wave patterns produced in each stage,
and the infant may cycle through all of the stages many times while sleeping:

• Stage 1: The infant is “dozing off.” This stage marks the beginning of the
sleep cycle; it is the transition between wakefulness and sleep, when the
infant’s eyes become droopy and start to close.

• Stage 2: The infant is lightly sleeping and may still startle at noises.
• Stages 3 and 4: The infant is falling into a deeper sleep and does not move or

make sounds. After Stage 4 of non-REM sleep, the infant will transition back
down to Stage 3, then to 2, and will then enter REM sleep. The infant may
wake up and have trouble falling back to sleep while making these transitions.

Rapid eye movement
(REM) sleep

During REM sleep, the brain is active and the eyes move back and forth rapidly,
hence the name. REM is when dreaming occurs, and for infants this type of
sleep comprises about 50% of their total sleep. Newborns and infants typically
need about 16 hours of sleep per day, but as children age and grow into adult-
hood, they require less REM sleep and fewer hours of sleep in general.

Source: Adapted from Stanfordchildrens.org. (n.d.). Newborn-sleep patterns. Retrieved from http://www.stanfordchildrens
.org/en/topic/default?id=newborn-sleep-patterns-90-P02632, and Nueroscience for kids—Sleep. (n.d.). Retrieved from
https://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/sleep.html.

By the end of the first year, infants should have nights
and days figured out so that longer sleep periods occur
during the night. Sleep problems such as insufficient
sleep and poor-quality sleep have been associated with
impaired cognitive functioning and have been shown to
be related to problems in attention, learning, memory,
and later academic achievement (Hill, Hogan, & Karmil-
off-Smith, 2007; Stores, 2007). Sleep problems are more
common in toddlers and preschoolers than in newborns
and infants.

During infancy there is the fear of sudden infant death
syndrome, known as SIDS. SIDS is the sudden death,
during sleep, of an infant who appeared to be healthy.
A definitive explanation for an infant’s death cannot be
identified in cases of SIDS. Typically the infant dies after
having been put to bed. SIDS is the most common cause
of death in the United States for infants ages 1–6 months
(Nagler, 2002). SIDS prevention strategies include put-
ting infants to sleep on their backs, using a firm mattress,
having infants sleep in their own beds, and keeping loose
bedding and toys out of the bed. A “back to sleep” cam-
paign in the United States emphasizes the need to leave

Purestock/Thinkstock

▶ Recommendations to reduce
the risk of sudden infant death
syndrome include putting infants to
sleep on their backs and using a firm
mattress without loose bedding.

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Section 5.7 Attending to the Infant’s Basic Needs

the infant lying face up when being put to bed. One of the possible explanations for SIDS
is that these infants have problems with the part of the brain that controls breathing, and
arousal from sleep does not occur (Mayo Clinic Staff, 2011a).

Sheila wanted nothing more than for her family to get a restful night. She sensed
the family’s exhaustion since Maggie had been born and now Maggie’s waking
to feed frequently was stirring the entire family of five throughout the night.
When Maggie woke at midnight for the first of her feedings, Sheila decided it
would be easiest if she let Maggie return to sleep next to her so that she could
respond quickly to her next request to feed. As Sheila next woke to the sun shining
through the curtains, she knew immediately that something was wrong. Sheila
could not wake Maggie. The doctors could give Sheila and her family no specific
medical explanation for Maggie’s death. Sheila and her family were devastated
by their loss. Sheila often went over and over in her head what could have hap-
pened. Before Maggie’s death, Sheila had read about the “back to sleep” cam-
paign, but she had not heard that many infant deaths are now thought to be the
result of accidental suffocation. She often thinks, “If only I had put Maggie back
in her crib, would that have saved her?” Now that she knows more, she has taken
on the task of informing others about what happened so that other families can
reduce the risk of this heartbreaking loss. As Sheila talks about the night she lost
Maggie, she urges parents to give their babies a clear and safe space to sleep.

Feeding and Eating
Infants need a lot of milk in the first few months. In the first two months, feedings may occur
as often as every 2–4 hours for breast-fed babies and about every 3–4 hours for bottle-fed
babies. Breast milk has several advantages over formula. The most important advantage is its
immunity benefits. Breast milk has been shown to protect against illnesses common in child-
hood, as well as to protect against infections and allergies (Kidshealth.org, 2013; National
Institute of Child Health and Human Development, 2012). Also, nutritional advantages have
been identified for breast milk, and breast-feeding has been shown to lead to a decrease in the
likelihood of type 1 diabetes and obesity later in life (National Institute of Child Health and
Human Development, 2012). Not only does breast-feeding show advantages for an infant’s
physical health, but it also provides for an infant’s emotional health, based on the mother-
child interactions during breast-feeding and the skin contact that occurs (National Institute
of Child Health and Human Development, 2012). Nevertheless, based on a mother’s comfort
level, the timing of feedings, a mother’s diet, restrictions due to a mother’s medical condi-
tions or medications, and the convenience and flexibility factor, bottle-feeding has its own
advantages (Kidshealth.org, 2013). Every mother must make the decision to breast-feed or
not depending on many personal circumstances, and it is important to support the mother in
whatever decision she makes regarding the feeding method selected.

If bottle-feeding is chosen for the baby, commonly used infant formulas generally fall into
three main categories: (a) cow’s milk based, (b) soy based, and (c) elemental. Elemental for-
mulas are used for infants who cannot tolerate cow’s milk or soy and are made from amino
acids, the components that combine to form protein. Formulas are offered in powder, concen-
trate, and ready-to-feed preparations. Caregivers should be aware of the importance of using
iron-fortified infant formulas and should be cautioned against the use of microwave ovens to
warm formula because it causes uneven heating and may burn the infant’s mouth or tongue.
Also, bottles should never be propped or left with the infant without supervision. Propping
may cause choking and aspiration (Kan & Sullivan, 2008).

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Section 5.7 Attending to the Infant’s Basic Needs

Infants have small stomachs and need to be feed often. Breast milk is digested easily and
quickly. Formula takes longer to digest. In either case, on-demand feeding should be consid-
ered. On-demand feeding is the feeding of babies when they cry or in some way give signals
that they are hungry, like sucking their hands (Pryor & Pryor, n.d.). Decades ago, on-demand
feeding was thought to lead to a spoiled child. However, Ainsworth and Bell (1969) found that
infants fed on a schedule were less secure than infants fed on demand. At 4 months, the infant
should show signs of anticipating feeding when the bottle or breast is in view. Monitoring of
weight gain is a good indicator of whether or not the infant is eating enough.

As the infant gains weight, solid foods may be introduced as supplements to milk. This gener-
ally happens at about 4–6 months. Tongue coordination is necessary for solid foods, so this
motor development may be a factor in timing the introduction of solid foods. These foods
must be moved from the front of the mouth to the back to be swallowed. If the infant cannot
do this yet, it may be too early for such foods. If the infant is ready, solid food feeding often
begins with baby cereal that is mostly liquid and then gradually made thicker. Pureed foods
can be added if the cereal feeding is successful. Later, generally in the second half of the year,
self-feeding of finger foods comes when fine motor grasping skills begin to develop.

Erin had read many books and magazines about what to expect during the first
year of life. Formed in her head was this “life itinerary” that laid out nicely the
expectations and milestones for her daughter, Lucy. Erin was amazed initially at
how the various stages that had been described seemed to fit with Lucy’s devel-
opment. Erin joked that child development writers were almost clairvoyant as
they could predict within a narrow window of time the next emergent activ-
ity or trait that Lucy would display. As time pressed on, Erin became no less
amazed by how the predictions of these milestones continued, but she began to
feel something was missing; namely, sleep. As outlined, Lucy’s feeding, sleeping,
and diaper change patterns did become more predictable, but the endless cycle
of attending to these needs meant months of little rest for Erin. While a book
or magazine could sum up the process, Erin learned that it did not necessarily
prepare her for the state of exhaustion she felt constantly or the roller coaster
of emotions she felt: joy, anger, guilt, and insecurity. Years later and following
the arrival of a second child, Erin now sees the first year differently. While it is a
magical year in the tremendous development that occurs, Erin appreciates the
bigger picture and understands that the impact on the entire family will ebb and
flow. She knows that although this early period can be exhausting and demand-
ing, it gets easier.

Elimination
Elimination patterns vary considerably from infant to infant. Most pediatricians will say that
after about a week newborns should have between four and six wet diapers a day, but this is
not a definite number. A newborn’s urine may be pinkish or red especially right after birth,
but if this continues beyond a few days a pediatrician should be contacted.

Infants who are breast-fed have loose and frequent stools, often after every feeding. The stools
of a breast-fed baby may be green, yellow, or black and a variety of consistencies depending
on the mother’s diet. The stools of a formula-fed infant are generally pasty and firm, yellow
to brown or green in color. Some infants may not have a bowel movement for several days,
but if they go too long, about a week, or if there is a sudden change in the consistency of an
infant’s stool it would be advisable to call the pediatrician. When infants eliminate stools, they

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Section 5.7 Attending to the Infant’s Basic Needs

may exhibit straining behaviors that resemble a child who is constipated. Infants may grunt,
grimace, and turn red while pulling up their legs because of the effort to eliminate while lying
down (Kan & Sullivan, 2008). This behavior is typical, and only unusual consistency of the
stool should be cause for intervention. The frequency of elimination should decrease after
about 6 weeks, and the variety and patterns of elimination should become more predictable.

Hygiene
Good hygiene practices carried out by caregivers during the first year of life help to keep an
infant healthy and comfortable. It is important for caregivers to provide appropriate care and
cleaning, based on an infant’s unique needs. If questions or concerns about this matter should
arise, an infant’s pediatrician can be a trusted source of information for caregivers.

Infant Bathing

Newborns do not need daily bathing, and soap is not recommended when they do receive a
bath. The use of soap may dry an infant’s skin and cause flaking. Plain water is recommended,
but a mild cleanser with a neutral pH can be used (Kan & Sullivan, 2008). Hair can be washed
with a mild shampoo or plain water also.

Even if all of the recommendations in infant bathing are followed, infants may develop scale-
like rashes on their scalps and around the nose, behind the ears, and in the creases on the
neck and armpits. The rash may appear yellow and crusty and is believed to be the normal
buildup of skin oils (Canadian Paediatric Society, 2007). When this scale-like rash occurs only
on the scalp, it is called cradle cap. It is considered to be a noninfectious dermatitis and is
quite common in newborns. It is not thought to be uncomfortable for the infant and goes away
gradually, disappearing slowly over a period of weeks or months. Unlike eczema or contact
dermatitis, it is rarely uncomfortable or itchy and may not need special care.

The umbilical cord, however, does need special care in the postnatal period. Before birth the
umbilical cord functions as the tubing that removes wastes and brings nourishment to the
fetus from the placenta. The newborn’s connection to the placenta is separated at birth and
a stump remains on the newborn’s stomach. The umbilical cord stump must be kept dry and
clean, and whenever cleaning the area of the stump, hands must be clean, especially if diapers
were handled. If the stump comes into contact with stool or urine, it should be cleaned with
plain water and left exposed to air to dry or covered very loosely. The diaper should always be
folded away from the area until the stump falls off and the site is healed. The umbilical cord
stump usually falls off anywhere from 1 to 3 weeks after birth (Kan & Sullivan, 2008) and then
the “belly button” is visible. Until then only sponge baths are recommended so that it is easier
to keep the area dry for healing.

Infant Skin Care

Once again, plain water is best for washing an infant’s skin. Lotions and other lubricants are
not necessary. Talcum powder of any sort should never be used because it can cause aspira-
tion. The use of commercial wipes can be convenient and is fine if they are free of chemicals,
alcohol, and fragrances. Diaper rashes may appear in spite of extreme care in cleansing. These
rashes heal with simple zinc oxide. More difficult or resistant diaper rashes may need the
attention of a health care professional (Kan & Sullivan, 2008).

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Section 5.8 Developmental Red Flags and Where to Get Help

Genitalia Care for Boys and Girls

Circumcision is the surgical removal of the skin covering the tip of the penis (Mayo Clinic
Staff, 2012a). It is commonly done for newborn boys for religious reasons or family tradition,
while some parents opt for the procedure for hygiene and health care reasons. For the male
infant with an uncircumcised penis, pulling back of the foreskin is not necessary when bath-
ing and plain water is once again recommended. If the penis was circumcised, it should be
washed with warm water and gentle soap at every diaper change and lubricated with simple
vitamin A & D ointments to prevent the skin from sticking to the diaper while it heals over a
period of 1–2 weeks (Kan & Sullivan, 2008).

For female infants, the vaginal area should be washed gently with warm water by wiping from
the front to the back. A white or bloody discharge is common in the early neonatal period as
a result of the fetus’s absorption of maternal hormones.

Dressing
The question of how infants should be dressed is based not on style but rather on safety
and health. Strings and loose decorative items on clothing are not appropriate for infants.
Common sense should drive caregivers’ decisions regarding infant clothes. For instance, the
temperature of the infant’s environment should be a major factor in deciding how much an
infant should wear. Protection from sun in the summer and from cold in the winter is a key
determinant of an infant’s clothing. Infants have delicate skin and should be shaded from
direct sunlight. Babies should be monitored frequently for overheating. However, if the infant
is in an air-conditioned environment, warmer clothes are necessary.

Healthy infants do not need to be dressed more warmly in the winter than the adults they are
with. This rule is a handy guide in most cases unless the infant is premature or sick. Swad-
dling is an effective way to comfort an infant, but overdressing the infant may lead to hyper-
thermia and puts the infant at increased risk for SIDS if overheated during sleep (Mayo Clinic
Staff, 2011b).

5.8 Developmental Red Flags and Where to Get Help
Red flags during infancy should be attended to immediately. As described in this chapter,
infants develop quickly and profoundly in the first year. If there is a highly unusual pattern of
development or a significant delay in expected progress, time is of the essence. For example,
if certain reflexes do not disappear approximately within the typical timetable, it could be
a sign of neurological problems. If an infant does not respond or pay attention to sounds or
moving objects, the senses may not be functioning properly. If this is the case, progress in the
cognitive, motor, social-emotional, and communication domains is likely to be affected. Also,
if the infant loses skills rather than gains skills in the various domains, a red flag should be
raised. For example, if a child had previously turned to look at an individual calling her name,
and this no longer occurs, this could be cause for concern for both the sense of hearing and
the infant’s social-emotional development. The child’s pediatrician is often the first profes-
sional contacted with any of these concerns. This physician may refer the infant to a devel-
opmental specialist or to another health care specialist. If the concern is minor, the specialist
may recommend watchful waiting, or early intervention screening and assessment may be
the route to take.

gro81431_05_c05_093-120.indd 115 4/24/14 12:50 PM

Summary and Resources

The following red flags should be attended to by the end of the infant’s first 6 months:

• Has poor muscle strength in lifting or controlling the head
• Does not respond to noises or lights
• Has inadequate weight gain
• Has extremely tight or floppy muscles
• Uses only one arm or one leg
• Does not laugh

Red flags for infants ages 6 months to 1 year include the following:

• Poor eye contact
• Makes only a few sounds or none at all
• Does not roll over or sit
• Does not mouth objects
• Does not have object permanence
• Does not gesture or point to things

Summary and Resources
Infants undergo phenomenal growth and development from birth through 12 months. Infancy
is characterized by physical growth that includes increases in weight, height (length), and
head circumference. Brain development is quite rapid during infancy. It is grounded in genet-
ics and continues to be shaped by experiences, both positive and negative.

Infants make significant progress in the motor, cognitive, communication, and social-
emotional developmental domains. By providing for the infant’s basic needs, caregivers
set the stage for development in the self-help domain, as well. Motor development during
infancy includes reflexes that are either dropped or advanced in the first year. The cephalo-
caudal and proximodistal motor patterns are characteristic of gross and fine motor develop-
ment in infancy, and they are important for understanding progress in the motor domain.
The cognitive progress of an infant is also remarkable, with a significant milestone of acquir-
ing an understanding of object permanence. An infant’s cognitive development is interre-
lated with advances in the communication and social-emotional domains and is dependent
on the five senses.

Communication is central to an infant’s social world and assists in establishing and strength-
ening early emotions with the increasing ability to respond and interact within relationships.
The communication domain is separated into receptive and expressive skills, both being
equally important. The social-emotional domain during infancy focuses predominantly on
the need for caregiver attachment and establishing relationships. Infants require caregivers
to provide for or attend to their basic needs, including feeding and eating, sleeping, elimina-
tion, hygiene, and dressing.

During infancy, certain red flags can be identified in each of the five developmental skill areas
and also for the infant’s physical growth. Infants should be monitored carefully so that any
areas of concern can receive immediate attention and possible interventions.

gro81431_05_c05_093-120.indd 116 4/24/14 12:50 PM

Summary and Resources

cephalocaudal development Motor devel-
opment progression, top down, from the
head to the legs.

circumcision The surgical removal of the
skin covering the tip of the penis.

echolalia An infant’s imitation of sounds
heard in the environment, including sounds
from people.

expressive communication The way in
which infants express themselves and com-
municate to others, including the use of
signs, signals, and verbal language.

failure to thrive The characterization of
infants whose weight or rate of weight gain
is significantly lower than that of other
infants, with diminished weight gain due to
a medical problem or the result of environ-
mental issues such as abuse or neglect, pov-
erty, poor eating habits, or parents’ lack of
understanding about proper infant nutrition.

fontanels The soft spots of the newborn’s
head; found at the front top portion and at
the back of the head, with smaller soft areas
found in other areas of the skull.

intentional communication Deliberate
communication with either actions or vocal-
ization with an aim to obtain something or
to get something to happen.

limbic system The part of the brain that is
responsible for processing experiences and
developing control of emotions.

neurons Cells responsible for transmit-
ting messages that make up the layers of
the brain.

neurotransmitters Chemical messengers,
including adrenaline and serotonin, which
are found at the ends of neurons. They acti-
vate areas of the brain to produce thoughts,
emotions, and behavior.

object permanence The cognitive ability
to know that objects exist even when they
cannot be seen, heard, or touched.

palmar grasp A fine motor grasp that uses
a closed palm of the hand when picking up
objects.

pincer grasp A fine motor grasp that uses
the index finger and thumb when picking up
objects.

proximodistal Motor development pro-
gression, from the center of the body to the
extremities.

pruning The elimination of unneeded syn-
apses and neurons in the brain.

receptive communication The ability to
understand others’ communication, includ-
ing words, sounds, and gestures.

recumbent length A measurement of
infant physical development that refers to
the length of the infant while lying down.

stunted growth The growth of children
who fall below the 5th percentile of the
reference population in height for age.

sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)
The sudden death, during sleep, of an infant
who appeared to be healthy.

synapses The gaps between neurons
through which messages are sent.

umbilical cord The tubing that removes
waste and brings nourishment to the fetus
from the placenta before birth.

Key Terms and Concepts

gro81431_05_c05_093-120.indd 117 4/24/14 12:50 PM

Summary and Resources

Discussion Questions

1. What are potential consequences of undiagnosed vision and/or hearing impair-
ments on infant development? What behaviors might parents observe in their baby
if these impairments are present?

2. What sleep recommendations would you discuss with the parents of a newborn
child?

3. What aspects of development are measured by pediatricians during an infant’s
checkup? Why are these factors important to monitor during infancy?

4. What is the most appropriate course of action if developmental red flags are noted
during infancy?

Observational Activities

1. Witnessing object permanence; a matter of child’s play: Ask an infant’s caregiver to
play peek-a-boo with the child (or with permission, play the game with the infant
yourself ). The adult covers and then uncovers his or her face and then makes vari-
ous silly faces. Take note of the infant’s age and his or her response to the game.
Consider how this activity relates to attachment.

2. Witnessing emerging motor development; take a walk on the wild side: Skilled
crawlers are often ready to take those first steps. During this time, the infant enjoys
“walking” while using the security of an adult’s hands to maintain balance (like
training wheels). Observe a child who is practicing to walk and note the reflex of lift-
ing alternate legs and the exercise of shifting balance.

3. Witnessing language development; a sign of the time: Children learn language
through oral conversations with caregivers, but even prior to this verbal communica-
tion young children may make use of sign language. Many children can understand
and elicit signs earlier than they can use words to express their needs. Observe how
children use either words or signs to signal what they want. What might such use of
nonverbal signs or signals suggest about how nonhearing children develop their com-
munication skills?

Web Resources

Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University

http://developingchild.harvard.edu
This website has resources on early childhood development including multimedia presenta-
tions on brain development and reports and working papers on stress, brain development,
and the science of early childhood policies.

American Academy of Pediatrics

www.healthychildren.org
This website provides helpful information on care and development of children prenatally to
age 21 years; focuses especially on the safety and health of children and tips for parents.

gro81431_05_c05_093-120.indd 118 4/24/14 12:50 PM

Homepage

www.healthychildren.org

Summary and Resources

Mayo Clinic

www.mayoclinic.org
This website provides information on developmental milestones for infants and other cur-
rent medical information on health topics.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/childdevelopment/positiveparenting/infants.html?
This website provides reliable health and safety information on many topics, including life
stages and child development.

MedlinePlus

www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/infantandnewborndevelopment.html
The website provides information on infant and newborn development, including milestones
and other health-related topics.

gro81431_05_c05_093-120.indd 119 4/24/14 12:50 PM

www.mayoclinic.org

www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/childdevelopment/positiveparenting/infants.html?

www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/infantandnewborndevelopment.html

gro81431_05_c05_093-120.indd 120 4/24/14 12:50 PM

Child Development Observation #1

[WLOs: 2, 4] [CLOs: 1, 2, 4]

Each and every child is unique and complex. Although children develop at different rates, there are common stages of development that serve as guidelines for what most children can do by a certain age. Observation is typically used as a tool to gain a better understanding of the stages of development. By observing childrens’ behavior, you can determine their current stages of development and formulate strategies based on those observations to best support your work. Chapters 5 and 6 of your textbook describe stages of physical, social, emotional, cognitive, and language development in children 0 – 12 months of age and 1 – 3 years of age. Use the textbook in addition to the video provided with the instructions for this assignment as resources.

To prepare for this assignment,

· Refer to the Week 2 Guidance for further tips and examples that will support your success with this discussion.

· Review Chapters 5 and 6 of your textbook.

· Read

10 Effective DAP Teaching Strategies (Links to an external site.)

· Review and download the

Week 2 Exemplar Template.

· Choose one of the below age ranges and corresponding video to use for this assignment.

Age Range

Corresponding Observation Video

Corresponding Developmental Checklist

Infant: 0 – 12 Months of Age

Baby 11 Months Observation Video (Links to an external site.)

Developmental Checklist: 8 To 12 Months

Toddler: 1 – 3 Years of Age

Toddler Observation Video 3 (Links to an external site.)

Developmental Checklist: 12 To 24 Months

In your paper,

· Complete the sections of the corresponding developmental checklist, including the summary section, that you observed while watching your chosen video.

· Note: You will not be able to complete all sections, so many will be left blank.

· Paste the checklist on the first page of your assignment (after your title page).

· Summarize the typical development that you observed in the child (i.e., the areas that you were able to check off on the checklist).

· Explain the developmental concerns you have for this child based on your observation. If you did not see a clear concern, discuss at least one area you were not able to check off the checklist.

· Explain, based on your observation and your desired future professional role, how you might support this child using developmentally appropriate practices.

· Identify some developmentally appropriate activities you can do with the child to support at least two different developmental domains (physical, social/emotional, self-help, cognitive, language).

· Identify one or two considerations or suggestions that should be included into the classroom environment to support the needs of the child.

The Week 2 Assignment

· Must be three to four double-spaced pages in length (not including title and references pages, but including the completed observation checklist) and formatted according to APA style as outlined in the

Writing Center (Links to an external site.)

’s

APA Style (Links to an external site.)

· Must include a separate title page with the following:

· Title of paper

· Student’s name

· Course name and number

· Instructor’s name

· Date submitted

· Must use at least two scholarly sources in addition to the course text.

· To assist you in completing the library research required for this assignment, view this

Help! Need Article (Links to an external site.)

tutorial, which can help you find a good starting place for your research.

· The

Scholarly, Peer Reviewed, and Other Credible Sources (Links to an external site.)

table offers additional guidance on appropriate source types. If you have questions about whether a specific source is appropriate for this assignment, contact your instructor. Your instructor has the final say about the appropriateness of a specific source for a particular assignment.

· To assist you in completing the library research required for this assignment, view the

University of Arizona Global Campus Library Quick ‘n’ Dirty (Links to an external site.)

tutorial, which introduces the University of Arizona Global Campus Library and the research process, and provides some library search tips.

· Must document any information used from sources in APA style as outlined in the Writing Center’s

Citing Within Your Paper (Links to an external site.)

guide.

· Must include a separate references page that is formatted according to APA style as outlined in the Writing Center. See the

Formatting Your References List (Links to an external site.)

resource in the Writing Center for specifications.

· Review the Writing Center’s

Grammarly (Links to an external site.)

page before you submit your written assignment; set up a Grammarly account (if you have not already done so), and use Grammarly to review a rough draft of your assignment. Then, carefully review all issues identified by Grammarly and revise your work as needed.

Required Resources

Text

Groark, C. J., McCarthy, S. K., & Kirk, A. R. (2014).

Early child development: From theory to practice.

Bridgepoint Education.

· Chapter 2: Influences on Child Development

· Chapter 5: Infant Development (Birth–12 months)

· Chapter 6: Toddler Development (1–3 years)

Article

NAEYC. (2020).

Developmentally appropriate practice: National association for the education of young children (Links to an external site.)

[Position statement]. Retrieved from https://www.naeyc.org/sites/default/files/globally-shared/downloads/PDFs/resources/position-statements/dap-statement_0

· In this article, the author provides information about developmentally appropriate practices that will assist you in your Developmentally Appropriate Practice: The Key discussion this week.
Accessibility Statement does not exist.

Multimedia

hatfieldmomof3. (2011, March 21).

Toddler observation video 3 (Links to an external site.)

[Video file]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7nQxWCn_dBg#t=17

· This video shows toddlers engaged with their caregiver. This video will assist you in your Child Development Observation #1 assignment this week.

Accessibility Statement (Links to an external site.)

Hankin, S. (2014, July 10).

Baby 11 months observation video (Links to an external site.)

. [Video file]. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/8cnco3eS_Hc

· This video shows an infant engaged with a toy. This video will assist you in your Child Development Observation #1 assignment this week.
Accessibility Statement (Links to an external site.)
Privacy Policy (Links to an external site.)

Web Pages

NAEYC. (n.d.).

10 effective DAP teaching strategies (Links to an external site.)

. Retrieved from https://www.naeyc.org/resources/topics/dap/10-effective-dap-teaching-strategies

· This web page provides information about developmentally appropriate strategies that educators and caregivers can use in the classroom, and will assist you in this week’s Developmentally Appropriate Practice: The Key discussion and Child Development Observation #1 assignment.
Accessibility Statement does not exist
Privacy Policy (Links to an external site.)

NAEYC. (n.d.).

Developmentally appropriate practice (DAP) introduction (Links to an external site.)

. Retrieved from https://www.naeyc.org/resources/topics/dap

Recommended Resources

Article

Best Start. (n.d.).

Factors affecting child development (Links to an external site.)

. Retrieved from https://www.beststart.org/OnTrack_English/2-factors.html

· In this article, the author provides information about a variety of factors that affect the development of children, such as environmental factors, biological factors, interpersonal relationships, and early environments and experiences. It breaks down each category, explaining how each could affect a child and why. This article may assist you in your Developmental Theory: Your Toolbox discussion this week.
Accessibility Statement does not exist.
Privacy Policy does not exist.

Web Pages

NAEYC. (n.d.).

DAP with preschoolers, ages 3-5 (Links to an external site.)

. Retrieved from https://www.naeyc.org/resources/topics/dap/preschoolers

· This web page provides information about developmentally appropriate practices with preschool aged children and may assist you in your Developmentally Appropriate Practice: The Key discussion this week.
Accessibility Statement does not exist.
Privacy Policy (Links to an external site.)

NAEYC. (n.d.).

DAP with infants and toddlers, ages birth – 3 (Links to an external site.)

. Retrieved from https://www.naeyc.org/resources/topics/dap/infants-and-toddlers

· This web page provides information about developmentally appropriate practices with infants and toddlers and may assist you in this week’s Developmentally Appropriate Practice: The Key discussion and Child Development Observation #1 assignment.
Accessibility Statement does not exist.
Privacy Policy (Links to an external site.)

NAEYC. (n.d.).

DAP in the early primary grades, ages 6-8 (Links to an external site.)

. Retrieved from https://www.naeyc.org/resources/topics/dap/primary

· This web page provides information about developmentally appropriate practices with children in the primary grades, and may assist you in your Developmentally Appropriate Practice: The Key discussion this week.
Accessibility Statement does not exist.
Privacy Policy (Links to an external site.)

Runninghead: OBSERVATION #1 1

OBSERVATION #1 4

Week 2: Child Observation #1

Your Name

ECE 205: Introduction to Child Development

Instructor’s Name

Date

Hint: Delete all of these green boxes before submitting the paper to your instructor.

To delete the boxes: click on the edge of each box and press delete.

Child Development Observation #1

In this section, write a brief introduction that will allow your reader to follow the organization of your assignment and the focus of your observation.

Hint: Ctrl + Click

INTRODUCTIONS & CONCLUSIONS

for help.

Developmental Checklist

Add your developmental checklist here, including the summary section. This is the checklist that you completed while watching your child observation video.

Summary of Typical Development

In this section, briefly summarize the development that you checked off in the developmental checklist.

Developmental Concerns

Based on your observation, explain the developmental concerns that you have for this child. If you did not see a clear concern, discuss at least one area you were not able to check off the checklist.

Supportive Practices

Explain how you might best support this child using developmentally appropriate practices. Incorporate an outside source into this paragraph to support your ideas.

Hint: For help with completing this section, please refer to the Week 2 readings.

Hint: Ctrl + Click

QUOTING, PARAPHRASING, & SUMMARIZING

for help.

Developmentally Appropriate Activities

In this paragraph, identify some developmentally appropriate activities that you could do with the child to support at least two different developmental domains (physical, social-emotional, self-help, cognitive, language). Incorporate an outside source into this paragraph to support your ideas.

Hint: For help with completing this section, please refer to the Week 2 readings.

Hint: Ctrl + Click

INTEGRATING RESEARCH

For help.

Support Considerations

Explain one or two considerations that should be included in the class environment in order to support the needs of the child. Incorporate an outside source into this paragraph to support your ideas.

Hint: For help with completing this section, please refer to the Week 2 readings.

Hint: Ctrl + Click

CITING WITHIN YOUR PAPER

for help.

Conclusion

Briefly summarize the ideas that you discussed in your paper, explaining the significance of these ideas.

Hint: Ctrl + Click
INTRODUCTIONS & CONCLUSIONS
for help.

References

Use APA format to cite and reference your class text and at least two additional scholarly sources. Remember, you MUST include in-text citations throughout your paper to show your reader what information you used from these outside sources.

Hint: Ctrl + Click

FORMATTING YOUR REFERENCES LIST

for help.

*In the final version of your assignment, be sure that you have removed all of the hints (green boxes) within the template.

DEVELOPMENTAL CHECKLIST – 12 TO 24 MONTHS

Child’s Name:

Date of Observation:

Name of Observer:

Milestones

Age

Date Observed

Gross Motor

Walks alone

12-16 mos.

Pulls toys behind him while walking

13-16 mos.

Carries large toy or several toys while walking

12-15 mos.

Begins to run stiffly

16-18 mos.

Walks into ball

18-24 mos.

Climbs onto and down from furniture unsupported

16-24 mos.

Walks up and down stairs holding on to support

18-24 mos.

Fine Motor

Scribbles spontaneously

14-16 mos.

Turns over container to pour out contents

12-18 mos.

Builds tower of four blocks or more

20-24 mos.

Completes simple knobbed wooden puzzles of 3 to 4 pieces

21-24 mos.

Cognitive

Finds objects even when hidden under 2 or 3 covers

13-15 mos.

Will listen to short story book with pictures

15-20 mos.

Identifies one body part

15-24 mos.

Begins to sort shapes and colors

20-24 mos.

Begins make-believe play

20-24 mos.

Language

Says “no” with meaning

13-15 mos.

Follows simple, one-step instructions

14-18 mos.

Says several single words

15-18 mos.

Recognizes names of familiar people, objects, and body parts

18-24 mos.

Points to object or picture when it’s named for them

18-24 mos.

Repeats words overheard in conversations

16-18 mos.

Uses two-word sentences

18-24 mos.

Self-Help

Starts to feed self with spoon, with some spilling

13-18 mos.

Likes to play with food when eating

18-24 mos.

Can put shoes on with help

20-24 mos.

Can open doors by turning knobs

18-24 mos.

Can drink from open cup, with some spilling

18-24 mos.

Social/Emotional

Imitates behavior of others, especially adults and older children

18-24 mos.

Increasingly enthusiastic about company or other children

20-24 mos.

Demonstrates increasing independence

18-24 mos.

Begins to show defiant behavior

18-24 mos.

Episodes of separation anxiety increase toward midyear, then fade

DEVELOPMENTAL RED FLAGS (12 TO 24 MONTHS)

· Cannot walk by 18 months

· Fails to develop a mature heel-toe walking pattern after several months of walking, or walks exclusively on toes

· Does not speak at least 15 words by 18 months

· Does not use unique two-word phrases by age 2 (more milk, big dog, mommy help)

· By 15 months does not seem to know the function of common household objects (brush, telephone, cup, fork, spoon)

· Does not imitate actions or words by 24 mos.

· Does not follow simple one-step instructions by 24 mos.

· Cannot identify self

· Cannot form a two-word phrase

· Cannot hold and use a spoon or cup for eating and drinking

· Does not display a wide array of emotions (anger, fear, happy, excited, frustrated)

Summary:

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Adapted from the Early Childhood Direction Center – 2018

DEVELOPMENTAL CHECKLIST – 8 TO 12 MONTHS

Child’s Name:

Date of Observation:

Name of Observer:

Milestones

Age

Date Observed

Gross Motor

Crawls forward on belly

8-9 mos.

Assumes hand and knee position

8-9 mos.

Gets to sitting position without assistance

8-10 mos.

Pulls self-up to standing position at furniture

8-10 mos.

Creeps on hands and knees

9 mos.

Gets from sitting to crawling or prone (lying on stomach) position

9-10 mos.

Walks holding on to furniture

10-13 mos.

Stands momentarily without support

11-13 mos.

May walk two or three steps without support

11-13 mos.

Fine Motor

Uses pincer grasp (grasp using thumb and index finger)

7-10 mos.

Bangs two one-inch cubes together

8-12 mos.

Pokes with index finger

9-12 mos.

Puts objects into container

10-12 mos.

Takes objects out of container

10-12 mos.

Tries to imitate scribbling

10-12 mos.

Cognitive

Looks at correct picture when image is named

8-9 mos.

Explores objects in many different ways (shaking, banging, throwing, dropping)

8-10 mos.

Enjoys looking at pictures in book

9-12 mos.

Imitates gestures

9-12 mos.

Engages in simple games of Peek-a-Boo, Pat-a-Cake, or rolling ball to another

9-12 mos.

Finds hidden objects easily

10-12 mos.

Language

Babbles “dada” and “mama”

7-8 mos.

Babbles with inflection

7-9 mos.

Says “dada” and “mama” for specific person

8-10 mos.

Responds to “no” by briefly stopping activity and noticing adult

9-12 mos.

Responds to simple verbal requests, such as “Give me”

9-14 mos.

Makes simple gestures such as shaking head for “no”

12 mos.

Uses exclamations such as “oh-oh”

12 mos.

Self-Help

Finger-feeds himself

8-12 mos.

Extends arm or leg to help when being dressed

9-12 mos.

May hold spoon when feeding

9-12 mos.

Social/Emotional

Shy or anxious with strangers

8-12 mos.

Cries when mother or father leaves

8-12 mos.

Enjoys imitating people in his play

10-12 mos.

Shows specific preferences for certain people and toys

8-12 mos.

Prefers mother and/or regular care provider over all others

8-12 mos.

Repeats sounds or gestures for attention

10-12 mos.

May test parents at bed time

9-12 mos.

DEVELOPMENTAL RED FLAGS (8 TO 12 MONTHS)
· Does not crawl
· Drags one side of body while crawling (for over one month)
· Cannot stand when supported
· Does not search for objects that are hidden (10-12 mos.)
· Says no single words (“mama” or “dada”)
· Does not learn to use gestures such as waving or shaking head
· Does not sit steadily by 10 months
· Does not react to new environments and people
· Does not seek out caregiver when stressed
· Does not show interest in “peek-a-boo” or “patty cake” by 8 mos.
· Does not babble by 8 mos. (“dada,” “baba,” “mama”)

Summary:

Adapted from the Early Childhood Direction Center – 2018

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