Responsible Consulting
The Responsible Consulting paper
- Must be four to five double-spaced pages in length (not including title and references and formatted according to APA Style (Links to an external site.)as outlined in the Writing Center’s APA Formatting for Microsoft Word (Links to an external site.)
- Must include a separate title with the following:
Title of paper
Student’s name
Ashford University
Course name and number
Instructor’s name
Date submitted - Must utilize academic voice. See the Academic Voice (Links to an external site.) resource for additional guidance.
- Must include an introduction and conclusion paragraph. Your introduction paragraph needs to end with a clear thesis statement that indicates the purpose of your paper.
For assistance on writing Introductions & Conclusions (Links to an external site.) as well as Writing a Thesis Statement (Links to an external site.), refer to the Writing Center resources.
- Must use at least three scholarly, peer-reviewed, or credible sources in addition to the course text.
The Scholarly, Peer-Reviewed, and Other Credible Sources (Links to an external site.) table offers additional guidance on appropriate source types. If you have questions about whether a specific source is appropriate for this assignment, please contact your instructor. Your instructor has the final say about the appropriateness of a specific source for a particular assignment.
To assist you in completing the research required for this assignment, view this Ashford University Library Quick ‘n’ Dirty (Links to an external site.)tutorial, which introduces the Ashford University Library and the research process, and provides some library search tips. - Must document any information used from sources in APA Style as outlined in the Writing Center’s APA: Citing Within Your Paper (Links to an external site.).
- Must include a separate reference page that is formatted according to APA Style as outlined in the Writing Center. See the APA: Formatting Your References List (Links to an external site.) resource in the Writing Center for specifications.
Responsible Consulting
[WLOs 2, 3] [CLOs 1, 3, 5]
Prior to beginning this assignment, read Chapter 3 in the course textbook. You may want to review Chapters 1 and 2 in your course textbook for assistance, too.
Review the guidelines found in Table 1.1 (OD realities and misconceptions) to establish the reasoning for OD interaction. In addition, pay special attention to the criteria for determining the validity of an OD problem. Understanding the process is crucial to becoming a successful OD consultant. Watch the following videos,
What Should Consultants Do? (Links to an external site.)
and
Handling a Complainer
, to gain perspective on responsible consulting.
There are many ethical responsibilities within the field of the OD consultant. Suppose that you are just beginning your practice as an external OD consultant and an organization approaches you to help them address an issue or change within their company. Before accepting the job, it is important for you to determine whether the problem is an actual OD issue or an internal matter that is better addressed within.
Explain the process for evaluating an organizational condition to determine if the action required is OD-related. Define the specific criteria for determining the core of the problem and the potential solution.
After assessing the request, there are times that you will find the problem is not an OD concern. Prepare a response to the organization stating why the problem is not OD, why you are not the right person for the job, and what options they might have to remedy their problem.
Once your research is complete, begin preparing your paper. The paper must be four to five pages of content (excluding the cover and reference pages). You must include a minimum of three scholarly, peer-reviewed, or credible sources that provide qualified information related to the role of the OD practitioner. In addition, include the course textbook as a scholarly resource to support theory and concepts related to OD strategy. Remember that Wikipedia is not a qualified resource. Use the
Scholarly, Peer-Reviewed, and Other Credible Sources (Links to an external site.)
document for additional guidance. During the construction of the paper, be specific and refrain from making assumptions. Describe all aspects of the search components listed below.
In your paper,
· Explain the process to determine the validity of the problem.
· Define specific criteria for OD consulting.
· Prepare an appropriate response to the organization regarding their issue.
The Responsible Consulting paper
· Must be four to five double-spaced pages in length (not including title and references and formatted according to
APA Style (Links to an external site.)
as outlined in the Writing Center’s
APA Formatting for Microsoft Word (Links to an external site.)
· Must include a separate title with the following:
· Title of paper
· Student’s name
· Ashford University
· Course name and number
· Instructor’s name
· Date submitted
· Must utilize academic voice. See the
Academic Voice (Links to an external site.)
resource for additional guidance.
· Must include an introduction and conclusion paragraph. Your introduction paragraph needs to end with a clear thesis statement that indicates the purpose of your paper.
· For assistance on writing
Introductions & Conclusions (Links to an external site.)
as well as
Writing a Thesis Statement (Links to an external site.)
, refer to the Writing Center resources.
· Must use at least three scholarly, peer-reviewed, or credible sources in addition to the course text.
· The
Scholarly, Peer-Reviewed, and Other Credible Sources (Links to an external site.) table offers additional guidance on appropriate source types. If you have questions about whether a specific source is appropriate for this assignment, please contact your instructor. Your instructor has the final say about the appropriateness of a specific source for a particular assignment.
· To assist you in completing the research required for this assignment, view this
Ashford University Library Quick ‘n’ Dirty (Links to an external site.)
tutorial, which introduces the Ashford University Library and the research process, and provides some library search tips.
· Must document any information used from sources in APA Style as outlined in the Writing Center’s
APA: Citing Within Your Paper (Links to an external site.)
.
· Must include a separate reference page that is formatted according to APA Style as outlined in the Writing Center. See the
APA: Formatting Your References List (Links to an external site.)
resource in the Writing Center for specifications.
Carefully review the
Grading Rubric (Links to an external site.)
for the criteria that will be used to evaluate your assignment.
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1
Learning Outcomes
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
Describe the field of organization development in terms of its purpose, philosophy, and definitions.
Summarize the history of organization development, including the key practices of each period.
Explore the roles, values, competencies, professional associations, and ethics of an organization development practitioner.
More than 2,500 years ago, the Greek philosopher Heraclitus observed, “Change is the only constant” (Mark, 2010, para. 3). This sentiment is still true today. From
fluctuations in weather and seasons to the growth and aging of your own body, change is not an option—it is a fundamental principle of existence. What changes have you
experienced recently? Perhaps you became ill or recovered from an illness, enrolled in or dropped out of a class, were promoted at work or changed jobs, ended a
relationship or got married, or simply changed your mind about something. What changes have you experienced at your university or organization? You may have been
affected by new curriculum, revised policies, layoffs, or downturns in business.
As these examples suggest, sometimes change is intended, but just as often it is unanticipated or even unwanted. For example, few of us welcomed the global economic
downturn in 2007–2009, which required us to adjust our budgets and behaviors to cope. Laws change, corporations fail, disruptive technologies emerge. Were these changes
planned or unplanned?
Unplanned change refers to changes that were unexpected, like the loss of a job, surprise successes, the sudden death of a loved one, a failed relationship, natural disasters,
or new opportunities. What unplanned changes have been the most significant in your life? Organizations also experience unplanned changes that affect individuals, teams,
the organization, and sometimes even the community, such as layoffs, company mergers, promotions, demotions, and organizational restructuring. See Assessment: Change
Readiness to evaluate your own openness to change.
Organization Development: An
Introduction to the Field, Its History,
and Its Practices
1
PATCHARIN SAENLAKON/iStock/Getty Images Plus
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Assessment:
Change Readiness
Bebop was about change, about evolution. It wasn’t about standing still and becoming safe. If anybody wants to keep creating they have to be about change.
—Miles Davis (1926–1991), U.S. jazz musician and composer
Embracing change is not always easy, but it rewards us with new experiences, new insights, and new creations.
Most people think they are open to change. But are they? Few of us would welcome layoffs, mergers, demotions, or organization restructuring, and most would endure
them grudgingly and experience stress as they unfolded. Changes such as promotions, challenging responsibilities, and new colleagues are more welcoming, yet they
can also be stress inducing. When change comes, do you find yourself curious and even exhilarated, or are you angry, frustrated, and worried that you are unprepared?
Visit the following link to complete an assessment about your readiness for change: http://www.ecfvp.org/files/uploads/2_-change_readiness_assessment_0426111.
pdf (http://www.ecfvp.org/files/uploads/2_-change_readiness_assessment_0426111 ) .
Consider This
Planned change refers to shifts that are intended and prepared for, such as getting an education, learning new skills, moving to a new city, starting a new hobby, or
finding a new job. Over the past few years, what significant changes have you planned? Have you been successful at implementing these changes?
http://www.ecfvp.org/files/uploads/2_-change_readiness_assessment_0426111
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Shannon Fagan/Taxi/Getty Images Plus
Organization development (OD) helps organizations cope with
change on a global scale.
1.1 What Is Organization Development?
Like individuals, organizations are continually required to adapt to a staggering number and variety of
changes at a considerable pace if they are to thrive. These changes include globalizing markets,
emergence of the knowledge economy, advancing technology, growing customer diversity, shifting
customer preferences, economic upturns or downturns, natural disasters, unanticipated competition, and
abrupt reorganizations or changes in management. To navigate such shifts, organizations engage in
planned change, an intentional or strategic process in which they take action to solve problems or
overcome challenges. Examples of planned change in organizations include intentional shifts in
products or markets, mergers and acquisitions (at least for the controlling company), prearranged
reorganizations, expansion into new regions or countries, and new product development. Unplanned
change occurs when unanticipated circumstances, such as unstable markets, unexpected competition,
surprise mergers, or sudden attrition, require shifts in strategy, products or services, personnel, finances,
or other aspects of organization life.
Although individuals often manage planned change independently, organizations frequently seek help
so that the planned change is systematic, effective, and lasting. This practice is known as organization
development (OD). On its simplest level, OD is a process of helping individuals, groups, and
organizations become more effective through planned change grounded in the theory and practice of
OD. The OD process can be facilitated by either internal or external consultants.
Defining OD
No single one of the many definitions of OD is universally accepted. Beckhard (1969) offered an early definition that is now considered classic: “Organization development is an
effort (1) planned, (2) organization-wide, and (3) managed from the top, to (4) increase organization effectiveness and health through (5) planned interventions in the
organization’s ‘processes,’ using behavioral-science knowledge” (p. 9).
Beckhard’s (1969) definition points to several key aspects of OD:
1. It is a planned, intentional process to address a problem or issue that needs to change.
2. It is organization wide, based on an understanding that the organization is an integrated system and that a change made in one place may have ramifications in others.
3. Top management provides buy-in and support of the OD effort.
4. OD activities address both the effectiveness and the health of the organization by boosting its performance while making it a more humane place to work.
5. It is an intentional process, grounded in evidence derived from the behavioral sciences.
You can see Beckhard’s points in other popular definitions of OD, such as this one from Cummings and Worley (2009): “Organization development is a system wide application
of behavioral science knowledge to the planned development, improvement, and reinforcement of the strategies, structures, and processes that lead to organization effectiveness
[emphasis added]” (pp. 1–2).
Similarly, Anderson (2012) advocated, “Organization development is the process of increasing organizational change through the use of interventions driven by social and
behavioral sciences knowledge [emphasis added]” (p. 3).
In other words, OD is an intentional change process that involves the total system. It takes an evidence-based approach to planning change that improves the effectiveness and
health of the organization. Moreover, employees and management are personally invested in making the organization more effective. Consultants who work with organizations
to identify and implement appropriate interventions practice OD. These practitioners of OD are often considered change agents for their internal or external role in facilitating
change in partnership with key organization stakeholders in ways that solve problems, develop organization capacity, implement new policies or practices, and potentially
transform the organization’s functionality, productivity, climate, or culture.
OD Consultants and Clients
Many organizations rely on professionals to steer them through complex and changing environments with planned responses to problems and challenges. These professionals are
known as organization development (OD) consultants. Also called OD practitioners, human resource developers, human resource managers, or learning and development
professionals, OD consultants are skilled at assessing problems, providing direct feedback to the organization, and influencing change. OD consultants help lead organizations
through interventions that are based on careful study and preparation and are grounded in the behavioral sciences. the systematic study of human behavior such as psychology,
sociology, or anthropology, that attempts to make generalizations about how humans will act in certain situations. The key stakeholder in the OD process is known as the client.
Sometimes there is more than one type of client. For instance, the person who initially contacts the OD consultant may provide introductory information about the problem but
not be the owner of the problem or the person paying for the services. It is important for OD consultants to correctly identify the client—an issue we will cover in Chapter 3.
When Is OD Warranted?
Beckhard (2006) noted there are certain conditions that warrant an organization engaging in an OD effort. These include when a client or organization wants to
1. change a managerial strategy;
2. develop an organization that better meets the needs of employees, the organization, and the environment in which the organization works (markets, community, and so
forth);
3. change cultural norms;
4. change structure and roles;
5. build intergroup collaboration;
6. improve communications;
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7. improve planning;
8. tackle issues related to mergers;
9. address motivation issues among the work force; and
10. better adapt to a changed environment.
When an organization embarks on OD, the ultimate product of the process is to implement an intervention, or act to solve a problem or respond to an opportunity in ways that
improve the situation.
Spotlight on a Disney OD Manager
OD consultants can be found in many organizations, across many industries.
Listen as this OD manager describes his work with Disney.
Disney HR: Role Spotlight | Manager of Organizational Deve…
Critical Thinking Questions
How does Todd describe his role? What parts resonated most with you?
How did this video affect your perception of organization development?
Interventions
When people decide to make a change, they usually do something specific. For instance, if you decided to rein in your spending, you might establish a budget, create a
spreadsheet to track it, switch to electronic banking, visit a financial planner, or change your saving habits. When organizations plan a change, for example, to improve inclusion
in their culture, they might conduct a climate assessment; provide diversity, equity, and inclusion training; or create accountability measures among managers. Actions like these
that are taken to improve a situation are known as interventions.
In OD, an intervention is a corrective action made to resolve problems or address challenges. Interventions in OD focus on tackling organization challenges such as low morale,
quality defects, shifting markets, new management, leadership problems, or strategic planning.
Consider This
Have you experienced an OD effort at an organization you have worked for? If so, what motivated it? Have these efforts included interventions? If so, what are some
problems you have experienced and interventions you have made or experienced?
OD Values
Most of us want to do meaningful work in an organization that has pleasant working conditions, with colleagues who are respectful, where we feel included, and where our work
is recognized and rewarded. OD seeks to honor the individual and advance organization goals. This commitment to benefit all organizational stakeholders is grounded in the
philosophy of humanism.
Humanism is the belief in the inherent good of human beings, their capacity to reach full potential in life, and their right to be treated fairly and humanely. “The OD value is not
about change but about change that makes people better—humanistic values” (Marshak, as cited in Wheatley, Tannenbaum, Yardley Griffin, & Quade, 2003, p. 4). OD experts
herald OD’s humanistic values as the field’s distinguishing feature (Greiner & Cummings, 2004; Porras & Bradford, 2004; Wirtenberg, Abrams, & Ott, 2004), embracing the
notion that “the individual has to gain in the long-term for the organization to gain in the long-term” (Porras & Bradford, 2004, p. 401). OD practitioners intend to do no harm
when they engage with organizations. This is not always easy, as sometimes the goals of the organization seem counter to preserving humanity. Consider layoffs, for example.
Layoffs are harmful to people losing their jobs, yet sometimes they are unavoidable in order to preserve the overall well-being of the organization and protect other jobs.
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Implementing layoffs would be humane when ample notice is given, efforts are made to help affected employees find new employment, and expenses are covered during the
transition with a reasonable severance package. OD consultants can help organizations ensure such humanistic practices are in place when change is difficult and painful.
Wirtenberg et al. (2004) captured this sentiment:
The need in organizations to manifest socially responsible values and create win–win business results has never been greater. OD is in an excellent position to seize the
opportunity to build bridges, find common ground, and address organizational and cultural divides. (p. 479)
If you are fortunate enough to work in an organization with a highly functioning OD process, you should observe an operation engaged in continual improvement for
individuals, teams, and the organization itself. If your organization lacks these practices, it is never too late to implement changes that embrace them. As you read Case Study: Is
Sparklite a Candidate for OD?, ask yourself if this company is engaging in humanistic practices.
Consider This
What practices have you experienced that would fall into the category of humanism? What others were contrary to the values of humanism?
Case Study: Is Sparklite a Candidate for OD?
Sparklite, a spark plug manufacturing plant, underwent a management change 6 months ago when John Stevenson became the plant manager. Stevenson replaced Al
Smith, who was a beloved manager and had run the plant for 20 years. Smith was a hands-on manager. He was always willing to roll up his sleeves and work on a
problem, whether it involved a machine in the plant or a conflict with a customer. He was not a micromanager; rather, he would work closely with the team to solve
problems. He listened to input, whether from the janitor or the vice president. He expected all management personnel to behave similarly. People who worked in the plant
respected Smith and felt respected by him. Over time, a true community atmosphere evolved, and the plant was one of the highest performing in the company.
Stevenson, on the other hand, spends a lot of time in his office, reading over production numbers, talking on the phone, and holding meetings with his management team.
Rarely does he go out onto the manufacturing floor and talk with employees or listen to their ideas. When one of his managers suggests, “It might be helpful if you spent
more time getting to know our workers,” Stevenson barks, “That is what I pay the supervisors to do. My time is better spent on finding ways to cut costs and improve our
margin.” Stevenson is very driven by numbers: When they are not good, he slams his fist on the table and demands that the next shift “pick up the slack.”
It does not take long for the supervisors to become afraid of Stevenson and to quit coming to him with problems. The convivial atmosphere the plant had enjoyed for so
many years quickly erodes into an atmosphere of fear. Soon, the plant’s performance begins to suffer. Morale sinks. Members of the management team begin applying for
transfers to other locations. Longtime workers are exploring other employment options. This only makes Stevenson more frustrated, agitated, and frightening to the
workers.
One day, a corporate vice president comes for a plant tour and visit. It is immediately clear to her that the plant has taken a turn for the worse. She talks with several
employees and can see that something has to change.
Critical Thinking Questions
1. How aligned with humanism is the organization emerging under Stevenson’s leadership?
2. How might planned change play a role in turning things around at Sparklite?
Characteristics of OD
As we have already learned, OD is a planned change process that is grounded in a humanistic philosophy. It also has the following key characteristics (Beckhard, 2006, p. 9).
OD Is Systems Based
OD interventions are planned with consideration for the whole organization as a system. Like medicine, OD intends to “first, do no harm.” Recall that the tenets of humanism
require that OD benefit all stakeholders. This means, for example, that before implementing a change to workflow, the OD consultant would check to make sure the adjustments
do not have a negative impact elsewhere in the organization. For instance, a workflow change might expose employees to repetitive-motion injuries or make the workflow in
another area unmanageable.
Top Management Is Committed
Effective OD secures management’s awareness of and commitment to the chosen intervention and its management from the very beginning. Employees look to management for
approval and as an example, and it is imperative for organization leadership to visibly support any change effort. OD consultants play a key role in holding management
accountable for demonstrating sustained and visible commitment to the OD change process. Usually, organizations will also identify an internal person to champion the change
process and to hold employees and managers accountable for implementing the change.
The Intervention Is Tied to the Organization’s Mission
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SeventyFour/iStock/Getty Images
The goal of OD is to take timely, meaningful action to address
problems, challenges, and opportunities within the organization.
A key aspect of securing management commitment is helping leaders see how the OD initiative helps actualize the organization’s mission and aligns with its strategy. It is also
important for employees to understand this connection. For example, in the Sparklite case study, the organization’s mission to produce quality products on a timely basis was
facilitated by a collegial, collaborative atmosphere that was being eroded by Stevenson’s behavior. If an intervention were made to help Stevenson and other managers change
their managerial style to a more participative one, everyone would have to understand and buy in to how the new behaviors would help the organization meet its mission.
There Is Long-Term Commitment to Implementing the Intervention
Although OD interventions can sometimes be relatively simple and quick to implement, they often require a long-term commitment, sometimes 2 to 3 years or more.
Interventions that change work practices, beliefs, or standards do not succeed overnight. Making lasting organization change needs long-term commitment and action from all
levels of the organization.
Consider This
Consider a large change made by your organization—perhaps a shift to a new database, marketing plan, or procedure. How long did it take? Make a list of a few changes
you can recall and estimate how long they took. Chances are, the more complex changes required more time and resources.
OD Has a “Bias for Action”
Management guru Tom Peters, coauthor of In Search of Excellence, one of the best-selling business
books of all time, became famous for saying that effective organizations have a “bias for action” (Peters
& Waterman, 1982, 2004). This means that an organization engages in active decision making and
moves quickly to action, rather than being caught in an incessant cycle of planning without action.
Although OD implementation can take a long time, it is based on taking action, analyzing how the
action is working, tweaking it, and repeating the process for as long as necessary.
OD Focuses on Changing Attitudes or Behavior
Lasting change occurs when people alter their ways of thinking and doing. This is why OD can be
powerful and can also take a long time to implement. For example, when leaders experience
opportunities for leadership development and receive feedback that indicates they are not as effective as
they believed, they usually engage in introspection and change. Becoming less autocratic may not
happen overnight, but real, lasting change occurs as leaders experiment with new ways of thinking
about their role as leaders and when they implement new behaviors, such as listening or including
others in decision making.
OD Tends to Incorporate Experiential Learning
We will learn throughout this book that when people change, they learn new ways of thinking and doing. OD favors action; thus, interventions often create opportunities for
employees to experience new ways to think and act. Can you recall a time when you participated in a change that prompted new learning? For example, when I participated in a
leadership development initiative, I learned how to coach employees in a way that focused on helping them solve problems on their own, rather than me giving them the answer.
Although there was a chance to learn about coaching from books, I did not internalize it until there was an employee in front of me with a problem and I made a conscious effort
to behave differently.
OD Is Largely a Group Process
Most OD is not done in isolation. Even when consultants make individual interventions such as providing training or coaching, the goal is usually to help the person function
better with others. Similarly, changes in processes require that groups understand and collectively implement the changes. As we will discover, the field of group dynamics and
facilitation grew out of OD.
Realities and Misconceptions About OD
To better understand what OD is, it is useful to explore what it is not. Table 1.1 compares some common realities and misconceptions about OD.
Table 1.1: OD realities and misconceptions
OD realities OD misconceptions
OD is a systematic process of planned change to address organization problems or
issues. It follows the action research model (introduced later in this chapter).
OD is not management consulting or performance improvement activities that focus
on making specific expert, functional interventions that are disconnected from the
organization system.
OD is humanistic in that it seeks to improve organizations through performance
enhancements and improvements to people that make an organization a better place
for all stakeholders.
OD is not oriented toward processes that benefit only the organization and economic
values of performance and productivity.
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OD is strategic, and its interventions include a range of activities. OD is not simply training and development initiatives, although often these
interventions are erroneously prescribed to address problems.
OD is a long-term commitment to change that requires buy-in at multiple levels. OD is not a short-term, quick fix for problems.
OD interventions are customized to address needs specific to the organization and its
goals.
OD does not come with a one-size-fits-all set of interventions. Matching the right
consultant with the problem is important for effective OD.
The next section of this chapter examines OD’s origins and the interventions that have developed over the past 70 years.
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1.2 The History of OD
If you work at a company, belong to a nonprofit board, participate in a professional organization, or are a member of a church, it is likely you have engaged in team-building
exercises, filled out climate surveys, collected data about the organization, solved problems, developed talent, devised strategy, or sought to change the organization. These
activities emerged during the historical evolution of OD, beginning in the 1940s. These interventions are discussed in chronological order in this section, which also introduces
you to some key terminology used in the field. (Refer to Table 1.2 for a summary of OD’s historical development.)
Table 1.2: Key interventions in the history of OD
Date Originator(s) OD intervention Factors contributing to development Description
1940s Lewin T-groups and OD
emergence
Facilitators were debriefing a training when
participants recognized that interpersonal
dynamics of the process were more powerful than
the content of intervention itself.
A group that discusses how members’
behaviors affected the group and the
group dynamics that emerged
1940s Trist and Bamforth Sociotechnical systems Highly functioning groups faltered when
management changed the technology, and
consultants began problem solving to understand
why.
The recognition that an organization’s
social (human) and technical systems
affect each other, especially when either
is changed
1940s–1950s Lewin and Likert Action research and
survey feedback
The dawning understanding of the power of group
reflection on problems and issues in the
organization
Action research is an iterative,
collaborative effort to study problems
(research), take actions to resolve them,
and conduct more studies to see if the fix
worked.
Survey research is used to gauge
attitudes in organizations, and issues are
usually addressed using action research.
1960s Likert Participative
management
Emerged from increasing application of
humanistic practices in organizations with the
advent of prior OD interventions in the 1940s and
1950s
Managers and leaders who listen to,
respect, and seek input from employees
1950s–1970s Deming Quality of work life
(QWL), total quality
management (TQM)
Struggling industrialized countries (e.g., United
Kingdom and United States) looked to Japan for
its high-quality manufacturing practices to
become more competitive.
QWL seeks to enhance sociotechnical
systems and employee well-being and
empowerment to make decisions.
TQM is a process of continuous
improvement.
1980s Schein Organization culture OD shifted its focus from individuals and groups
to the organization itself, which bred an interest in
how organizational atmosphere and tone (culture)
affect its members.
A pattern of basic assumptions that are
invented, discovered, or developed by a
given group as it learns to cope with its
problems of adaptation to the external
environment
1980s–1990s Beckhard and Harris Planned and strategic
change
The dawning recognition by OD consultants that
change and interventions were more effective and
lasting when they advanced the organization’s
strategy
Linking planned change to the
organization’s strategy and goals
1990s Senge, Watkins, and
Marsick
Organization learning
and the learning
organization
The shift from the industrial age to the knowledge
age, and the need to encourage and facilitate
learning and thinking
Organization learning is focused on
describing the nature and process of
learning that occurs within an
organization. An organization becomes a
learning organization when learning is
part of its strategy. The goal is to
leverage learning to improve the
organization.
2000s Various Contemporary OD:
Organization
effectiveness (OE) and
employee engagement
OE is likely more of a change in verbiage than a
substantive change in practice. This terminology
may be more palatable to top management
because “soft” skills promoted by OD may not be
as valued as other skills. Organizations seek ways
to fully involve workers in all aspects of the
business as a way of promoting satisfaction and to
promote OE through engagement.
OE is the pursuit of high levels of
productivity. Engagement is similar to
the QWL and TQM movements to fully
employ workers.
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Associated Press
Kurt Lewin contributed to OD with innovations
in group dynamics and action research. For this
reason, he is often referred to as the father of OD.
T-Groups and the Emergence of OD (1940s)
Kurt Lewin (1898–1947) is widely regarded as the father of OD for his innovations in group dynamics and action research, although he died before the term organization
development came into use in the mid-1950s. It is difficult to overstate Lewin’s contributions to the field. As Burke (2006) noted, “His thinking has had a more pervasive impact
on organization development, both directly and indirectly, than any other person’s” (p. 25).
Author of the well-known saying “If you want truly to understand something, try to change it” (as cited in Tolman,
Cherry, van Hezewijk, & Lubek, 1996, p. 31), Lewin applied his logic by working in organizations to facilitate change.
His practice and research led to some of the most important discoveries about group dynamics and factors that help
organizations make effective change. Lewin founded the Research Center for Group Dynamics at the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1944. His key contributions include understanding group facilitation, inventing action
research, and demonstrating that social interactions could be studied with controlled experiments. Lewin developed many
of the classic OD interventions still in use today. These are discussed further in this chapter and throughout this book.
Can you recall a time when you discussed a process with a group you belong to? Or a situation in which it would have
been helpful to reflect on issues such as “What were your assumptions when you disagreed with the decision?” “What
did you really want to say?” “What just happened here?” or “How did our behaviors affect the meeting?” When a group
engages in such conversations, it is known as a training group, or T-group. This is a small group in which participants
receive input about their own behaviors and discuss how they affect the group dynamics. Lewin accidentally discovered
the process used in T-groups, known as laboratory training or sensitivity training. This “accident” represented the
founding of OD.
The first T-group occurred in 1946 when Lewin, then a faculty member at MIT and director of the Research Center for
Group Dynamics, conducted a training program aimed at improving community leadership and interracial relationships
for the American Jewish Congress of New York’s Commission on Community Interrelations. (See Who Invented That?
The Flip Chart to learn about an innovation that came out of those first T-groups.) The T-group evolved when program
participants were invited to observe the daily post-training debriefing between community leaders and program
facilitators.
The observers did not remain in that role for long; instead, they jumped into the discussion to clarify, build on, or dispute
the observations raised by the trainers and researchers. Lewin’s “aha moment” during these interactions was the power of
this act of reflecting on the day’s experience and questioning the assumptions and behaviors of the individuals in the
training program. These reflections, in other words, were more powerful than the training itself, particularly in enabling
participants to transfer their new insights about group process back to relationships in their workplace.
You may have unknowingly experienced an informal T-group if you have ever met with coworkers to debrief a meeting, during which time you spoke frankly and tried to make
meaning of your own and others’ actions during the meeting. Sometimes this is known as “the meeting after the meeting.” These exchanges are often much more enlightening
and educational than the formal meetings themselves.
Who Invented That? The Flip Chart
Ronald Lippitt and Lee Bradford are among those who helped popularize the use of the flip chart, a fixture in most meeting rooms today. They used the flip chart to
record group insights and issues raised during the 1946 T-group sessions (French & Bell, 1999).
Although T-groups are still used today, their popularity has waned because it is challenging to transfer insights from the experience back to the workplace. Moreover, T-groups
tend to focus on individual behaviors and therefore are not always effective at moving the group or organization to the next level. Eventually, these limitations led to the
emergence of team building, representing OD’s first shift from the individual to the group unit of analysis.
Sociotechnical Systems (1940s)
During the post–World War II era of rapid industrialization, in which T-groups emerged in the United States, changes were also afoot in the United Kingdom, where Eric Trist
and Ken Bamforth of the Tavistock Institute encountered problems in their consultancy with a coal mining company. The mining teams were cohesive work groups that were
responsible for managing their work and received pay based on group effort. However, they experienced problems when management improved their equipment and technology
in ways that fractured their previously cohesive working arrangements.
Trist and Bamforth (1951) worked with the company to reestablish the social elements that worked so well before the technology changed. This was the first time that a
relationship between social and technical systems was recognized. Both aspects had to be considered when implementing change because they affected each other. In short,
organizations were now understood as sociotechnical systems in which social and technical systems are interrelated and interdependent.
Consider This
Consider your own experience in school or at work. What are the social and technical systems? How do they influence each other? How has one affected the other?
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Action Research and Survey Feedback (1940s–1950s)
Lewin is known for saying, “There is nothing so practical as a good theory” (1951, p. 169). He believed that organizations should enact only interventions that are based on
sound data. Just as it is good practice for a doctor to run tests to diagnose illness before prescribing treatment, so too should organizations make data-based diagnoses before
prescribing treatments for organization challenges. Kurt Lewin, John Collier, and William Whyte believed that research and action had to be connected to help organizations
make and manage change. Based on this belief, they developed a process of diagnosing organizational ills in the 1940s known as action research.
Action Research
Action research is a recurring, collaborative effort between organization members and OD consultants to use data to resolve problems. It is essentially a cycle of action and
research, followed by more action and research. For example, Yvette might use a new meeting format with her team (action) and decide to interview team members about its
effectiveness (research). What she learns is then shared with the team, the meeting format is modified (action), and so on. The action research process helps the organization
collect, analyze, and apply data to make informed decisions and not waste time and money on inappropriate interventions.
The steps of action research include
1. collecting data about organizational problems or functioning,
2. analyzing data to understand the issue,
3. devising and implementing interventions to solve the issue or problem,
4. collecting additional data to evaluate the results, and
5. repeating the cycle (back to Step 1).
For example, suppose an organization is experiencing high turnover. Rather than just guessing about the cause and trying a program to address it, such as providing training, the
action research process would involve investigating the turnover issue first by collecting data. Data might be collected by conducting exit interviews with former employees,
surveying current employees about their intentions to leave, conducting a climate survey, or talking with managers.
The second step, analyzing data, involves interpreting the findings of the data collected in the previous step. The action research process is iterative; that is, the cycle of data
collection and action is often repeated, and they inform future action. So in the case of turnover, exit interviews with former employees might reveal that the issue is related to
pay, which the organization may want to investigate further by collecting industry data.
Once enough data are collected and analyzed, the organization is ready to move on to the third step, devising an intervention. The best solution in this case might be to adjust the
pay scale.
Finally, the organization is ready for Step 4, evaluating results. This often involves additional data collection and analysis, such as monitoring the turnover rate to see if the
intervention worked. If it did not, then the action research cycle repeats (Step 5).
We will return to this action research model throughout this book. Together, the humanistic philosophy and the action research process distinguish OD from other organization
problem-solving processes. Action research is a valuable model to memorize and follow, whether or not you intend to work in the OD field.
See Tips and Wisdom: Training to read about possible pitfalls of prescribing training as an intervention.
Tips and Wisdom: Training
A knee-jerk reaction to organization problems is often to prescribe training. Yet training is one of the costliest interventions to implement. When training is an
inappropriate intervention, not only have time and money been wasted designing and delivering it, but the root cause of the original problem has gone unaddressed. This
outcome can lead to further problems, frustrated employees, and lower organizational performance.
Survey Feedback
Organizations often collect data on employee satisfaction. Have you ever received a survey asking you to rate organization variables related to management, innovation, and
satisfaction along a continuum from strongly disagree to strongly agree? If so, you have completed a Likert scale (Likert, 1932) for an OD intervention known as survey
feedback. (See Who Invented That? The Likert Scale.)
Survey feedback is usually shared in meetings by providing a consolidated analysis of the results to work groups and their supervisors. During the feedback meetings, the data
are discussed and next steps determined. Survey feedback is widely used in all types of organizations today and can be especially useful for monitoring change. Likert became a
leading proponent of participative management, probably as a consequence of his immersion in data about management practices through his work in developing survey
feedback.
Who Invented That? The Likert Scale
Rensis Likert (1903–1981), a colleague of Kurt Lewin, is best known for creating organization attitude surveys and the commonly used 5-point Likert scale. Likert
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developed these scales for organizations to measure employee satisfaction on a range of issues. They yield more sensitive results than a simple yes or no. Today, it is easy
to create Likert scales with the help of web-based programs such as SurveyMonkey®. You can also purchase surveys from various vendors or work with a consultant to
create a customized one for your organization. Likert was a founder of the University of Michigan Institute for Social Research. You can learn about his background at
the following link: https://ropercenter.cornell.edu/pioneers-polling/rensis-likert (https://ropercenter.cornell.edu/pioneers-polling/rensis-likert) .
Participative Management (1960s)
Take a moment to recall managers you have known or worked with. They may have been teachers, pastors, bosses, coaches, or board presidents, for example. Whom did you
really like and respect? Why? Whom did you despise? Why? Chances are that you admired the managers who earned your respect and trust through behaviors such as listening,
seeking your input, respecting you as a person, valuing your contributions, and admitting their own mistakes. These behaviors are typical of participative managers or
participative management. The rise of participative management emerged as OD consultants sought to apply OD’s humane and democratic principles to management. Likert
(1977) developed categories of management types and styles that helped popularize participative management. These include the following:
Exploitative–authoritative: Characterized by decision making from the top with little teamwork or communication (other than threats).
Benevolent–authoritative: Characterized by a master–servant relationship between management and employees, in which rewards are used to motivate, with minimal
teamwork and communication.
Consultative: Characterized by a relationship of trust among management and subordinates, in which both rewards and involvement are used to motivate and there is a
higher level of shared responsibility for meeting goals with moderate amounts of teamwork and communication.
Participative: Characterized by managerial trust and confidence in employees such that goals are collectively determined and rewarded, the responsibility for meeting
organization objectives is shared, work is collaborative, and communication is open.
Which management definition typifies the organization(s) you belong to? Now that you have guessed, see Assessment: Management-Style Quiz to find out.
Assessment: Management-Style Quiz
Participative management differs from traditional authoritative management styles that seek minimal input from workers in running the organization and are built on top-
down management, decision making, and communication with little lateral interaction or teamwork. Participative managers, in contrast, engage all levels of employees in
decision making, problem solving, and strategic planning. Participative management techniques have been found to increase productivity, quality, and satisfaction. OD
consultants are trained to help managers become more participative in their managerial practice through activities such as management development and executive
coaching.
Use the Leadership Style Survey found at the following link to assess your management style: http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/leader/survstyl.html (http://www.nwli
nk.com/~donclark/leader/survstyl.html) . How would you classify it? Are you happy with it, or do you have some work to do?
Quality of Work Life (QWL) (1950s–1970s)
The quality of work life (QWL) movement emerged in the 1950s and 1960s. It focused on enhancing organizations’ sociotechnical systems by incorporating union–
management cooperation, employee involvement, and self-directed work teams. QWL was grounded in the idea that organizations should promote individual well-being, team
functioning, and overall organization health. The inflation and escalating energy costs characteristic of the 1970s shifted QWL’s focus to global competitiveness, productivity,
and employee satisfaction and became known as total quality management (TQM) (see Tips and Wisdom: TQM). W. Edwards Deming is credited with being one of TQM’s
founders, although his ideas did not develop traction in the United States until the 1980s. He was embraced in Japan much earlier (see Who Invented That? Kaizen). Typical
QWL–TQM activities include quality circles (groups of employees who meet and identify process-improvement projects), employee involvement, employee empowerment,
process improvement, team decision making, and self-directed work teams.
Tips and Wisdom: TQM
The TQM movement is alive and well today. Certification in TQM is offered by organizations such as the American Society for Quality (http://asq.org/ (http://asq.org/) )
and iSix Sigma (http://www.isixsigma.com/methodology/total-quality-management-tqm/eight-elements-tqm (http://www.isixsigma.com/methodology/total-quality-mana
gement-tqm/eight-elements-tqm) ). Many organizations also apply for the Malcolm Baldrige Award, which recognizes outstanding quality performance (http://www.nist.g
ov/baldrige (http://www.nist.gov/baldrige) ). The International Organization for Standardization provides international standards for quality management (ISO 9000) (https
://www.iso.org/management-system-standards.html (https://www.iso.org/management-system-standards.html) ), with which many organizations also seek to comply.
Who Invented That? Kaizen
Kaizen (Imai, 1986) means “improvement” or “change for the best” in Japanese. The Kaizen principle captures the notion of continuous improvement that became a
https://ropercenter.cornell.edu/pioneers-polling/rensis-likert
http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/leader/survstyl.html
http://asq.org/
http://www.nist.gov/baldrige
https://www.iso.org/management-system-standards.html
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dominant influence in post–World War II Japan and a key idea in the TQM movement. The Kaizen principle applies to work processes, individuals, groups, and all levels
of the organization. Deming originated the quality improvement principles that helped Japan develop into a manufacturing powerhouse, although they did not gain
traction in the United States until TQM became a competitive necessity to improve quality in manufacturing.
Organization Culture (1980s)
As OD practice shifted from individuals to groups, the natural progression was to expand that focus to the organization itself and how it could be more effective and efficient.
With this shift, OD looked to the unique rules, values, and rituals that governed the beliefs and behaviors of organization members—that is, to the study of organization
culture. Jacques (1951) defined organization culture as
the customary or traditional ways of thinking and doing things, which are shared to a greater or lesser extent by all members of the organization and which new
members must learn and at least partially accept in order to be accepted into the service of the firm. (p. 251)
Schein (1991), a prominent culture scholar, defined culture as a pattern of basic assumptions that are invented, discovered, or developed by a given group as it learns to cope
with its problems of adaptation to the external environment. He suggested that when we understand a culture, we can understand how it affects group members’ thoughts,
feelings, and actions. Think of a culture you belong to and identify some of its beliefs, activities, and customs.
Although the issue of culture was addressed in the study of organizations as early as the 1950s, organizational values and culture were rarely studied systematically until the
early 1980s (Peters & Waterman, 1982). The notion driving this shift was that organization culture needed to align with strategy. Consider high tech as an example. Today
company culture values creativity, innovation, and speed. Companies such as Google or Apple demand innovation on what is often referred to as “Internet time”—intense hours
and quick turnarounds on projects. In return for the high expectations and long hours, the work environments are casual and cater to every need employees might have, including
grooming, eating, health care, child care, and even pet care. This type of culture supports these companies’ strategy of being first with the most innovative products and services.
In contrast, companies focused on finance or manufacturing have a very different organization culture. We are also seeing the evolution of telecommuting and virtual workers,
with virtual employment being much more accepted and common than ever before, and the rise of eco-friendly co-workspaces such as WeWork where freelancers, technology
startups, major corporations, and entrepreneurs can complete their work in smartly designed physical and virtual environments, worldwide.
Every organization has a culture governed by spoken or unspoken rules. For example, some organizations are highly hierarchical, and it would be culturally taboo to skip rank to
raise issues with upper management. Although this cultural rule may not be written anywhere, violating it would result in quick correction by the culture’s members. Culture
also has artifacts that express its values and rules. The Apple corporation’s icon represents its mantra of “think different” and has become an iconic representation of a culture of
innovation and design. Major university sports teams have logos and mascots that carry meaning. For example, the mascot of the University of Georgia is the English bulldog.
This symbol holds many meanings, and people often refer to the university as “the Bulldawg Nation” and have a ritual of barking during kickoff at football games.
Planned and Strategic Change (1980s–1990s)
When you set a goal for yourself and intend to be successful, you typically have a plan. Consider your pursuit of a college degree. You have probably plotted your coursework,
determined your timeline, and sought out people and other supports to help you succeed. Without some sort of strategy, your chances of success are slimmer. Similarly,
organizations make plans to help achieve their goals. In OD, these steps are known as planned and strategic change. The movement toward planned and strategic change
emerged as OD consultants recognized the importance of linking organization change initiatives to the broader strategy and goals of the organization.
Earlier in the chapter, OD was described as planned change. OD interventions such as updating software, shuffling managers, or introducing new procedures typically flow from
decisions to make changes that are associated with a higher-performing organization. In contrast, strategic change involves aligning the organization’s strategy with its mission
while accounting for technical, cultural, environmental, social, and political systems (Beckhard & Harris, 1977). For example, the organization might reach out to its local
community regarding recycling or pollution reduction (environmental and political strategy), adopt a new social networking marketing campaign (technical strategy), or make
deliberate efforts to shift the organization culture through leadership development, management reorganization, or mergers and acquisitions (cultural strategy). Strategic change
usually follows some type of upheaval that may be unplanned, such as a change in government regulations, competition, new technology, or a new leader. Such strategic
disruptions have occurred on a national scale in the United States—for example, with health care legislation, the rapid and broad adoption of smartphones, and the volatility of
regional, national, and international politics.
Organization Learning and the Learning Organization (1990s)
OD’s concentration on culture and strategic change fueled the interest in learning as a key lever in creating high-performing organizations in the 1990s. The shift to learning also
parallels the rise of the knowledge society, the cultural and social shift away from industrialization to an economy based on service and intellectual work.
How an organization acquires and uses knowledge is known as organization learning. It involves ongoing, collaborative learning among the employees. Song, Joo, and
Chermack (2009) described organization learning “as the collaborative learning process of individuals . . . [the] learning processes that transform local or individual knowledge
into collective knowledge” (p. 47). A key benefit of organization learning is that it can help organizations be more competitive when they enhance their capacity to create, share,
and preserve knowledge.
When organizations attempt to use learning as a strategic advantage and create infrastructure and interventions to do so, they are striving to become a learning organization.
This concept was popularized by Peter Senge’s 1990 book The Fifth Discipline: The Art and Practice of the Learning Organization. Senge (1990) defined learning organizations
as “organizations where people continually expand their capacity to create the results they truly desire, where new and expansive patterns of thinking are nurtured, where
collective aspiration is set free and where people are continually learning how to learn together” (p. 56). Watkins and Marsick (1993) suggested “a learning organization is one
that learns continuously and can transform itself” (p. 8). They developed the Dimensions of the Learning Organization Questionnaire (DLOQ), which measures learning
organization capacity in seven areas:
1. Continuous learning: Opportunities for ongoing education and growth are available, and learning is built into the work itself to promote on-the-job learning.
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2. Inquiry and dialogue: The organization culture is built around developing the capacity to listen and inquire into the assumptions and perspectives of others. Questioning
and feedback are welcome behaviors.
3. Team learning: Teams are expected to learn and create new knowledge together.
4. Embedded system: Systems to capture and share learning exist and are integrated with work and available for employees to access.
5. Empowerment: Organization members are involved in creating and implementing a shared vision and share responsibility for attaining it.
6. System connection: The organization is connected to its broader communities.
7. Strategic leadership: The leaders are committed to using learning as a business strategy and support learning efforts.
Contemporary Trends (2000s–Present)
“Organization effectiveness” and “employee engagement” were hot trends at the start of the 21st century and continue to have prominence. Anderson (2012) explained that the
idea of organization effectiveness is not notably different from organization development and that it was part of Beckhard’s (1969) classic definition. However, the shift may be
away from development, which some viewed as a “soft” term, and more toward more practical efforts to quantify OD activities and outcomes. Nevertheless, former PepsiCo
chair Roger Enrico is noted for saying, “The soft stuff is always harder than the hard stuff” (as cited in LeadershipNow, n.d., para. 19), meaning that working on “soft” human
relations issues such as communication, leadership, team cohesion, conflict resolution, and the like is much more challenging than repairing “hard” problems related to
machinery, correcting defects, and analyzing organizations’ financial waste.
To learn about the essentials of an effective organization and how they relate to productivity, Haid, Schroeder-Saulnier, Sims, and Wang (2010) conducted a global study of
nearly 29,000 employees from 10 major industry sectors in 15 countries in the Americas, Europe, and AsiaPacific. Review the report “Organizational Effectiveness: Discovering
How to Make It Happen” at the following link: https://www.scribd.com/document/100913598/2-Organizational-Effectiveness-Discovering-How-to-Make-It-Happen (https
://www.scribd.com/document/100913598/2-Organizational-Effectiveness-Discovering-How-to-Make-It-Happen) .
Interventions that promote employee involvement and satisfaction are collectively known as employee engagement. This trend may harken back to the employee involvement
and empowerment initiatives that were characteristic of QWL/TQM programs in the 1980s. Anderson (2012) noted that this return to individual concerns may be a measure to
counteract the emergence of organization effectiveness. Noting that organization effectiveness and employee engagement may be too young to gauge as true OD trends,
Anderson (2012) observed that they are receiving attention in practice, if not research. Shuck, Adelson, and Reio (2017) argued that engaged workers bring their full selves into
their work roles with cognitive, emotional, and physical investment in their organizational lives. Their article features the development and testing of the Employee Engagement
Scale, a tool to measure employee engagement.
The context of the 2010s is commonly referred to by the acronym VUCA: volatile, uncertain, complex, and ambiguous. The term originated in the U.S. military in the 1980s,
attributed to Commandant M. G. Thompson as part of the US Army War College Experience (U.S. Army and Heritage Education Center, n.d.). VUCA has since been adopted
broadly to describe the current and future state of the world as we grapple with the megatrends of globalization, technology, individualization, demographic change, digitization,
political uncertainty, economic instability, and environmental crisis, where a state of VUCA is the new normal (van der Steege, 2017). VUCA conditions permeate social,
economic, cultural, political, and environmental conditions, creating wicked problems, defined by Rittel and Webber (1973) as stubborn and the result of open social systems
when theory is inadequate for accurate forecasting, our current knowledge is insufficient to the task, and pluralities in politics make achieving unified aims impossible. Solving
wicked problems in a VUCA age requires cross-functional and cross-generational teams.
Cross-functional teams can best be described by the rise of the T-shaped professional. T-shaped professionals “are deep problem solvers in their home discipline but also
capable of interacting with and understanding specialists from a wide range of disciplines and functional areas” (Ing, 2008, para. 3). Represented by a metaphorical letter “T”
(see Figure 1.1), the vertical bar represents deep expertise in a discipline such as finance and a system such as banking, while the horizontal bar represents boundary-crossing
skills such as teamwork, collaboration, or cultural competence that allow the professional to collaborate across disciplines. The model is being used in both higher education and
business (Bierema, 2019), as well as in health professions education (Bierema, 2018) and continuing professional education (Bierema, 2016a).
Figure 1.1: T-shaped professional
T-shaped professionals possess deep expertise in a discipline and understanding of and experience in a system (such as health care or
government) in combination with skills that cross disciplines and allow them to collaborate across disciplines to solve problems.
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Baby boomers are entering retirement in increasing numbers, and according to the Pew Research Center, the entire generation will reach age 65 by 2030 (Heimlich, 2010). Huge
numbers of retirees create a skills gap, and organizations are faced with engaging in careful succession planning—a process to develop strategies for how strategic positions
will be staffed in the future. Creating cross-generational teams is one intervention for building capacity among younger generations, as well as the ability to work across
differences in age and the cultural differences and conflicts that arise in multigenerational work groups.
Technology-enabled learning via just-in-time mobile access and gamification are also becoming more common. In fact, the use of smartphones in the United States increased
from 35% in 2011 to 77% in 2016, the use of tablets jumped from 3% in 2010 to 51% in 2016, and nine out of 10 adults in the United States are online (Smith, 2017). The
explosive growth of smartphones and tablets has led to the creation and adoption of apps for business to enhance teamwork and productivity, such as GoToMeeting (https://ww
w.gotomeeting.com/ (https://www.gotomeeting.com/) ), a meeting scheduling and document platform, and Slack (https://slack.com/ (https://slack.com/) ), a platform where teams
manage projects, conversations, messaging, and files with a powerful search engine.
Gamification refers to software programs that simulate video games and provide workers the opportunity to compete, earn badges, achieve rewards, and garner bragging rights
as they fulfill their work. Amazon is one example of how the company turned monotonous, low-skill warehouse work into a game (Bensinger, 2019). This experiment allows
thousands of the company’s “pickers” and “stowers” to play video games all day, as they complete their warehouse jobs. According to Bensinger, “Some compete by racing
virtual dragons or sports cars around a track, while others collaborate to build castles piece by piece” (para. 1). The workers are not just playing games; they are using a video
game format to make their tedious work more engaging and efficient. Uber and Lyft also use such programs to motivate drivers to spend longer hours on the road. Such
innovations are not free from criticism, though: Some say they are not a substitute for raising the minimum wage and they allow high levels of managerial surveillance of
workers.
The interventions profiled in this section have traced OD from its beginnings in the 1940s with T-groups focusing on individual behavior and accountability, to strategic
interventions focusing on the organizational system’s effectiveness and health, to how megatrends of technology and an aging work force are creating VUCA conditions that
require new teamwork models and solutions to problems. OD is both change oriented and learning oriented, and each of these innovations has advanced organization practices
and policies and will continue to do so.
Now that you have a better sense of what OD involves, you may be wondering who implements it. The next section explores the values, competencies, and ethics of the OD
consultant.
https://www.gotomeeting.com/
https://slack.com/
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Kerkez/iStock/Getty Images Plus
OD practitioners collaborate with clients to plan and implement
change. They can be either internal or external to the
organization.
1.3 The OD Consultant
Awareness of OD can help you participate more effectively in an organizational intervention or prompt
you to decide to talk to an OD consultant to facilitate organization change. This section describes OD
consultants and identifies the values, ethics, and competencies needed for effective practice as well as
professional communities.
Who Is the OD Consultant?
There are at least three types of OD consultants (Cummings & Worley, 2009):
The first type includes internal or external consultants. Internal consultants are employed by
the organization as permanent employees. External consultants are not members of the
organization and are hired on a temporary basis. OD consultants typically have advanced
training in the field, subscribe to humanistic values, and have expertise in group dynamics,
facilitation, decision making, coaching, leadership, and other social process areas.
The second type are often management consultants working in content-oriented fields related
to OD, such as total quality, organization design, reward systems, information technology, or
business strategy. They work in conjunction with OD consultants to implement interventions.
The third type includes managers who apply OD to their own functional areas. Although they
may not be formally trained in OD, their organizations provide training, and they gain
experience from interventions they are responsible for managing. This manager-as-OD-
practitioner is on the rise as organizations attempt to rapidly implement change. Managers
often build this expertise by working with OD consultants in ongoing change programs in their organizations.
Cummings and Worley (2009) noted that the distinctions between these three types of OD consultants are blurring. Likely, that is due to the range of OD practiced in diverse
organizations and the reality that some individuals functioning as consultants are not trained in the theories and practices of OD.
OD Values and Ethics
Humanism has already been introduced as an underlying philosophy of OD. People who embrace humanism seek to trust and respect others and help them develop and grow.
They also value democracy, equity, and fair treatment. In OD, this translates into creating healthy, equitable, affirming organizations for all members.
Anderson (2012) translated OD’s history of humanism into modern-day values that include
1. participation, involvement, and empowerment;
2. groups and teams;
3. growth, development, and learning;
4. valuing the whole person;
5. dialogue and collaboration; and
6. authenticity, openness, and trust.
Each will be discussed in the following sections to further illuminate how OD values play out in practice.
Participation, Involvement, and Empowerment
OD is not about consultants prescribing change in isolation. Rather, it is a collaborative, democratic partnership in which organization members have input throughout the
process and co-own the change. This value reflects an understanding that changes endure only when system members have involvement and say in the changes chosen (Schein,
1990). That is why interventions that promote organization members’ participation, involvement, and empowerment are so highly valued in OD. Examples of these types of
interventions include participative management, T-groups, survey feedback, quality of work life, and learning organizations.
Groups and Teams
An organization relies on groups and teams to do its work. Groups and teams are often the focus of OD interventions. Beckhard (1969) emphasized that “the basic building
blocks of an organization are groups (teams)” (p. 26). A key competency for OD practitioners is to understand group dynamics and strategies for facilitating group processes.
High-performing groups and teams are built on productive relationships among members, high levels of communication, clearly defined roles, specific goals, the ability to
resolve conflict, and recognition for goal attainment. When groups and teams are high performing, they create great results for the organization.
Growth, Development, and Learning
Organization development introduces planned change to organizations, and for the change to stick, it usually requires learning on behalf of organization members. “Perhaps the
value that differentiates organization development from most other management and consulting work is its emphasis on growth, development, and learning” (Anderson, 2012, p.
42). This value is also in sync with the reality that adults are continually learning, developing, and changing throughout their lives (Merriam & Bierema, 2014). A significant
amount of adult learning happens in the workplace, whether it is formal education in a field such as accounting, formal training on how to use computer software, informal
learning where workers observe or ask coworkers how something is done, or incidental learning that is a byproduct of something else (for instance, one might observe
interpersonal dynamics between colleagues during a meeting and conclude they do not like each other). Valuing growth, development, and learning also fits with OD’s
humanistic philosophy that through learning and development we can turn around nonperforming individuals and teams, learn what is preventing optimal performance, and
create organizations that promote, rather than impede, learning.
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Valuing the Whole Person
Consider yourself. You probably have a job title, but this is not the totality of who you are. In addition to that, you have roles, hobbies, interests, and relationships outside work.
Sometimes in organization life we typecast people based on their positions and fail to consider their input or interest in issues beyond the scope of their job. For example, a
secretary might be heavily involved in community service, serving on nonprofit boards, holding key leadership roles, facilitating meetings, and leading strategic planning. These
experiences could provide valuable insights to her organization, yet when it comes to setting organization strategy, no one thinks to engage her because she is a secretary.
Valuing the whole person means seeing organization members as people, not positions. It involves treating people with respect and inviting their participation. It also
incorporates creating an environment that values diversity and inclusion—one where people feel welcome and valued regardless of age, race, gender, class, national origin,
sexual orientation, ethnicity, religion, physical ability, and so forth.
Dialogue and Collaboration
Organization development, when done well, promotes the overall well-being of the company. This might be visible through humanistic policies and practices, innovative
learning and development programs, inclusive hiring and advancement practices, or good environmental stewardship. “A key value in organization development is the creation
of healthy environments that promote collaboration rather than competition, with the assumption that a win–win solution is both possible and more desirable than conflict”
(Anderson, 2012, p. 44). Well-being in organizations continues to be widely studied in OD research today (Joo, Zigarmi, Nimon, & Shuck, 2017). How individuals and groups
communicate with each other has a significant impact on whether collaboration is possible. Our cultural communication pattern in the United States is debate centered. That is,
people often take a win–lose stance in conversations. The exchange is not about creating meaning or understanding, but rather about swaying the other person to your way of
thinking. This type of advocacy-based conversation is known as discussion (Ellinor & Gerard, 1998; Senge, 1990). Discussion is not necessarily bad, because advocating ideas
is necessary for us to make decisions. Where it breaks down is when an advocacy stance is the only mode of discourse used. All you need to do is turn on talk radio or television
to see daily—if not hourly—examples of this highly confrontational, negative, nonproductive form of discourse at its extreme. Sadly, it has become the default way of
communicating in many social settings, including organizations.
An alternative form of discourse is one in which you do not seek to prove your views as right or superior, but rather to understand differing, perhaps contradictory, viewpoints.
This is known as dialogue, or inquiry-based communication. To conduct a dialogue effectively, you must suspend judgment of various viewpoints, identify your assumptions,
truly listen to others, and practice inquiry and reflection (Ellinor & Gerard, 1998). When we have a dialogue, rather than trying to determine who has the right answer, we
usually generate new meanings and ways of thinking no one had thought of previously. OD practitioners must become experts at dialogue because it effectively invites the client
into the conversation. Rarely should an OD practitioner give clients the answer or tell them what to do. Instead, the consultant might say, “What is not working?” “What is one
thing we could do today to begin addressing the problem?” “What I hear you saying is . . .” “Would you say more about that?”
Learning how to conduct a dialogue is important for implementing effective philosophy and practicing OD because it helps build collaborative relationships and bridge
understanding. It also builds knowledge and tolerance because it is based on inquiry rather than advocacy and explores new ideas. Discussion is useful when the group is ready
to make a decision—ideally after the group or organization has done its best thinking and meaning making—through dialogue. The key is to find ways to balance the use of
discussion and dialogue.
Authenticity, Openness, and Trust
Authentic behavior with a client means you put into words what you are experiencing with the client as you work. According to Block, “This is the most powerful thing you can
do to have the leverage you are looking for and to build client commitment” (1999, p. 37).
Authenticity as an OD practitioner involves candidly sharing observations or asking questions of clients without alienating them. Being authentic means sharing honest
feedback with the client in a way that saves face. Valuing authenticity, openness, and trust enables OD practitioners to identify the “elephant in the room” in a tactful and
respectful manner.
A consultant once worked with a very command-and-control president whom most employees feared. She found herself greatly affected by his mood. In one of their meetings,
he shared that he was perplexed about how to better motivate his work force. She looked at him and said, “You know, I think you should just try smiling for a change and see
what kind of results you get.” The president was furious at the “frivolous” suggestion and threw her out of his office. Nonetheless, after about three weeks, he called the
consultant back and admitted, “You were right.” He could not believe the effect a visible change in his demeanor had on his employees. The consultant in this story risked being
authentic with the client and in the end was able to have a profound influence on him when he realized his effect on the organization. When OD practitioners are successful with
authenticity, clients become more open and trust the relationship. See Tips and Wisdom: Five Reasons to Smile More as a Leader to see how other OD consultants use smiling as
an intervention.
Tips and Wisdom: Five Reasons to Smile More as a Leader
1. It helps others relax.
2. It draws people to you.
3. It enables you to connect.
4. It creates positive culture.
5. It elevates your mood.
For more context on these reasons, visit this blog post by a leader in the field of OD (http://us2.campaign-archive1.com/?u=52d5c7778a3adfda535c3b349&id=da7bef9cf2&e=
6302681a5f) .
OD Code of Ethics
http://us2.campaign-archive1.com/?u=52d5c7778a3adfda535c3b349&id=da7bef9cf2&e=6302681a5f
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Hiraman/E+/Getty Images Plus
One of the 16 areas of being an effective OD practitioner is
planning based on data analysis and feedback.
OD practitioners abide by the International Society for Organization Development and Change’s code of ethics, last revised in 2014. It is available at https://isodc.org/ethics (ht
tps://isodc.org/ethics) .
OD’s humanistic orientation is evident throughout this code, in its emphasis on quality of life, health, justice, dignity, win–win outcomes, holistic perspectives, and participative
decision making.
Consider This
What aspects of the OD code of ethics resonate with you? How well are you living up to this code? How well is your organization living up to this code?
Competencies of OD Practitioners
“A consultant is one who provides help, counsel, advice, and support, which implies that such a person is wiser than most people” (Burke, 1992, p. 173). According to
Cummings and Worley (2009), OD consultants need the following foundational competencies to be effective at OD. Foundational competencies represent the theoretical
knowledge that is helpful when doing OD work. This theoretical knowledge includes an understanding of
organizational behavior,
individual psychology,
group dynamics,
management and organization theory,
research methods and statistics,
comparative cultural perspectives, and
functional knowledge of business.
Beyond this theoretical knowledge is a host of competencies related to facilitating an OD process and
engaging with your client interpersonally. The Organization Development Network has provided a
comprehensive list of OD competencies on its website (https://www.odnetwork.org/page/odcompete
ncies (https://www.odnetwork.org/page/odcompetencies) ).
The list includes 16 areas with 141 competencies that make OD practitioners effective. The 16 areas
include the following:
1. Marketing services as an OD practitioner or consultant
2. Enrolling the client by building trust
3. Contracting with the client to establish the boundaries of the consulting relationship
4. Conducting a mini-assessment to clarify issues, pinpoint biases, and identify power relations
5. Diagnosing the root problem using a process of data collection and analysis
6. Sharing feedback of the data analysis with the client
7. Planning the appropriate intervention based on data analysis and feedback
8. Facilitating participation of key stakeholders in the decision making and implementation of
the intervention
9. Implementing the intervention to address the root problem
10. Conducting an evaluation to assess whether the intervention effectively solved the problem
11. Following up with the organization to monitor and adjust the changes made as a result of the
intervention
12. Monitoring the client’s adoption of the changes
13. Facilitating the separation of the consultant from the organization (promoting client independence)
14. Developing and enhancing self-awareness to ensure you are functioning at a high level of mental, physical, spiritual, and intellectual health
15. Honing your interpersonal skills in a way that makes you a role model to the client due to building trust with, listening to, and respecting others
16. Managing other areas of OD competency that build cultural sensitivity, technical competence, and ongoing learning to stay current and relevant as an OD practitioner
You may be thinking that this is a formidable list! The array of technical, diagnostic, and interpersonal skills is somewhat daunting and requires those who practice OD to engage
in continuous learning, growth, and development. This ongoing self-improvement helps us develop into leaders and role models our clients want to listen to and emulate. These
core competencies will be examined in more detail later in this book.
Burke (1992) stated that having foundational and core competencies is necessary but not sufficient to do OD. He added important interpersonal competencies for effective
practice:
Tolerating ambiguity. There are no recipes for OD because every organization and problem is unique and requires a customized solution.
Influencing the client. Consultants rarely have formal organizational power to implement interventions, making persuasive skills imperative. Block (1999) eloquently
summed up the life of a consultant as having influence without power.
Being direct. As discussed in the authenticity section, this requires confronting difficult issues that no one wants to raise.
Providing support. Clients need support as they encounter challenges related to change, such as conflict, resistance, or stress.
Controlling your own emotions. Your presence, behaviors, and comments significantly influence the client and organization. Remember to behave calmly and
respectfully.
https://isodc.org/ethics
https://www.odnetwork.org/page/odcompetencies
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Recognizing and using teachable moments. OD is a learning process for the client, so it is important to recognize and use teachable moments as they arise.
Maintaining a sense of humor. Consulting work can be challenging and stressful, so humor is a good tension breaker.
Executive presence. This means exuding self-confidence, interpersonal savvy, and a sense of mission about your work.
Professional Communities
Now that we have reviewed the types of OD practitioners and their values, ethics, and competencies, let us examine the professional community of OD. The following are
organizations where OD professionals can network with each other, participate in conferences and training, and subscribe to journals, newsletters, and other resources:
International Society for Organization Development and Change
http://www.isodc.org (http://www.isodc.org)
Organization Development Network
http://www.odnetwork.org (http://www.odnetwork.org)
Journals dedicated to advancing both the research and the practice of OD include the following:
Human Resource Development International
http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/rhrd20/current#.UemsUGkS75h (http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/rhrd20/current#.UemsUGkS75h)
Human Resource Development Quarterly
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/15321096 (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/15321096)
Leadership & Organizational Development Journal
https://www.emerald.com/insight/publication/issn/0143-7739 (https://www.emerald.com/insight/publication/issn/0143-7739)
Organizational Dynamics
http://www.journals.elsevier.com/organizational-dynamics (http://www.journals.elsevier.com/organizational-dynamics)
Being an OD practitioner demands the best of you—to be a role model of change, behave humanistically, collaborate, and be versed in OD’s content and process. We will go
into more depth about this dynamic and exciting field in the next chapters.
http://www.isodc.org/
http://www.odnetwork.org/
http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/rhrd20/current%23.UemsUGkS75h
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/1532109
6
https://www.emerald.com/insight/publication/issn/0143-7739
http://www.journals.elsevier.com/organizational-dynamics
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Summary and Resources
Chapter Summary
People and organizations constantly experience both planned and unplanned change in the course of their personal and work lives.
OD is a planned change effort that is supported by management and applied system-wide to increase organization effectiveness and health. It uses interventions targeted
at organization challenges or problems.
OD is practiced by individuals known as OD consultants. They help the organization cope with and respond to change and work with the key organizational stakeholder
or client to resolve problems.
OD is grounded in the philosophy of humanism that assumes human goodness and seeks to do no harm to the individuals or their organizations when making changes.
Key characteristics of OD include the following: It is systems based, top management is committed, the intervention is tied to the organization’s mission, there is a long-
term commitment to implementing the intervention, there is a bias for action, it focuses on changing attitudes or behavior, it tends to incorporate experiential learning,
and it is largely a group process.
Historically, OD evolved from T-groups that focused on individual interventions to more systemic and strategic interventions that target overall organization health and
functioning and respond to generational shifts and technological innovation.
OD regards organizations as sociotechnical entities in which the social and technical systems affect and are affected by each other.
OD has been instrumental in making the workplace more humane with its advocacy of participative management, quality of work life, and total quality management.
OD contributed some key tools to organizations during the 20th century, including the flip chart, Likert scale, action research, and survey feedback.
Contemporary OD seeks to be more strategic and foster learning, organization effectiveness, and employee engagement.
OD can be practiced on multiple levels, from participating in a process in the course of your work life, to managing a function where OD is applied, assisting an OD
process with specialized knowledge, or working as an OD consultant.
OD’s values and ethics are grounded in its humanistic philosophy and include participative management, teamwork, continuous learning, collaboration, and a spirit of
authenticity and openness.
Being an OD practitioner or consultant involves developing book knowledge of OD foundations and theory, as well as process knowledge that will help the practitioner
be a high-functioning role model for leadership and organization innovation.
Think About It! Reflective Exercises to Enhance Your Learning
1. Describe your own work setting. How humanistic is it?
2. Lewin was famous for saying, “If you want truly to understand something, try to change it” (as cited in Tolman et al., 1996, p. 31). What does this statement mean to
you? How does it relate to a change you have attempted to make?
3. What situations in your current work experience would be enhanced by an OD process, or what has been your experience with OD?
4. Where have you observed a humanistic philosophy in action? How would you rate your organization in terms of humanism?
5. What OD interventions profiled in this chapter have you experienced?
6. How will knowledge of OD help you in your current or future career?
Apply Your Learning: Activities and Experiences to Bring OD to Life
1. Identify your educational philosophy by taking the Philosophy of Adult Education Inventory located at https://pbea.agron.iastate.edu/files/Philosophy%20of%20Ad
ult%20Education%20Inventory%20%281%29 (https://pbea.agron.iastate.edu/files/Philosophy%20of%20Adult%20Education%20Inventory%20%281%29 ) . What
is your dominant orientation? (Note: You may have more than one dominant philosophy.)
2. Conduct a web search of the historical figures of OD noted in this chapter, such as Kurt Lewin, Richard Beckhard, Rensis Likert, Peter Senge, or Karen Watkins.
a. Identify their key philosophy.
b. Note their key contributions to OD.
3. Return to the Sparklite case study and revisit your answers to the questions.
a. How are they different now that you have completed the chapter?
b. If you were an OD consultant hired to help the employees, what would be your first steps? (You may want to return to your answers after you have finished
reading the entire book.)
c. Think of questions you would like to ask the employees.
4. Visit a website like ONet (https://www.onetonline.org/ (https://www.onetonline.org/) ), Monster (https://www.monster.com/ (https://www.monster.com/) ), or Indeed (http
s://www.indeed.com/ (https://www.indeed.com/) ) and conduct a search on OD jobs. This will be valuable information if you plan to seek a career in OD. Scan the job
descriptions and note the following:
a. job titles
b. key training, skills, and competencies that regularly pop up in the postings
c. salaries
d. types of organizations
e. other interests you may have
5. Identify two OD practitioners in two different organizations and interview them about their role. Ask them to describe the following:
a. their training and preparation
b. their career history
c. OD interventions they are proud of and what characterized them
d. mistakes they have made
e. advice they would give new entrants to the field
6. Attend a local OD professional meeting. The Organization Development Network has local chapters in major metropolitan areas.
a. What did you learn about the field? Its practitioners?
b. Follow up with someone you met at the meeting and conduct an informational interview.
7. Attend a national meeting of an OD organization.
a. What key trends did you notice?
b. What did you learn from the attendees (insights, introductions, and so forth)?
8. Write a review of an article from one of the OD journals listed in this chapter.
https://pbea.agron.iastate.edu/files/Philosophy%20of%20Adult%20Education%20Inventory%20(1)
https://www.onetonline.org/
https://www.monster.com/
https://www.indeed.com/
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a. Consider how you might apply the ideas listed in the article.
b. Identify your critiques of the article.
9. Identify and evaluate OD interventions you have experienced in your organization.
10. Review the list of competencies for OD practice. Which ones do you have experience with? Which ones do you want to develop?
Additional Resources
Media
Five Ways to Build a Resilient Organization
http://youtu.be/DMEodKZCNmg (http://youtu.be/DMEodKZCNmg)
Industry Atlas: The Pursuit of Happiness
http://youtu.be/N4WMoegOuHY (http://youtu.be/N4WMoegOuHY)
Web Links
Philosophical reflections on change inspired by Heraclitus:
http://www.thedailyphilosopher.org/daily/000011.php (http://www.thedailyphilosopher.org/daily/000011.php)
International Organization Development Association, an international network of OD professionals, consultants, practitioners, and social scientists:
http://www.iodanet.org/ (http://www.iodanet.org/)
“Organization Development,” consultant Don Clark’s site containing information and knowledge on performance, learning, training, and leadership:
http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/history_management/od.html (http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/history_management/od.html)
Canadian Journal of Action Research, a freely accessible, full-text, peer-reviewed electronic journal intended for elementary, secondary, and university teachers who
are concerned with exploring the unity between educational research and practice:
http://cjar.nipissingu.ca/index.php/cjar (http://cjar.nipissingu.ca/index.php/cjar)
“Organisation Development: A Guide to All Things Organisation Development,” consultant Carrie Foster’s site containing OD overview, services, and online courses:
http://organisationdevelopment.org (http://organisationdevelopment.org)
Information about Kurt Lewin, Rensis Likert, and action research:
http://infed.org/mobi/kurt-lewin-groups-experiential-learning-and-action-research (http://infed.org/mobi/kurt-lewin-groups-experiential-learning-and-action-research)
http://infed.org/mobi/action-research (http://infed.org/mobi/action-research)
Tips on employee motivation and survey research:
http://www.businessballs.com/employeemotivation.htm (http://www.businessballs.com/employeemotivation.htm)
The Free Management Library’s resources on organization culture:
http://managementhelp.org/organizations/culture.htm (http://managementhelp.org/organizations/culture.htm)
The Tavistock Institute of Human Relations (TIHR), which works with organizations to research organizational development, action research, change consultancy,
executive coaching, and professional development:
http://www.tavinstitute.org (http://www.tavinstitute.org)
A helpful overview of organization learning:
http://infed.org/mobi/learning-in-organizations-theory-and-practice (http://infed.org/mobi/learning-in-organizations-theory-and-practice)
Key Terms
Click on each key term to see the definition.
action research
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover#)
A collaborative, iterative (repeating) cycle of collecting and analyzing data, sharing feedback on the problem, devising an intervention, and evaluating the outcome. This cycle is
one of OD’s earliest processes, developed by Kurt Lewin.
authenticity
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover#)
An OD practitioner’s ability to be “real” with the client by tactfully raising difficult issues, asking tough questions, seeking feedback, and coaching. These behaviors build
openness and trust in the client-practitioner relationship.
change agent
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover#)
An internal or external individual whose role is to facilitate change in partnership with key organization stakeholders in ways that solve problems, develop organization capacity,
implement new policies or practices, and potentially transform the organization functionality, productivity, climate, or culture.
http://www.thedailyphilosopher.org/daily/000011.php
http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/history_management/od.html
http://cjar.nipissingu.ca/index.php/cjar
http://organisationdevelopment.org/
Kurt Lewin: groups, experiential learning and action research
http://www.businessballs.com/employeemotivation.htm
http://managementhelp.org/organizations/culture.htm
http://www.tavinstitute.org/
https://content.ashford.edu/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover%23
https://content.ashford.edu/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover%23
https://content.ashford.edu/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover%23
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client
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover#)
The person, team, or department with whom an OD consultant works.
dialogue
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover#)
Inquiry-based communication process based on openness, meaning making, and respect.
discussion
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover#)
Advocacy-based conversation and win–lose communication process that seeks to tell and persuade.
employee engagement
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover#)
The implementation of interventions for promoting employee involvement and satisfaction.
gamification
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover#)
The implementation of software programs that simulate video games and provide workers the opportunity to compete, earn badges, achieve rewards, and garner bragging rights
as they fulfill their work.
humanism
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover#)
A philosophy that assumes human beings are inherently good, are capable of fulfilling their life potential, and have a right to humane treatment.
intervention
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover#)
Planned corrective actions aimed at resolving challenges or problems in organizations; conducted after data collection and analysis as part of the action research process.
knowledge society
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover#)
A cultural and social shift away from industrialization to a service and knowledge economy.
learning organization
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover#)
An organization that uses learning as a strategic advantage and creates infrastructure to do so.
Likert scale
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover#)
A 5-point scale that rates items from strongly disagree to strongly agree. It was developed by Rensis Likert for use in the OD intervention known as survey feedback.
organization culture
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover#)
The shared values, beliefs, rituals, and artifacts of organization members that govern how work gets accomplished. These are often unspoken rules and assumptions that all
organization members must embrace to some degree in order to be successful within the culture.
organization development (OD)
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover#)
A planned change effort that is supported by management and applied system-wide to increase organization effectiveness and health through interventions targeted at
organization challenges or problems.
organization development (OD) consultant
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover#)
Also known as organization development practitioner; a practitioner of OD who has specialized knowledge of the action research process and facilitation skills to lead
organizations through planned change. Can be either internal or external to the organization.
organization effectiveness
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover#)
Synonymous with organization development, but adds more quantifiable measure to the process. May or may not be an emerging trend.
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organization learning
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover#)
How organizations acquire and use knowledge. Involves ongoing, collaborative learning among employees.
participative management
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover#)
A collaborative management style that involves all organization members in decision making.
planned change
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover#)
An intentional or strategic process involving the selection of interventions designed to address organizational challenges and problems.
quality of work life (QWL)
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover#)
Collective term for efforts to enhance individual well-being, team functioning, and overall organization effectiveness, health, and performance.
sociotechnical system
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover#)
The interconnection between human (social) systems and technical systems. Considering this relationship helps create organization change that is sensitive to both people and
technology.
strategic change
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover#)
Aligning an organization’s strategy with its mission while accounting for technical, cultural, social, and political systems.
succession planning
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover#)
A process to develop strategies for how strategic positions will be staffed in the future.
survey feedback
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover#)
The use of data collected via surveys (usually using a Likert scale) to measure variables in the organization such as employee satisfaction, managerial performance, and
organization climate.
T-group
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover#)
A training group in which participants receive input about their own behaviors and discuss how they affect the group dynamics. This was the first OD intervention, from which
the field emerged (also known as laboratory training or sensitivity training).
T-shaped professionals
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover#)
Individuals who possess expertise in a discipline and understanding of and experience in a system (such as health care or government) in combination with skills that cross
disciplines and allow them to collaborate effectively across disciplines to solve problems.
total quality management (TQM)
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover#)
A strategic intervention to create a culture of continuous improvement and quality across all organization systems. Focuses on global competitiveness, productivity, and
employee satisfaction.
unplanned change
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover#)
An unanticipated circumstance, such as an unstable market, unexpected competition, a surprise merger, or sudden attrition, that requires shifts in strategy, personnel, finances, or
other aspects of organization life.
VUCA
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover#)
Acronym for “volatile, uncertain, complex, and ambiguous.” A way of defining the current state of local, national, and world affairs.
wicked problems
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover#)
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Defined by Rittel and Webber (1973) as stubborn problems created by open social systems when theory is inadequate for accurate forecasting, our current knowledge is
insufficient to the task, and pluralities in politics make achieving unified aims impossible.
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Learning Outcomes
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
Categorize change according to rate of occurrence, how it comes about, and scale.
Provide examples of personal and organizational interventions that represent developmental, transitional, and transformational change; first- and second-order
change; and operational and strategic change.
Discuss the systems approach to change.
Describe three levels of change, including individual, group or team, and organization or system.
Compare and contrast five models of organization change.
Write down the names of five highly successful companies today that were just as dominant 25 years ago. Are you able to think of five? Companies, like living organisms, tend
to have a limited life span. Very few remain competitive for more than a decade or two. Instead, as Newman (2010) pointed out, companies tend to lose their edge because
they fail to innovate and change. As he put it, they become obsessed with competing in the present and lose sight of the future. Newman listed 10 examples: Blockbuster, Dell,
Eastman Kodak, Motorola, Microsoft, Sears, Sony, Sun Microsystems, Toys “R” Us, and Yahoo.
More recently, Aaslaid (2018) profiled 50 corporations that failed to innovate. Some new companies have been added to the defunct or nearly deceased list, including
MySpace, Macy’s, Hummer, MapQuest, and Toys “R” Us. Kodak, a top film company in its day, is number one out of the 50, according to Aaslaid. Unfortunately, Kodak,
which was dominant for more than a century, denied that digital photography was a threat, even though one of its own engineers, Steve Sasson, invented the first digital
camera in 1975! Kodak’s management chose to ignore the innovation because it was filmless, and Kodak sold film. The company was too fearful that releasing the invention
Organization Change
2
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Blockbuster failed to anticipate change and could not compete
with Netflix and other digital movie sources.
would kill its market in film. Yet, the innovation appealed to a small fringe market, and it allowed the digital photography niche to become a disruptive innovation. Kodak filed
for bankruptcy in 2012.
Today, we hear about disruptive innovation, inventions or improvements made by a smaller company that unsettle the status quo and create new markets for products and
services that were overlooked by larger, more established companies. Kodak even enlisted the help of the scholar who invented the term, Clayton Christensen (2000). But even
though Kodak followed his advice to begin selling inexpensive digital cameras, the company had already fallen too far behind. Ho and Chen (2018) described the downfall of
Kodak in the following way: “The resistance to change among middle managers, the culture of the company dominated by a strong belief as ‘Kodak meant film,’ and the
hierarchical structure at Kodak led to failure in adopting the disruptive digital technology” (p. 353). Today, most of us use our cell phone, iPad, digital camera, and a variety
of apps and websites to take, store, alter, print, and share photos—a reality Kodak failed to anticipate.
Blockbuster is another famous failure, and perhaps forgotten in this age when streaming of
entertainment is done from the comfort of your couch, no longer requiring a video store with
annoying late fees if you returned the physical video late. Blockbuster easily transitioned from VHS to
DVD formats but failed to anticipate that content would become available via mail, vending machine
rentals, video on demand, and video streaming. Netflix anticipated and adapted to this trend, however.
Blockbuster became obsolete, closing hundreds of stores, accumulating debt, and struggling to regain
its competitive edge.
The past few years have seen other significant changes in long-term products and services. The rise of
Uber and Lyft has caused disruption in the traditional taxi service. Although Christensen does not
view this change as disruptive, taxi drivers might disagree (Christensen, Raynor, & McDonald, 2015).
Christensen, Raynor, and McDonald defined disruptive innovation as a product or service that comes
in at the low end of the market and is not profitable, much like Amazon was when it first began
distributing products. Once these lower-priced disruptors gain a foothold and improve the lower end
of the market to evolve products and services that customers are willing to pay top dollar for, the
product eventually moves to the high end of the market, much like the Amazon Prime service offered
today.
It is challenging to convince an organization to change, particularly when things are going well, as
things did for many years for both Blockbuster and Kodak. Even when companies recognize the need
for change, the process is complex and challenging, and most efforts do not succeed. In fact, change often fails to meet its intended outcomes (Griffith, 2002; Kogetsidis,
2012; Self, Armenakis, & Schraeder, 2007). Some have estimated that 50% of all change efforts fail (Quinn, 2011), and others estimate the failure rate even higher, at nearly
70% (Balogun & Hope Hailey, 2004; Burnes & Jackson, 2011; Higgs & Rowland, 2000). Simply put, organizations are not very good at planning and implementing change.
The purpose of this chapter is to explore organization change. We will identify a variety of types of change, discuss the systems approach to change, examine levels of change,
and compare and contrast change models. Let us begin by considering the nature of change.
Consider This
The podcast Spectacular Failures, on American Public Media, features some of the most spectacular business failures in history and how organizations could have
avoided them. Listen to “Kodak Misses Its Moment”: https://www.spectacularfailures.org/episode/2019/07/15/kodak-misses-its-moment (https://www.spectacularfai
lures.org/episode/2019/07/15/kodak-misses-its-moment) . Analyze the episode based on whether or not the failure was related to inability to innovate and change.
After listening to the podcast episode on Kodak’s failure, reflect on these questions:
1. Only a few decades ago, most people thought the idea of having personal computers in their homes was unrealistic. Today, most homes have multiple devices
that handle personal computing. Smartphones are a relatively new innovation, as are crowd-sourced services such as Uber or Lyft or digital assistants such as
Alexa. When have you been resistant to a change that eventually became an innovation you depend on?
2. What could Kodak have done differently to avoid failure?
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2.1 The Nature of Organization Change
Change is the alteration or complete transformation of people, processes, products, and places. Change may be impermanent, transitional, and even reversible (such as moving to
a new city, then moving home again) or permanent and transformational (such as getting a college degree or experiencing the death of a loved one). Organizations, too,
experience changes that can be subtle or transformational, temporary or permanent. Managing change effectively is considered a core competence of successful organizations
(Burnes, 2004), yet it is difficult, because the rate of change outpaces our ability to keep up with it (Cameron & Green, 2015). Mastering change means you are learning (Hall &
Hord, 2019).
Three Categories of Change
There are several ways to classify change. Cao, Clarke, and Lehaney (2004) suggested change may be sorted according to organizational function, process, culture, or power
distribution. Senior (2002) took a different approach, organizing types of change according to three categories: (a) rate of occurrence, (b) how it comes about, and (c) scale.
Rate of Occurrence
Change happens at varying paces. Often, it is discontinuous and episodic. There is only one event or episode of change that makes a significant break from what has gone on
before. Examples of discontinuous or episodic change might include a natural disaster, economic cycles of recession and expansion, or something more personal, like the onset
of illness or a one-time change in work.
The opposite of discontinuous or episodic change is continuous change—an ongoing process of shifts that can lead to significant alterations over time. People experience
continuous change with technological innovations. Just a few years ago, the idea of a smartphone seemed far-fetched, yet today they are widely owned worldwide. Today, a
smartphone can be used to monitor your home and pets, control your thermostat, track your fitness, locate family members, give directions, make dinner reservations, and
schedule your groceries for delivery. Now, virtual, digital, or AI (artificial intelligence) assistants respond to natural voice commands and can tell the weather, play music by
request, give directions, and offer advice. Robotics are also becoming more sophisticated with the rise of self-driving vehicles, programmable vacuum cleaners, industrial robots,
and military robots. Continuous change is also prevalent in health care, where new drugs and treatments have prolonged life—at least in industrialized countries.
How Change Comes About
Another way of describing change is the way in which it occurs. Planning is one way that change comes about, particularly in OD. Change can also be unexpected, without
planning. This might also be considered evolutionary change, which happens gradually and amounts to substantial shifts over time. Organizations may be involved in continuous
improvement projects that gradually result in the adoption of new technologies and improved management practices such as participative management or organization learning.
Change may also come about due to contingency—when organizations are forced to respond to unique, unanticipated variables that require special action and changes. For
example, lacking a necessary raw material might require emergency alterations to product design. Another way change comes about is via choice. Organizations can choose
what changes to make, such as deliberately deciding to change their leadership style.
Change According to Scale
The scale of change ranges from moderate ongoing changes at a department level to wholesale transformation of the organization culture. Revolutionary change, although much
less common than evolutionary change, represents a shock to the system that alters it permanently. The terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, created revolutionary change in
Americans’ national identity and sense of safety, as well as significant changes in air travel. Economic downturns and their consequences are another type of revolutionary
change. Almost every generation has experienced these challenges, which force innovation and change on individual, organization, community, and national levels.
Developmental, Transitional, and Transformational Change
Change is one of those words that serves as a melting pot for scores of concepts and methods. Like the Inuit expression for snow (of which there are 20 or more shades of
meaning), change means many different things to us (Ackerman, 1997, p. 45).
Ackerman (1986) characterized change as developmental, transitional, or transformational. Developmental change is the growth and learning people experience as they acquire
new skills, manage relationships, and take on new challenges. This type of change might involve problem solving, work assignments, conflict resolution, group dynamics, team
building, meeting management, role negotiation, survey feedback, or training.
When people make incremental steps toward a preferred status over a specified period, they are making a transitional change. Transitional change includes increasingly using a
device such as a smartphone or gradually reducing calorie intake in order to lose weight. On an organization level, transitional change might occur through reorganization,
technology integration, new product development, mergers or acquisitions, or globalization.
Transitional change seeks to accommodate the new state while maintaining functionality during the conversion. Employees usually view this change as a disruption in standard
operating procedures. For example, a large public university recently switched the platform for its online courses. The change began with an informational campaign. Then, over
two semesters, faculty could volunteer to be early adopters of the technology, using the new platform in courses with their students. During this phase, the early adopters
provided feedback to the information technology department to help the entire organization fully transition to this new technology, and students were actively engaged in sharing
feedback on the process. This strategy enabled the university to continue to deliver online learning in both the old and new formats while the technology was still in
development. The entire university was then able to change to the new platform the following year, keeping the needs of learners and faculty at the forefront.
A change that revolutionizes the organization and the ways its members think and act is known as transformational change. Transformational change is generally not
reversible, because processes, behaviors, or beliefs become fundamentally different from those that characterized the previous state. Transformational change may be due to
crisis, leadership transitions, culture or strategy alterations, dramatic shifts in markets, or executive coaching.
Some companies have managed to transform themselves and stand the test of time. IBM transformed from a mainframe computer company into one that makes software,
personal computers, and storage solutions. Apple started as a transformational company: In a market dominated by large, unsightly computers with complex software and
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Apple was able to transform itself into one of the most important
technology innovators of our time.
Cathy Keifer/iStock/Thinkstock
Just as a caterpillar transforms into a butterfly, so too is second-
order change an irreversible process that alters ways of being.
awkward user interfaces, it introduced small, user-friendly Macintosh computers with aesthetically
pleasing designs. Apple gained an ardent fan base, but as its competition caught on, it almost faded into
obscurity. Then, under the leadership of Steve Jobs, the company underwent a series of changes that
transformed our relationship with personal digital assistants via the iPad, iPhone, and iPod.
Transformational change usually requires a charismatic leader who inspires others with a vision to
achieve the desired change and willingness to take risks.
Consider This
Can you recall a transformative leader who had charisma and inspired others? Who is this person? What did he or she do?
First- and Second-Order Change
Change in OD has been historically classified as first order and second order. When individuals simply alter the intensity, frequency, or duration of a behavior but otherwise
continue doing more or less what they have already been doing, they are making a first-order change. For instance, Jordan might decide to increase his exercise sessions from
once to twice a week. Or a management team might decide to communicate monthly instead of quarterly about organization issues.
First-order change is considered easy to implement and readily reversible. It does not require new learning, so it is usually impermanent. Jordan might decide to go back to once-
weekly exercise sessions or to slack off on his regimen all together. Or management may later decide to communicate less frequently and implement that change easily.
Early OD focused on first-order change that involved moderate adjustments to the organization, people, and processes. These interventions were largely individualistic; that is,
practitioners modified aspects of individuals’ behavior, believing that these individual changes would translate into organization effectiveness. This mindset caused OD
consultants to overlook the big-picture, systemic issues affecting the organization. As a result, early OD often was ineffective.
Radical change that alters thinking, behaviors, or processes in irreversible ways is known as second-
order change. This level of change requires a fundamentally different approach to issues, as well as
new learning. It is generally not reversible and tends to be revolutionary or transformational. For
example, rather than simply increasing his number of weekly exercise sessions, Jordan might meet with
his doctor to assess his overall health, get up earlier each day to exercise, hire a personal trainer to work
with him, consult a registered dietitian, take a healthy cooking class, or otherwise alter his mindset
about exercise and health. Or, management might restructure or fundamentally change how it
communicates, altering not only the frequency but also the content and delivery mode. The rise of
online social networking offers an example of how organizations have new platforms for
communicating. Platforms such as instant messaging, Twitter, wikis, social networking,
teleconferencing, email, and collaboration apps (e.g., Basecamp) have radically changed the way
employers, employees, and customers communicate and have also made information timelier and more
comprehensive.
Contemporary OD, in its quest to change systems and cultures, focuses on second-order change.
Examples include executive coaching that transforms a leader’s behavior, performance feedback that
improves individual and group performance, leadership development that shifts how leaders think and
act, group and team facilitation that revolutionizes interpersonal dynamics, diversity and
multiculturalism initiatives that make the organization more inclusive, total quality management that
improves products and services, life–work balance programs that reduce stress, or organization
restructuring that changes work processes.
See Assessment: What Is Your Own Change Leader Style? to evaluate your change leader style.
Assessment: What Is Your Own Change Leader Style?
What first- and second-order changes have you made in your life? How successful were you at maintaining them? What changes have you noticed in your workplace?
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How effective are you at helping others change? Take the change leader style assessment to evaluate yourself: https://www.leadershipiq.com/blogs/leadershipiq/86843
777-quiz-whats-your-style-of-change-management (https://wmbridges.com/featured/assessment/) .
Operational and Strategic Change
When an organization makes a shift that affects day-to-day functioning or operations, it is making an operational change. Examples include shifting the production schedule to
accommodate supply of raw materials, hiring temporary workers to help cover a short-term increase in product demand, adding overtime to meet production numbers, problem
solving around a quality issue, or creating a newsletter to communicate more effectively with employees. You might make operational shifts as a student to accommodate your
studies during a particular semester such as adjusting your schedule to fit in more study time, hiring someone to help you clean your house or mow your lawn, or hiring a tutor to
help you with a difficult statistics course.
When the organization shifts its tactics to better achieve its mission and vision, it is making a strategic change. Strategic changes might include shifting the culture,
management, and rewards systems to be more inclusive as a means of recruiting and retaining a diverse work force; firing an executive and bringing in a person with a track
record for business turnarounds; hiring workers to pursue a new market, product, or service; realigning people and resources to focus on a goal of becoming number one in sales
or quality; or conducting a new marketing campaign to reach new customers. You might make strategic changes as a student by changing your major, switching advisors, or
specializing in a certain area that will help you achieve your long-term professional and personal goals.
Whether operational or strategic, change can be stressful, but strategies exist for coping with change. See Tips and Wisdom: Dealing With Organization Change.
Tips and Wisdom: Dealing With Organization Change
Organization change comes in many forms: reorganizing, innovating, merging, downsizing, restructuring, recruiting, reinventing, acquiring, growing. How do you
survive it all as an individual, team member, leader, and organization?
Individual Strategies for Coping With Change
Expect change and plan for it, whether emotionally, professionally, or financially.
Notice the signs of approaching change: Pay attention to your organization and the environment. What do you notice, hear, and suspect?
Ask yourself: “What is the worst thing that could happen if change X occurs?”
Acknowledge that the only thing you control is yourself. How do you want to show up during the change?
Look for opportunities within the change to think differently, take on new responsibilities, and learn new things.
Find ways to relax both alone and with family and friends, especially if the change requires adding hours to the workweek.
Find healthy coping mechanisms. Avoid excess in food, alcohol, drugs, or other unhealthy coping behaviors.
Try to see the positives.
Team Strategies for Coping With Change
Help others cope. It will help take your mind off the uncertainty and position you as a leader.
Talk about the change. How are people feeling about it? What are the hopes and fears about it?
How realistic are expectations about the change?
Identify ways to improve upon the change.
Seek training that helps you cope with and implement the change.
Ask your leaders for the assistance your team needs to accomplish its work.
Leader Strategies for Coping With Change
Talk about the change with your team.
Acknowledge fears, new pressures, and demands.
Thank people.
Don’t tolerate abuse, particularly in times of downsizing when the remaining workers may be driven by fear.
Troubleshoot with your employees as the change is implemented.
Advocate for your team with upper management.
Organization Strategies for Coping With Change
Involve employees in the change process so they have a chance for voice and input. This will improve buy-in and communication.
Ensure leaders are well equipped to guide employees through the change.
Articulate expectations for how work is to be accomplished during the change.
Ask for employee commitment to the change—this means clearly explaining why the change is occurring and what to expect during the process.
Communicate regularly and widely about the change.
Recognize and reward employees for their efforts during and after the change.
Accepting Change
It is difficult to create change within an organization. In this comedy sketch, a manager
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encounters resistance from his team when introducing a change in work systems.
Accepting Change: Cutting Edge Communications Comed…
© Infobase. All Rights Reserved. Length: 04:45
Critical Thinking Questions
Although the video was meant to be funny, what parallels are there to a real-life work
environment?
What did the manager do well? What did the manager not do well?
How do you respond to change? How would you have responded to the team’s concerns?
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2.2 General Systems Theory and Organization Change
Chapter 1 established OD as a data-driven, humanistic process that seeks to foster the health and effectiveness of individuals, groups, the organization, and the broader
community. OD is concerned with how change is integrated within an organization; that is, OD studies the ways in which an intervention in one area might affect another area.
In other words, OD is concerned with the entire system.
Freedman (2013) explained the value of this concern with the system:
Organizations benefit when their leaders think and act systemically. Systems-oriented leaders consider organizational changes in the context of the total system and its
interactions with its environment, rather than merely focusing on the primary element that attracts critical attention. By thinking and acting systemically, leaders focus
their attention on the interactions among the interdependent parts and levels of their organizations . . . [making them] more likely to set realistic, comprehensive goals
and establish viable strategies and plans for change. (p. 411)
Many changes are localized when they affect only parts of the system. Medical specialties exist to treat parts of the body system. Yet treating disease in one system can be
problematic when the impact on the body as a whole is not considered. This is also true in organizations in which a change might be made to a section of a manufacturing
assembly line without considering how it might affect manufacturing at other points along the line. Another example is when there is a change in raw materials that negatively
affects the final product. OD is different from other, more localized interventions, in that it takes the total organization system into consideration.
General Systems Theory
Thinking and acting systemically about organizations originated with Ludwig von Bertalanffy’s general systems theory, or GST (1950, 1968). Katz and Kahn (1978) called it a
social systems approach. Also known as systems thinking, systems design, system dynamics, or holism, GST views the organization as a system of interconnected,
interdependent subsystems. These subsystems might be people, technology, processes, the external environment, competitors, government, customers, and other stakeholders.
GST views the organization as drawing inputs—raw materials that are entered into a system for throughput and output—from the outside world and transforming them into
products and services.
Von Bertalanffy (1950, 1968) contended that the primary purpose of an organization is survival. He regarded organizations as perceived wholes with interdependent components
that affect each other over time and help advance the system’s purpose. He identified systems as having five fundamental elements:
1. Semipermeable boundaries filter inputs and outputs across the organization’s borders and separate its inside from its outside. Boundaries are not just physical spaces
like the walls of a building, but also time and social constructions in terms of the organization’s beliefs, history, values, and leaders. Systems can also exist within
systems. For example, our solar system is distinct from the rest of the Milky Way galaxy and has changed over the billions of years of its existence. An organization
today is distinct from that same organization last year.
2. Inputs represent the raw materials and resources needed from the external environment for the organization to produce its outputs (products and services). Inputs
include a qualified work force; market data pinpointing customer requirements for goods and services; prevailing political, economic, regulatory, technological, and
social trends; competition; raw materials; capital; and information.
3. Throughputs entail the transformation of inputs into goods and services (outputs). Throughputs involve the line production of goods and services (e.g., an assembly
line that manufactures vehicles) as well as support functions that indirectly contribute to the production of goods and services, such as human resource management or
finance. A modification in throughput usually stimulates significant change in the organization.
4. Outputs represent the goods and services produced by the organization and demanded by customers. Ancillary outputs include wages and salaries employees spend and
contribute to their local economies. Outputs also include waste, recycling, and dividends to stockholders.
5. Feedback loops provide information to the organization about how well the system components are meeting needs and expectations. Feedback loops are negative or
positive and significantly affect a system’s behavior (Größler, Thun, & Milling, 2008). These loops might include relationships between subsystems or the relationship
among each of the other system elements, as depicted in Figure 2.1. When the organization falls out of equilibrium, feedback loops can help leaders figure out how to
get the organization back on track.
See Tips and Wisdom: Determining if a Change Is OD.
Figure 2.1: Organization system
This figure depicts a simple system model that shows how inputs, or resources, are introduced to a system and are transformed
during the throughput process and released as outputs in the form of goods or services. The process is continuous, and the outputs
inform future inputs through a feedback process.
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Chalffy/E+/Getty Images Plus
Raw materials undergo the throughput process in their journey
from input into the factory to output as vehicles.
Tips and Wisdom: Determining if a Change Is OD
An organization is a totality, a whole system with interacting parts or components. To alter a part of the system may represent a change in the organization, but it is not
necessarily OD. Change can occur at different points in an organization. For instance, a company might change its order intake process. The change to order intake
procedures does not become OD unless it is considered in terms of its impact on the entire system and embraces OD philosophy and steps of action research.
Consider your experience as a college student as an example of a system. Semipermeable boundaries
might include the community where the university is situated and its history. Other boundaries might be
through social networking, sports teams, or other extracurricular activities that connect the university to
the outside world. Your inputs might be the courses you take, the quality of your instructors, the books
you read, and the experiences you have. When these are put into your system and become throughputs,
particularly through learning processes, they transform into accrual of new knowledge and skill. The
output might be a paper, insight, or project. Feedback loops happen via relationships you have with
professors and peers, grades you receive on papers, and, ultimately, meeting the requirements for
graduation and attaining a degree.
Automotive manufacturing is another example of a system. Semipermeable boundaries include the
community where the plant is headquartered, the industry, market conditions, and the economy. Inputs
include design, steel, computer systems, and so forth. These inputs become throughputs, which
transform during manufacturing to become outputs (vehicles). Feedback loops include whether the
vehicle meets quality standards, achieves favorable external rankings, generates sales, and captures
return customers.
Consider This
Think of other systems you belong to, for instance, a family, social group, community, church, workplace, or digital community, and see if you can identify the five
elements:
1. semipermeable boundaries
2. inputs
3. throughputs
4. outputs
5. feedback loops
The Whole Is Greater Than the Sum of Its Parts
When systems theory is applied to OD, it means the larger system is taken into account at all times. For instance, if managers are put through a leadership development program,
how will their new knowledge and behaviors affect their subordinates? The vignettes about Blockbuster and Kodak at the beginning of this chapter show how the companies
ignored the broader systems of their business and lost their competitive edge.
See Who Invented That? The Notion of a System to learn about the origins of a system.
Who Invented That? The Notion of a System
Greek philosopher Aristotle’s (2008) understanding of system dynamics has often been summarized as “The whole is greater than the sum of its parts.” This idea has
great significance for understanding system dynamics. It means that system parts have synergy when working together that they lack when they are separate. System
parts are interdependent and work together to create something special, such as a body, solar system, or car. Aristotle’s wisdom captures the understanding that parts may
be nonfunctional when separate but create the system when combined. For example, the separate systems of the body—cardiovascular, respiratory, digestive, etc.
—
sustain an organism only when they work together. Similarly, a bunch of car parts scattered about a garage does not make a car until the parts are combined to form the
system of a vehicle. Simply reading books will not make someone a college graduate. The same principles operate in groups. The output of a coherent group is likely to
be higher than that of its members working in isolation.
Within the system of an organization, if employee turnover increases, it is not enough to provide more training to existing workers. The product, employees,
management, work environment, competitors, response time, training, transportation, and other variables must be considered to determine what other system factors
might be affecting turnover.
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Change Readiness
Life and work are characterized by constant change. OD considers change from the system view. Systems will not change when readiness is nonexistent. Part of the OD process
is facilitating readiness of individuals, groups, organizations, and systems.
Although this book’s focus is organizations, sometimes it is easier to relate to the process of change when we think about it in our own lives. When we undergo change, we may
experience crises of identity, relationship challenges, or worries about making a difference. In fact, a change in one area of your life can affect others—in essence, changing your
personal system. Imagine you move to a new city. Suddenly, your relationships, work life, and recreational options have all changed, which alters your life system.
In OD, the changes that occur within the organization system often reverberate in your personal life. Change, in OD terms, is not something that happens to you. Rather, it is an
intentional process that seeks to improve something in the organization, because it is a planned change. You can take steps to prepare yourself for change. See Assessment:
Readiness for Change.
Assessment: Readiness for Change
Table 2.1 offers a comparison of typical changes most people face at one time or another in life and at work. Compare these with your own experience.
William Bridges has written several books about the change process on both personal and organization levels. How ready for change are you? Take his assessment and
evaluate yourself: https://wmbridges.com/featured/assessment/ (https://wmbridges.com/featured/assessment/) .
Table 2.1: Typical life and work changes
Typical life changes Typical work changes
Leaving home for the first time
Becoming a college or graduate student
Falling in love
Leaving a relationship
Losing a loved one
Awakening to a cause
Experiencing a change in financial circumstances
Traveling abroad
Reorganizing or downsizing
Receiving a promotion
Experiencing new colleagues or leaders
Repositioning business to be more competitive
Becoming global
Replacing negative behaviors (not listening) with more positive ones
(active listening)
Merging with or acquiring other businesses
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PeopleImages/E+/Getty Images Plus
Effectively responding to change involves addressing employee
concerns throughout the process.
2.3 Levels of Change
As discussed, change might be very personal or might affect an organization or even an entire community. This section examines changes typical of the individual, group, and
organization levels and explains when they constitute OD.
Individual Change
Change that involves activities related to employee staffing, training, or coaching is individual change. Although individual change efforts are often not OD, they become so
when implemented to help the organization system change or adopt a new direction. There are three types of individual OD changes: staffing and talent management, training
and development, and coaching.
Staffing and Talent Management
Burke (2017) noted that activities related to the recruitment, selection, replacement, and displacement of workers are fundamental to assembling a team of the right people to
help achieve the organization’s change initiative. This is known as staffing (or talent management). Think about your own experience of change in an organization. How often
were the players changed in order to implement a new direction? Losing football teams recruit new players and replace old coaches, growing schools select and retain new
teachers, and failing businesses displace and replace the management.
Training and Development
Training and development activities can also be classified as individual-level OD when they advance systemic organization change. As mentioned in Chapter 1, training is a
costly intervention and should be conducted only when it clearly addresses a problem or desired change. Training is probably an OD intervention when it is used for
management and leadership development to reposition the organization strategically or culturally or to train employees around a total quality implementation that changes how
groups interact, problems are solved, and quality is ensured. What types of training have you experienced? Would you classify them as OD?
Coaching
A third individual OD intervention is coaching. Coaching aims to identify and improve dysfunctional behaviors that prevent employees from having productive relationships in
the organization (Corbett & Colemon, 2006). Just like the other individual interventions profiled here, coaching is not OD unless it is tied to a broader organization change
effort. So when coaching is used for an individual who has very nonproductive behaviors that negatively affect the work team, that is not OD. Coaching becomes an OD
intervention when the organization commits to a strategy such as participative management and provides it to all managers to help them make a cultural and leadership shift.
Individual Responses to Change
This section has profiled three individual change interventions and shown when they become OD.
Whenever we are tasked with change, we experience a range of emotions and responses, including
resistance and coping (Anderson, 2016). Hall and Hord (1984, 2011, 2019) developed a model to
illustrate the concerns individuals have when experiencing change. According to their model, people
experience a hierarchy of concerns. Each stage of concern must be resolved before a person can move
to the next stage of implementing change.
Hall and Hord’s (2019) model (see Table 2.2) identifies seven stages of concern (numbered from 0 to 6)
associated with implementing change. Stage 0 is unconcerned. If you are unaware of an impending
change, you will not have any apprehension about it. So the model becomes relevant only once there is
awareness of change. The first two levels of the model relate to how the change will affect the self. If
we become aware that a new software program is being implemented, usually the first thing we want to
know is “What is it?” With this inquiry, we move into Stage 1, learning information about the change.
Stage 2 relates to personal concerns. Now that we have more information about the change, we begin
to wonder, “How will it affect me?” In Stage 3, we become concerned about the task or management of
the change. “Will I have time to do this?” “Will this slow down my work?”
The next three stages pertain to the impact of the change. Stage 4 concerns are about the consequences
of the change on other people in the system. We wonder, “How will this new software affect workflow, scheduling, customer service, and response time?” Once these concerns
are resolved, we are ready to move on to Stage 5, collaboration. At this point, most of our self and task concerns have been resolved, and we begin integrating the change into
our daily lives. Collaboration involves working with colleagues on how to integrate the change. We might ask, “How can we work together to use this new software to improve
scheduling?”
Finally, we are ready for Stage 6, refocusing. This level of concern is aimed toward building on the change and perhaps improving it or moving on to new issues. You might
hear, “Now that the software has so revolutionized scheduling, what other processes can we automate?”
Table 2.2: Hall and Hord’s stages of concern model
Concern clusters Stage number Stage of concern
Impact
6
Refocusing
You focus on exploring more universal benefits from the change, including the possibility of major changes or
replacement with a more powerful alternative. You have definite ideas about alternatives to the proposed or existing form
of the change.
5 Collaboration
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You focus on coordination and cooperation with others regarding the change.
4
Consequence
You focus on the impact of the change on others within their immediate sphere of influence. Concerns relate to the
relevance of the change for employees, evaluation of outcomes, and changes needed to improve outcomes.
Task 3
Management
You focus on the processes and tasks of using the change and the best use of information and resources. Issues related to
efficiency, organizing, managing, scheduling, and time demands are utmost.
Self
2
Personal
You feel uncertain about the demands of the change, your adequacy to meet those demands, and your role with the
change. You may be questioning the change and your role as it relates to rewards, organization structure, and decision
making. You might consider potential conflicts with existing structures or personal commitment. Financial or status
implications of the program for yourself and colleagues may also be reflected.
1
Informational
You are generally aware of the change and interested in learning more about it. You are not worried about yourself in
relation to the change, but rather are curious about the change characteristics, effects, and requirements for use.
Unrelated 0 AwarenessLittle concern about or involvement with the change is indicated.
Source: Adapted from Implementing Change: Patterns, Principles, and Potholes (5th ed., p. 139), by G. E. Hall and S. M. Hord, 2019, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
Group or Team Change
Chapter 1 established that groups and teams do the primary work of the organization. When the change implemented involves activities related to action learning, team building,
or network formation, it is a group or team change. Groups are very important because they (a) create the context in which individuals experience the organization, (b)
represent the interface between the individual and the organization, (c) bound the primary social relationships people experience in the organization, and (d) determine
employees’ perceptions of the organization (Burke, 2014).
Imagine, for example, that you are on the board of a nonprofit organization. The board—which is fiscally and strategically responsible for the organization—creates the context
(leadership) and the relationships you experience with the other board members, volunteers, donors, and beneficiaries of the nonprofit’s program. The social experiences in the
organization range from business meetings to fundraisers, and these experiences determine how members perceive the foundation—which is likely different for each member.
Distinct types of group or team OD initiatives include action learning, team building, and networks.
Action Learning
Chapter 1 defined a learning organization as using learning to create a strategic advantage through building infrastructure to capture and share knowledge to improve the
organization. A common way to achieve this culture is to apply a cycle of reflection and action to problems that plague groups and teams. This is known as action learning.
Action learning is a process of addressing the team’s real problems, in real time, in the real workplace. So if the team experiences interpersonal conflict, rather than send
members to an off-site training on conflict resolution, an action learning approach would engage members in reflection and dialogue about the conflict, much like a T-group. A
course of action would be decided collectively (for instance, to follow ground rules during meetings or avoid taking things personally). The new action would be tried for a time,
and then the team would reconvene to reflect on how it worked and commit to new action. The process is ongoing and helps build a culture of learning within the organization.
Team Building
Because groups and teams are so fundamental to achieving the work and goals of an organization, it is desirable for them to function at a high level, set goals, have clear norms
and roles, and build strong interpersonal relationships. Activities to enhance team functioning are known as team building. Team building serves four purposes (Beckhard,
1972):
1. to establish goals or priorities
2. to determine roles and responsibilities
3. to examine group process (norms, decision making, communications)
4. to examine interpersonal relations
Beckhard (1972) viewed this listing of purposes as hierarchical. For instance, if goals are not clear, there will be problems in the succeeding three areas (roles and
responsibilities, group process, and interpersonal relations). A common mistake in team building is to assume that interpersonal relations need intervention, when they can
usually be addressed by the first three purposes. Team building is an OD intervention when the work of the team supports making an organization change.
Network Formation
Groups of employees that band together to support one another are known as a network, in-company network, or affinity group. It is common for groups that share gender, race,
or sexual orientation to assemble to strategize and collectively represent group interests. These networks form in order to serve as a collective voice, raise awareness about their
issues, and create mutual support. Network formation is OD when it is linked to an organization strategy such as becoming more diverse and inclusive.
Group or Team Responses to Change
The more that work units in the organization are involved in helping to plan and implement change, the more they are likely to embrace rather than resist the organization
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change. Resistance by organizational groups, on the other hand, can take at least four forms (Burke, 2017, pp. 120–121):
1. Turf protection and competition: Different groups become secretive, are unwilling to share information and resources with other groups, and compete for things like
budgets and the best employees.
2. Closing ranks: A group will close in on itself and refuse to work with others or join ranks with other groups.
3. Changing allegiances or ownership: A group may seek to separate from the organization as a means of avoiding change.
4. The demand for new leadership: At times, the change situation may warrant a new leader. Just as often, though, calls for new leadership are a diversion tactic to attempt
to put off change.
Helping groups cope with change is similar to helping individuals, as discussed in the stages of concern model. Most people have concerns that must be addressed before they
can fully embrace the change. Additionally, the group will benefit by closure activities such as conducting a “funeral” for past ways of operating and then celebrating the new
change. It is also productive to provide a platform for people to share their feelings about the change. It can be useful to take the group to an off-site location to engage in
problem solving related to change implementation. Creating new group compositions may also be helpful and even necessary for the group to transition successfully through a
change process (Burke, 2017).
Organization or System Change
Change rarely begins at the organization or system level, especially if the organization is large (Burke, 2017). Instead, organization or system change typically originates with
individuals and groups or teams around training or strategic plans that incorporate change. Alternatively, change may begin within a subsystem of the organization. For example,
one division may try new practices in a manufacturing process and, if successful, promote the change to other divisions.
OD consultants may also intend change to be rolled out to the organization, but usually large changes are piloted with small groups first and then extended across the
organization. For example, a mentoring program might be piloted with a certain group of employees, modified, and then expanded.
Organization or system change can also involve multiple interventions that would be implemented gradually. For example, a change to increase the diversity and inclusion of the
organization might involve recruitment and retention practices, rewards systems, leadership development, and sensitivity training.
OD is key to successful organization or system change because it provides a planned process to implement the change as well as a value system geared toward employees’
participation and involvement, which helps support the change. Three examples of organization- or system-level change include survey feedback, large-scale interventions, and
mergers and acquisitions.
Survey Feedback
As discussed in Chapter 1, survey feedback is an organization- or system-level change in which members of the entire organization are surveyed about the climate, the
management, and their overall satisfaction. This information is then analyzed, and the results are shared with employees in a series of feedback meetings. During these, the
results are processed and a set of action items is determined. This type of intervention affects the organization as a whole in multiple ways and is effective when trying to
improve or change the culture. It was one of the earliest OD interventions and is widely used today to provide data to justify change.
Large-Scale Interventions
Imagine a company bringing its top 100 executives together to examine its mission. This type of activity is known as a large-scale intervention and entails assembling a
strategically important, large group within the organization to problem solve, plan strategy, or revise mission statements. These types of interventions have also been used by
entire organizations to create a shared vision in a collaborative, participative manner. Conducting a large-scale intervention requires careful planning and attention to logistics,
but it can be very effective in activating change.
Mergers and Acquisitions (M&A)
Much system-level change occurs as a result of mergers and acquisitions, when the organization is forced to make changes to integrate separate cultures. Companies merge when
it becomes advantageous to share resources and find cost-effective ways to operate. Yet smoothly merging two separate organizations is difficult. These types of interventions
often fail when employees do not understand the organization’s goals. Employees also suffer when power and expertise imbalances prevail, there is a lack of realistic
understanding about the success of the merger and a lack of perceived equity, and there are no contingency plans (Burke, 2017).
Edwards, Lipponen, Edwards, and Hakonen (2017) observed that there is an absence of research theorizing about or measuring rates of change in employees’ identification with
the merged entity. How employees identify and integrate with the merged entity is important, as it is a key measure of how successful the merger will be. They found that how
employees perceive justice and threat influences the success of the change, with the most effective M&A situations characterized by increasing justice perceptions and
decreasing threat perceptions. Perceived justice refers to how fair employees believe actions during the M&A are, such as resource allocation, decision-making processes, and
treatment of employees. Perceived threat is employees’ sense of uncertainty about the future. This may mean fear over losing one’s job or general stress and anxiety brought on
by the M&A. Others have found that cognitive trust—an entity’s competence and responsibility—is associated with perceived justice in M&As (Kaltiainen, Lipponen, & Holtz,
2017). These studies underscore the importance of planning how the M&A change will unfold, involving employees, and ensuring transparency and communication.
Organization Responses to Change
Burke (2017) identified five ways organizations or systems resist change and offered suggestions to combat them. First, the organization’s effort to revolutionize may devolve to
evolution. This means that the ambitious efforts to change, perhaps by merging businesses or entering new markets, result in the adoption of a few changes, but the original
culture remains intact. Such an outcome can be prevented by involving affected employees at the beginning of the process so they have input and a sense of ownership and
understand the reasons for the change.
A second response is when the organization fails to develop a sense of urgency to change. People resist by questioning, “Why change?” Or they adopt an attitude of, “If it ain’t
broke, don’t fix it.” Employees may lack motivation or be skeptical of the change. Such responses can be avoided if the organization achieves closure on the previous ways of
operating. For example, a session that identifies the old operating procedure’s challenges may help those affected see the advantages of shifting to a new procedure. In addition,
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The ability to clearly communicate changing operating procedures
is crucial to overcoming employees’ resistance to change.
management needs to make a compelling case for change and ensure that organization members are
actively involved in making the change.
A third way organizations resist change is when their employees assume they have “been there, done
that” and chalk up the change effort to another attempt to do the same old thing. To prevent this
resistance, leaders need to show how this change effort is different and why there is a compelling need
for it. They also need to demonstrate that the organization is committed to making the change over the
long term.
A fourth way organization members may respond to change is by creating diversionary tactics that
demand resources and time that otherwise would have been devoted to the change. People might also
complain about the change’s timing or that they lack the resources to implement it. This form of
resistance requires management to pay attention to and defuse or redirect efforts that divert individuals,
groups, and the organization from fully implementing the change. Ensuring the ready availability of
resources necessary to implement the change also helps avoid this type of resistance.
Fifth and finally, organizational resistance to change can take the form of refusing to follow the leader.
This usually involves employee collusion. These behaviors require leadership to be steadfast in its
commitment to the change and set clear expectations around supporting it across the organization.
Saboteurs must also be dealt with swiftly and strictly (job changes, retirements, or severance).
Explore the following interaction to test your understanding of levels of change.
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2.4 Models of Change
This section introduces five models by which OD practitioners promote lasting, effective organization change.
Lewin’s 3-Step Change Model and Field Theory
Lewin, regarded as “the intellectual father of contemporary theories of applied behavioral science” (Schein, 1988a, p. 239), made significant contributions to what is known
today as OD, including originating the field of group dynamics and creating action research. He also designed a 3-step model for creating successful change and invented field
theory—a process of mapping change.
Lewin’s 3-Step Model
Lewin’s (1947) 3-step model of system change (Figure 2.2) depicts change as an ongoing, fluid process of unfreezing, moving, and refreezing.
Figure 2.2: Lewin’s 3-step model of change
This figure shows Lewin’s change model, which goes through the steps of unfreezing (recognizing the need for change), moving
(taking action to change), and refreezing (permanently incorporating the change).
Unfreezing is a stage in which people become aware of a need to change and wish to create a change. One might think of it as a releasing from the way things were. Unfreezing
may occur due to a crisis, learning, or feedback. For example, if Jill suffers a heart attack (crisis), she becomes aware of the need to change her lifestyle. If Morrie receives
negative feedback about his performance, he becomes aware of a need to improve it.
The stage in which one takes action to change the system is known as moving. Moving involves both initiating interventions and providing support to implement them.
Returning to the example of the heart attack, Jill might enroll in a cardiac rehabilitation program. An organization team might decide to improve its meeting effectiveness and
commit to learning new methods and taking roles to make this change. Moving represents the actual process of changing.
After moving, an organization needs to reinforce the change and ensure its permanence. This step is known as refreezing. Just as fitness gained in a cardiac rehabilitation
program needs to be reinforced with daily exercise and healthy eating, the organization team that adopts improved meeting management must continue practicing its new
procedures and sharing them with other groups. Changes fail when they lack infrastructure to support the movement that has occurred; in this case, conditions are likely to return
to the pre-unfreezing state.
Field Theory
Lewin viewed change as a complex activity mired in social context that creates tension between initiating the change and resisting the change. Lewin called the group
environment a “field,” noting that individual behavior is a function of it. Changes in behavior stem from changes in the field. Lewin (1943) noted, “One should view the present
situation—the status quo—as being maintained by certain conditions or forces” (p. 172). These forces function either to restrain change—and thus reinforce the status quo—or
to drive change. Think about a change you have experienced at work. What were the forces preventing change? What forces facilitated it?
Restraining and driving forces affect both individual behavior and group structure. These forces can be depicted in a diagram known as force field analysis. Both driving and
restraining forces affect a change effort. Creating a force field analysis (see Case Study: Implementing Team Change) helps illustrate how to maximize forces driving the change
and minimize the forces restraining the change.
Case Study: Implementing Team Change
“Meetings, meetings, meetings!” Alex mutters as he looks at his calendar for the week. “We need to do something to have fewer, more productive ones if we want to
meet our production goals.”
His colleague, Dave, hears Alex’s lament and strolls over to his cubicle. “Alex, I feel your pain. I was just reading a book about improved meetings and think there are
some things we can do to improve here. Plus, I know that Julie, over in OD, has some tools to help us.”
Dave gives Alex a copy of his book, which Alex reads as he waits for his first meeting of the day—which, like most, starts late. He runs into Julie on his way to his next
meeting. “Hey, what are you reading?” she asks.
“Oh, I’m fed up with nonproductive meetings and want to do something about it,” Alex answers. “I hear you know some strategies. Can you help?”
Julie, Alex, and Dave meet the next week, and she gives them a tutorial with some key things they can immediately do to improve their group meetings. Dave and Alex
decide to invite Julie to their next team meeting to introduce some ideas.
The entire group suffers from meeting fatigue, and thus the group members are skeptical when they hear that yet another meeting is scheduled. However, most group
members remain optimistic that a fix might be available. After Julie presents some options, they reach consensus on some things they can try to improve their meetings.
They agree to make changes in how they create agendas, assign roles, record tasks and decisions, and evaluate their process. The team realizes its new meeting agenda is
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a learning curve but likely worth it in the long run.
After some practice, trial and error, and adjustments, the team meetings become shorter, more productive, and more engaging, because the agendas are thought out in
advance, the group members are more engaged as they take on roles, and people are more organized about recording action items and holding each other accountable.
The team members feel they are on to something, although staying on track requires discipline, because it is easy to slip back into their old mode of meetings.
The team members also meet resistance when they invite non-team members into their meetings. This resistance includes remarks like, “What are you doing?” or “My,
aren’t you all getting a bit formal here?” Still, the team members persist with their new changes. Other departments take notice when team members begin pressuring
other company employees to improve their meetings by being more action oriented or by adopting roles.
After about a month of trying, the team members meet to assess how their change implementation is going. They create a force field analysis to evaluate their progress to
date (Figure 2.3).
Figure 2.3: Lewin’s force field analysis
This figure shows how Lewin’s force field analysis would be used to evaluate a team’s progress to date.
Schein’s Modified 3-Step Change Model
Schein (1987) elaborated on Lewin’s 3-step model by adding “how to’s” and further detail to make it more comprehensive. Moreover, Schein observed that the stages occur
rapidly and may overlap, making them difficult to identify accurately.
Stage 1: Unfreezing
At Stage 1, Schein (1987) identified three ways unfreezing happens: (a) disconfirmation or lack of confirmation, (b) guilt or anxiety about the problem situation, and (c) creation
of psychological safety to make the change.
First, motivation and readiness to change may arise via disconfirmation or lack of confirmation. Employees embrace change when they perceive a need for it. This perception of
need can be prompted by disconfirmation; for instance, a manager’s perception of her leadership might be contradicted by critical feedback from an employee survey. Lack of
confirmation—for instance, the lack of evidence for a manager’s belief in his leadership abilities—may also motivate a change.
Second, guilt or anxiety may drive change. Individuals who eat an unhealthy diet or fail to exercise may harbor guilt about their lifestyle because it contradicts their health goals
or self-image. Anxiety over anticipated health consequences (obesity, heart disease, etc.) may motivate change. Or a manager may feel guilty for being autocratic and commit to
being more participative.
Third, Schein observed that neither disconfirmation nor induction of guilt is enough to motivate change. The creation of psychological safety is key to unfreezing. Psychological
safety means that making the change will not humiliate others or diminish their self-esteem. OD practitioners ease this stage by helping those experiencing change save face and
feel safe. This means helping individuals make health changes by finding an exercise group in which they do not feel self-conscious or pointing out a manager’s skills while also
helping him see the need for and benefits of change.
Stage 2: Moving
Schein modified Stage 2, moving, by incorporating two processes: (a) identifying with new role models and (b) environmental scanning. When we identify with a new role
model, boss, coach, or consultant, we develop new views and perspectives. OD practitioners help clients surface their own perspectives and learn to appreciate those of others.
This might involve helping the heart attack survivor connect with other survivors who have successfully adopted new health behaviors or connecting the manager with a coach
who can provide feedback and perspectives from others on the manager’s performance.
Scrutinizing surroundings to learn what other leaders or organizations are doing is known as environmental scanning. This process can propel us toward change as we learn
new strategies for achieving our goals. The heart attack survivor might read health-related magazines or journals or join a support group to learn what other survivors are doing.
The manager might attend conferences, read management literature, follow management links on social media, or observe other successful managers and then implement the
best practices discovered.
Stage 3: Refreezing
Recall that, in refreezing, people solidify the change and integrate it into permanent practice. Refreezing is where changes are integrated into one’s self-concept and understood
by others. The process involves incorporating new behaviors, habits, and thinking into our repertoire, whether in life or in work. The refreezing process shares similarities with
transformative change and usually relies on support and feedback from family members or work colleagues. Refreezing requires patience because it may involve practice with
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United Colors of Benetton serves as an example of a negative
transition. During its acquisitions, the company didn’t consider
new ideas and time for roles and behaviors to stick. This is also an important phase for feedback so adjustments can be made if the change permanence appears at risk. As
Schein noted, the rapidity and overlapping of the three stages can make them challenging to distinguish. There may be shifting between refreezing and the prior two stages until
the change becomes permanent.
These changes can be personal, as in the case of the heart attack survivor, or professional, as in the case of the manager. Integrating change is never easy, and some experts
suggest it takes an average of 66 days before new behavior begins to feel natural (Lally, van Jaarsveld, Potts, & Wardle, 2010).
Lippitt, Watson, and Westley’s Change Model
Lippitt, Watson, and Westley (1958) expanded Lewin’s 3 steps to 5 steps and shifted the terminology from steps to phases:
1. Developing a need for change (Lewin’s unfreezing)
2. Establishing a change relationship
3. Working toward change (moving)
4. Generalizing and stabilizing change (refreezing)
5. Achieving a terminal relationship
This model assumes the role of a change agent, an individual who acts as a catalyst for the change and has influence over the process. Phase 1, developing a need for change, is
prompted in one of three ways:
1. A change agent creates awareness of a problem or need for change. For example, a new leader seeks to change the culture.
2. A third party sees a need for change and brings it to the change agent. For example, a customer raises a quality complaint.
3. The client becomes aware of a problem, such as declining revenues and shifting markets, and seeks the help of a consultant to respond to the problem.
Phase 2, establishing a change relationship, focuses on creating collaboration between the change agent and the client system. This is usually when an OD consultant enters the
picture. In the case of the new leader aiming to change the culture, a consultant might help the leader engage with other managers to create a collective vision for the new
culture.
In Phase 3, working toward change, Lippitt and colleagues (1958) suggested three subphases that involve (a) clarifying or diagnosing the client’s problem via data collection and
analysis, (b) examining alternatives for addressing the issue, and (c) transforming intentions into actual change efforts, or implementation. These steps are similar to the steps of
action research.
The fourth phase, refreezing, involves spreading the change to other parts of the organization and creating infrastructure to reinforce the change. This phase is most effective
when the affected parties are involved in planning and implementing the change.
In the fifth phase, termination, Lippitt and colleagues (1958) advocated ending the relationship between the client and the consultant once the client can independently maintain
the change. The client system becomes capable of problem solving, taking measures to maintain the changes, and refreezing.
Bridges’s Transitions Model
In his books Transitions (1980) and Managing Transitions: Making the Most of Change (2017), Bridges pointed out that people often erroneously equate change with
beginnings, but it is really about endings. “It isn’t the changes that do you in, it’s the transitions. . . . Change is situational. . . . Transition, on the other hand, is psychological”
(Bridges & Bridges, 2017, p. 3). People get stuck hanging on to the end and therefore cannot move toward change. Bridges (1980) explained, “We have to let go of the old thing
before we can pick up the new—not just outwardly, but inwardly, where we keep our connections to the people and places that act as definitions of who we are” (p. 11).
See Case Study: Benetton to read about an example of a company’s failed transition.
Case Study: Benetton
Bridges (2003) recounted the story of Benetton, a large Italian clothing firm that planned to
diversify its business in 1999. It spent almost $1 billion acquiring some top sporting goods
companies (Nordica, Kästle, Rollerblade, Prince, and Killer Loop) with the idea that it could cross-
market these goods with the workout and post-workout Benetton clothing line. The firm
erroneously assumed that all of the acquired companies would relish becoming part of an
international brand, and it combined sales forces and marketing groups at a new headquarters in
New Jersey.
What Benetton did not consider was what drew people to work in the sporting goods businesses in
the first place—their love of the sport. The only way Benetton could lure the Rollerblade workers
to New Jersey from Minnesota, for example, was by offering them raises, promotions, and a
promise that if things did not work out, the firm would move them back to Minnesota. The
Rollerblade staff members were accustomed to spending their lunch hours skating in local parks
near the headquarters. They found themselves in New Jersey, suddenly reporting to Nordica
representatives and missing their easygoing natural environment to test in-line skates just outside
the door. Soon, 21 of the Rollerblade employees elected to move back to Minnesota.
The transition was managed badly, and Benetton went from making a profit of $5 million to
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what motivated employees, and there was no plan for
integrating the new organization.
posting a $31 million loss. What went wrong? Bridges and Bridges (2017) explained this transition
went badly because Benetton failed to help its workers navigate three phases:
1. The company did not provide a way for employees to let go of their old ways and identities. There was a blunt ending.
2. There was no support for navigating the in-between time when the old sporting goods company vanished but the new organization was not fully implemented.
Bridges calls this the neutral zone.
3. There was no clear transition and new beginning that allowed for workers to establish a new identity as a Benetton employee or discover a new beginning and
sense of purpose.
Endings
Bridges’s books explore why letting go is so difficult. “Endings begin with something going wrong” (Bridges, 1980, p. 109). When people experience an ending, willingly or
unwillingly, they usually feel disengaged from activities, relationships, settings, or roles that were previously important. Bridges (1980) explained, “Divorces, deaths, job
changes, moves, illnesses, and many lesser events disengage us from the contexts in which we have known ourselves. They break up the old cue-system which served to
reinforce our roles and to pattern our behavior” (pp. 95–96). Not only did the workers from the various sporting goods companies discussed in Case Study: Benetton get
acquired, but they also had to relocate, which signaled a very abrupt end to their work and passion for their product.
People may also feel lost when they encounter an ending in ways that shatter how they previously defined themselves—or what Bridges (1980) calls disidentification—
particularly when endings are vocational, perhaps due to a reorganization or downsizing. Endings can spur an identity crisis until people are more secure in their self-identity
following a transition.
Identity crises do not afflict just individuals. Organizations can also lose sight of who they are, as seen in the stories of Blockbuster and Kodak and in the case of the newly
merged Benetton. People can also become disenchanted when experiencing an ending: “Separated from the old identity and the old situation or some important aspect of it, a
person floats free in a kind of limbo between two worlds” (Bridges, 1980, p. 98).
People can also become disoriented during an ending when they feel lost and confused and are unsure of where to go next. The next time you find yourself in transition, allow
yourself some time to react to it, and remember, you are going through a natural process of dealing with an ending. See Tips and Wisdom: Identifying Losses During a Change.
Tips and Wisdom: Identifying Losses During a Change
Bridges (2003) offered advice to help people identify their losses during a change:
1. Describe the change in as much detail as possible.
2. Identify as many “domino effect” changes as you can (changes that will be caused by the primary change).
3. Recognize that a chain reaction of changes is occurring for those affected. Consider who is going to have to let go of something.
4. Acknowledge that some of the losses are not concrete—rather, they are caught up in values, assumptions, and identities and our individual understandings of the
way things are.
5. Beyond the individual, specific losses may entail something that is over for everyone—perhaps a chapter in the organization’s history or assumptions about how
the employer will take care of its employees. Whatever has ended, Bridges (2009) recommended coming up with a phrase such as “We take care of our people”
or “We promote from within” (pp. 25–26) to serve as a mantra going forward.
Beyond identifying who is losing what, Bridges recommended that leaders also accept the reality and importance of the subjective losses, expect overreaction,
acknowledge the losses openly and sympathetically, expect and accept the signs of grieving, compensate for the losses, continually share information, define what is over
and what is not, mark the endings, treat the past with respect, let people take a piece of the old way with them, and show how endings ensure the continuity of what really
matters.
Neutral Zone
The transitional space in which we often find ourselves struggling to compose an ending and move on
to the new beginning is what Bridges (1980) called the neutral zone. He noted that this is an empty
time or “fallow period,” especially if the ending did not provide a clear starting point—perhaps when
someone experiences an unexpected loss. The newly reorganized and relocated Benetton workers were
clearly stuck between the ending and the new, without much support for making a transition. When
people are stuck in the neutral zone, they are often grieving the ending of something, rather than the
change to something new. For example, the Rollerblade workers missed their skating trails and
surroundings.
Sometimes, people struggle with a change in health status, a life change such as becoming a new
parent, or a job change or relocation as in the case of Benetton. Part of the difficulty of these changes is
that people want to hang on to the way things were and find it very difficult to embrace the new. They
cannot embrace the new change until they effectively navigate out of this neutral zone. Yet this is
problematic because people often do not reflect on how changes affect their lives. Bridges (1980)
identified the following changes that often pose challenges:
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The neutral zone is that empty period between an ending and a
new beginning. You may feel like a fish out of water as you make
this transition.
1. relationship losses
2. changes in home life
3. personal changes
4. work and financial changes
5. inner changes
The neutral zone can be frustrating. It can also be a highly creative time that lends itself to collaboration. It is important for organization members to have people they trust to
follow during the neutral zone so they have role models for navigating the change. Assigning temporary roles, groups, and reporting relationships can also ease the neutral zone.
Creating transition teams can be an effective strategy to get multiple individuals focused on working through the change.
See Assessment: Holmes-Rahe Stress Inventory to identify stressors and how to cope with them in the neutral zone.
Assessment: Holmes-Rahe Stress Inventory
Take the Holmes-Rahe Stress Inventory (https://www.stress.org/holmes-rahe-stress-inventory (https://www.stress.org/holmes-rahe-stress-inventory) ) to identify key
stressors in your life. These often tend to be within the categories of change identified in Bridges’s model. You can interpret your scores in Table 2.3.
Table 2.3: Holmes-Rahe Stress Inventory scores and risk
Score Chance of illness or accident within 2 years
Below 150 35%
From 150 to 300 51%
More than 300 80%
As evidenced by this quiz, everyone experiences life transitions that cause stress. Realizing that life’s changes create stress helps people learn to recognize and cope with
these changes.
Bridges (1980) urged people in the neutral zone of a change or transition to
1. find a regular time and place alone to reflect on the change,
2. log their neutral zone experiences,
3. work on their autobiography,
4. use the time to discover what they really want,
5. think of what would be unlived in life if it ended today, or
6. take a few days to go on their own version of a passage journey.
New Beginning
Finally, the ending has brought a new beginning. After working through the ending and the neutral zone, Bridges recommended taking action to embrace the new change,
identify with the change, and tune out fears of the new. Although Bridges writes about transition, Lewin’s influence is clear. Unfreezing is comparable to endings when people
realize things cannot continue as they were. The neutral zone represents the moving phase, when people prepare to embrace a new beginning, where the changes are refrozen. It
is natural for people to feel ambivalent about new beginnings. Bridges (2003) recommended that leaders provide the four P’s to help employees start anew: a purpose, a picture,
the plan, and a part to play.
Appreciative Inquiry
Change models tend to be deficit oriented; that is, they look for problems, shortcomings, and ways to minimize negative outcomes. The positive model emerged as an alternative
to Lewin’s and other similar change models that were critiqued for their deficit basis. It was developed by David Cooperrider and colleagues during the 1980s and achieved
popularity in the early 2000s. A strengths-based organizational change model, the positive model focuses on what the organization is doing right (Cooperrider & Whitney, 2005;
Cooperrider, Whitney, & Stavros, 2008). In doing so, it uses an approach known as appreciative inquiry.
Appreciative inquiry (AI) is a strengths-based approach that attempts to shift away from the traditional problem-solving mindset that searches for things going wrong. AI is
based on the assumption that every organization has things that are working effectively, and it seeks these variables out as the starting point for change (Doggett & Lewis, 2013).
AI is more than a positive means to an end. AI attempts to collaboratively promote generative investigation that propels the organization to achieve a future that everyone has
helped construct. AI is contrasted with traditional problem solving in Table 2.4.
Table 2.4: Problem solving versus appreciative inquiry
Problem solving Appreciative inquiry
Felt need
Problem identification
Appreciating
Valuing the best of “what is”
Causal analysis Envisioning “what might be”
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Analysis of potential solutions Dialoguing about “what should be”
Action planning (treatment) Innovating “what will be”
Underlying belief: Organization is a problem to be solved. Underlying belief: Organization is a mystery to be embraced.
Source: Adapted from “Appreciative Inquiry in Organizational Life,” by D. L. Cooperrider and S. Srivastva, in R. W. Woodman and W. A. Pasmore (Eds.), Research in Organizational Change and Development (Vol. 1, pp. 129–169),
1987, Stamford, CT: JAI Press, and “Using Appreciative Inquiry to Facilitate Organisational Change and Develop Professional Practice Within an Educational Psychology Service,” by C. Doggett and A. Lewis, 2013, Educational &
Child Psychology, 30(4), 124–143.
AI’s Philosophical Principles
AI has five core philosophical principles (Cooperrider et al., 2008; Doggett & Lewis, 2013):
The constructionist principle assumes that self-knowledge and the world are formed through our interactions with each other.
Simultaneity is the assumption that inquiry and change are intricately linked and occur instantaneously.
The poetic principle posits that organization life comes alive through storytelling.
The anticipatory principle features the role of vision in propelling the organization toward a desired future.
The positive principle is AI’s focus on the positive as an alternative to traditional problem-solving paradigms for promoting change.
AI’s 4-D Cycle
AI’s 4-D cycle asks a series of questions that make an affirmative inquiry to help the organization discover, dream, design, and identify its destiny. AI can be done with work
groups or teams or with a large, diverse group that is representative of the organization. The AI cycle can take up to 2 months to plan. The initial implementation takes from 3 to
4 days, with several months of further implementation and follow-up once the cycle is completed (Ludema & Fry, 2008). See Table 2.5 for an illustration of how the 4-D cycle
works.
Table 2.5: The 4-D appreciative inquiry cycle
AI stage Inquiry
Affirmative topic of choice (topic around which the inquiry is based, such as positive
change initiatives in the organization): Appreciating and valuing
—
1. Discovery: Participants share stories and insights about achievements, strengths,
values, and competencies.
The organization focuses on appreciating and valuing the best of what already exists.
Participants answer questions such as the following:
What is a high point about working here—when you were most alive and
engaged?
What is it that you most value about yourself and your work?
What is the key thing that gives life to this organization?
Imagine the organization 5 years from now with everything the way you had
envisioned it would be. What has happened? What is different? How have
you contributed to this future?
2. Dream: Envisioning The participants create and present a shared vision for how the high points
identified in the discovery stage can occur more frequently.
Key questions at this step: “What might our future be?” and “What do we
hope to accomplish?”
3. Design: Coconstructing a future A phase of earning, empowering, and improvising to sustain a future
The organization develops a formal statement or provocative proposition that
expresses the new vision.
The vision is described in the past tense to convey a sense that it is already
occurring.
4. Destiny: Action and implementation Action plans are created to ensure the new vision is implemented.
Priorities are created to actualize the plan.
Source: Adapted from Appreciative Inquiry Handbook (2nd ed.), by D. L. Cooperrider, D. Whitney, and J. M. Stavros, 2008, Brunswick, OH: Crown Customs; “Using Appreciative Inquiry to Facilitate Organisational Change and
Develop Professional Practice Within an Educational Psychology Service,” by C. Doggett and A. Lewis, 2013, Educational & Child Psychology, 30(4), 124–143; and “Appreciative Inquiry: The Why; The What; The How?,” by M.
Moore, 2008, Practice Development in Healthcare, 7(4), 214–220.
Critique of AI
AI has been critiqued for its Pollyanna-ish stance and failure to acknowledge and address negative issues. The positive approach risks silencing critical voices and maintaining
unequal power relations (Doggett & Lewis, 2013; Zandee & Cooperrider, 2008). AI also has been criticized for lacking an emphasis on reflection at the expense of taking action.
Finally, some research has shown that AI practitioners have not adequately or authentically followed its principles and philosophy (Doggett & Lewis, 2013).
In spite of some of its challenges, AI alters the conversation and can shift a change effort’s focus from the negative to the positive. It can be especially powerful for teams and
system-level change and may also help an organization make it through a transition more smoothly.
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Summary and Resources
Chapter Summary
There are several ways to describe the nature of change in OD, which is the alteration or complete transformation of people, processes, products, and places.
OD can focus on first- or second-order change. First-order change alters the intensity, frequency, or duration of a behavior and is easily reversed. Second-order change
radically alters the thinking, behaviors, or processes of the organization in irreversible ways.
Developmental change is stimulated when new skills, challenges, or relationships require growth and learning. Transitional change involves making incremental steps
toward a desired state over a specified period. Transformational change revolutionizes the thinking and actions of the organization’s members.
Change can be operational or strategic. Operational change involves shifts that affect day-to-day functioning or operations. Strategic change involves more
revolutionary shifts in tactics to better achieve organization mission and vision.
The systems framework for understanding organizations originated with the development of general systems theory, or GST.
In keeping with Aristotelian philosophy, it is worth remembering that “the whole is greater than the sum of its parts” when creating and altering systems.
Both individual and organization readiness to change can vary as people navigate the many changes presented in their personal and work lives.
Organization change generally occurs on one of three levels: individual, group or team, or organization or system.
Examples of individual change include staffing and talent management, training and development, and coaching. Individuals more readily accept change when their
concerns about how the change will personally affect them are addressed.
Examples of group and team change include action learning, team building, and network formation. A key to helping teams and groups embrace change is to have them
participate in its planning and implementation.
Examples of organization and system change include survey feedback, large-scale change, and mergers and acquisitions. Change at the organization or system level is
the most complex, and several forms of resistance can occur during implementation. Management and OD consultants need to pay close attention and intervene quickly
when organization change begins to derail.
Just as there are many ways to define change, so too are there several models to describe the process. This chapter profiled five common change models.
Lewin created the first model of change, with three steps: unfreezing, moving, and refreezing. Most change models are a variation of these three stages.
Lewin also created field theory and developed the force field analysis as a tool for evaluating the forces that both drive and restrain change.
Schein and Lippitt, Watson, and Westley all improved on Lewin’s 3-step model, adding more psychological explanation (Schein) and more steps, points on working on
the client relationship, and description (Lippitt and colleagues).
Bridges’s transition model describes why people and organizations tend to get stuck in the midst of change and how to help people successfully navigate the stages of
endings, the neutral zone, and beginnings.
Appreciative inquiry (AI) was created as a more positive alternative compared with other change models. Rather than focusing on problems, AI seeks to identify what is
working well and capitalize on it to cocreate a vision of the future.
Think About It! Reflective Exercises to Enhance Your Learning
1. The chapter began with vignettes about failures to change at Blockbuster and Kodak. Reflect on a personal failure to change or a failure to change that you have
witnessed in another organization. What caused the failure? What were the consequences?
2. Reflect on a change you made successfully. How did it differ from the failure?
3. Reflect on the endings in your life, recalling Bridges’s (1980) transitions model of change. Bridges recommended the following exercise (pp. 14–17):
a. List all of the endings you recall, tracing all the way back to your childhood. These endings might include major events such as the loss of a loved one or
moving away from your hometown, as well as things that others might view as minor, such as a friend moving or losing a pet. Endings might be physical,
relational, geographical, social, academic, civic, and so forth.
b. Note your reaction to the endings, including your feelings and thoughts. Bridges suggested that your old mindset is likely reactivated in the present whenever
something ends in your life. How true is that for you?
c. Do you notice a particular style for how you handle endings?
Is it abrupt or aimed at delaying the change?
Do you take an active or passive role?
How receptive are you to change?
How in control of your fate do you tend to feel during change?
d. How does your approach to endings affect your ability to make transitions?
4. Review the five change models presented in this chapter. Which one resonates with you? Why?
Apply Your Learning: Activities and Experiences to Bring OD to Life
1. Identify the key challenges you think change presents to you and your organization.
2. Review the results of the What Is Your Own Change Leader Style? and Readiness for Change assessments. What insights did you gain from these assessments about
how you approach change?
3. Create a map of a system you belong to and note its five elements (semipermeable boundary, inputs, throughputs, outputs, and feedback loops).
4. Think about a change you are currently attempting. Perhaps you want to lose weight, keep a journal, or learn a new skill. Create a force field analysis identifying the
driving and restraining forces affecting your change efforts. Explain steps you can take to bolster the driving forces and minimize the restraining forces.
5. Recount a change you have experienced (personal, work, or community). You can keep a journal or find a family member, friend, or classmate and share the following
elements:
a. reaction
b. learning
c. results
6. Conduct an appreciative inquiry on a personal or work issue using the 4-D cycle described in this chapter.
Additional Resources
Web Links
Association of Change Management Professionals, a professional organization that offers professional development opportunities in change management
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http://www.acmpglobal.org/ (http://www.acmpglobal.org/)
The Society for Organizational Learning North America, an excellent resource particularly for tools related to the systems approach in OD
http://www.solonline.org/?home (http://www.solonline.org/?home)
Course for becoming a certified change manager through the Association for Talent Development:
https://www.td.org/education-courses/change-management-certificate (https://www.td.org/education-courses/change-management-certificate)
“5 Books to Help You Build Better Habits,” Fast Company
https://www.fastcompany.com/3026359/5-books-to-help-you-build-better-habits (https://www.fastcompany.com/3026359/5-books-to-help-you-build-better-habits)
Key Terms
Click on each key term to see the definition.
action learning
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover#)
An individual or team process of engaging in cycles of reflection and action to address real problems of the team, in real time, in the real workplace, versus dealing in
abstraction. Often, the process is based on asking questions about the problem as a way of creating more understanding of it.
appreciative inquiry (AI)
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover#)
A strengths-based approach to planned change that seeks to identify what is working well, rather than what is not working, and capitalize on it to cocreate a vision of the future.
beginning
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover#)
As defined by Bridges (1980), the point at which we become ready to embrace change, after we have brought closure to the ending of the previous way of being and navigated
through the neutral zone.
developmental change
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover#)
A change associated with the growth and learning people experience as they acquire new skills, manage relationships, and take on new challenges.
disruptive innovation
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover#)
An invention or improvement made by a smaller company that unsettles the status quo and creates new markets for products and services that were overlooked by larger, more
established companies.
ending
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover#)
As defined by Bridges (1980), the “beginning” point for change; the cessation of a prior way of being that marks the start of a change process or transition.
environmental scanning
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover#)
The scrutinizing of the world for information to understand what others (competitors, innovators) are doing to learn ideas that might help predict the future.
first-order change
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover#)
A gradual or incremental change that usually involves making moderate adjustments to existing procedures and practices. First-order change essentially tweaks what is already
being done and is easily reversed.
force field analysis
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover#)
A tool to depict the variables that both support or drive the change and restrain or prevent it.
group or team change
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover#)
Change processes involving two or more people and often the site of OD interventions.
individual change
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover#)
http://www.acmpglobal.org/
Welcome to the Society for Organizational Learning North America
https://www.td.org/education-courses/change-management-certificate
https://www.fastcompany.com/3026359/5-books-to-help-you-build-better-habits
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Change that involves activities related to employee staffing, training, or coaching.
inputs
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover#)
The raw materials that are entered into a system for throughput and output.
large-scale intervention
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover#)
Processes involving strategically selected large groups in organizations, such as the top executives, to implement change.
network
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover#)
A group based on affinity or similarity that is usually disenfranchised in some way in the organization and bands together for collective voice and action.
neutral zone
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover#)
As defined by Bridges (1980), the fallow, transitional space people find themselves in after an ending and before the beginning of a new change.
operational change
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover#)
Change that occurs when organizations make shifts that affect day-to-day functioning or operations of the organization.
organization or system change
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover#)
Alteration of the entire organization or system. This is the most difficult level of change.
outputs
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover#)
The part of a systems approach in which a series of inputs are put through the system to emerge as products or services.
refreezing
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover#)
The process of reinforcing change and ensuring its permanence.
second-order change
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover#)
A type of change that significantly and irreversibly alters thinking, behaviors, or processes.
system
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover#)
Viewing the organization as an interconnected network of parts that are interdependent.
team building
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover#)
Activities to enhance team functioning such as effective working relationships, processes, and procedures.
throughputs
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover#)
The transformation of system inputs (raw materials and resources) into outputs (goods and services).
transformational change
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover#)
A change that revolutionizes the organization and the ways its members think and act.
transitional change
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover#)
Incremental steps toward a preferred status over a specified period.
unfreezing
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover#)
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The process of becoming aware of the need to change and wish to create change.
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Learning Outcomes
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
Define consultants and clients.
Describe the types, roles, and styles of OD consultants.
Identify the competencies of consultants.
Outline the elements of a good consulting contract.
The employees of the QuickCo shipping department are at each other’s throats. The department’s 10 employees have always worked long hours striving to fill customer orders
on time. But over the past year or so, the workload has increased and the pressure to keep up has become incessant. The employees have strong personalities, and as multiple
orders start backing up, their stress levels rise, their tempers flare, and they say disrespectful things. People are on edge, interpersonal conflicts have developed, and no one
seems very happy.
The supervisor of the department, Ned, is an easygoing guy who has taken a laid-back approach to the mounting stress levels and conflicts. His mantra is “Let’s not get
emotional here. We’ve got work to do, so let’s get back to it.” Ned’s avoidance strategy is not helpful. The festering discontent and conflicts are reducing the department’s
ability to ship accurate orders on time. Absenteeism is up, morale is down, and people do not communicate with or help each other as they used to. When problems arise, no
one speaks up because of the bad feelings that have developed and the resignation that Ned will not do anything about it anyway. So resentment builds.
Ned is feeling pressure from other departments as customers’ complaints about inaccurate and late orders mount. The manufacturing manager, Sarah, calls the shipping
department supervisor into a meeting.
The OD Consultant 3
Digital Vision/Thinkstock
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Cameron Whitman/iStock/Thinkstock
Work on the QuickCo shipping dock was disrupted by
interpersonal conflicts.
“Ned, your department’s performance for accurate, on-time delivery is plummeting,” Sarah says. “I
looked back at the order procurement for the past year, and your trend has been steadily downward.
The past quarter is even worse. Customer complaints are rising, and other department heads are
complaining. What is going on here?”
Ned replies, “We work like crazy, Sarah, but no one is working together. We are busier than normal
but should have the staff to get the work done. There are long-simmering interpersonal conflicts, and
we aren’t working together like we used to. I keep telling everyone to get over it and get the job done,
but no one seems to be listening.”
“It sounds like you need some help to get to the bottom of this problem,” says Sarah. “Let’s go see
Jack in OD.”
Ned and Sarah set up a meeting with Jack. Although he has heard about the conflicts in the
department, during their first meeting, Jack asks a lot of questions until he has a good idea of what is
going on. Jack asks Ned point-blank, “What are you doing or not doing that might be contributing to
the problem?”
Ned acknowledges, “I don’t have the patience or time for conflict and just want everyone to get along
and do the work.”
Jack then asks, “Are you willing to do the work to fix this, even if it means that you might have to change or be more hands-on with conflict resolution?”
Ned replies, “I won’t like it, but we have to do something. I’m in.”
Jack also asks Sarah if she will back Ned up on addressing this change. Once the two of them agree, Jack emphasizes, “I can work with you, providing we have an equal
partnership. We all need to share the responsibility for diagnosing the problem and taking the necessary action to solve it.”
The three agree to work together on finding a solution to the interpersonal conflicts and productivity issues in the shipping department. Before making an intervention, Jack
wants to gather data, so he reviews the performance trends and customer complaints and interviews the members of the department individually. Once Jack has completed his
data collection and analysis, he sets up another meeting with Ned and Sarah.
“Ned and Sarah, you have a dysfunctional team on your hands,” Jack says. “They have no ground rules, collaboration, or means of handling conflict. Everyone needs to be
more understanding and respectful toward each other. It would also be helpful to create some guidelines for how the team wants to operate and manage conflict. Ned, you also
need to take a more active role in resolving issues.”
Jack presents a few options to Ned and Sarah, and they settle on taking the group through a facilitated process to address communication and team effectiveness. They also
agree that Ned could use some individualized executive coaching to help him learn behaviors that would be more productive for dealing with conflict. They set up a time to
make the intervention. To prepare, they have all of the department members take a behavioral-styles inventory so the team has data on individual differences. They then
schedule a meeting at which they will share the inventory results and their interpretation.
As the meeting begins, everyone is tentative, their arms crossed. Ned kicks off the meeting by thanking everyone for their hard work and acknowledging that there are
problems. He emphasizes that everyone has participated in creating the problems and that everyone must help solve them. He also admits his own role in the problems and
reveals that he is working on improving his managerial skills to be more effective. Ned has everyone’s attention. Then Jack delves into presenting and interpreting the results
of the inventory everyone has taken. The group becomes animated and even seems to enjoy sharing the differences among one another. The ice is broken, and people start to
let their guards down a bit.
The group takes a break, and next the agenda shifts to more serious issues. The group spends some time identifying strengths and weaknesses of the team and lists things that
would make the team more effective. By the end of the session, the team has come up with a tangible plan about how to be more effective and what specific actions team
members will take with each other. People are talking again and have agreed not to suffer in silence when they become upset.
Everyone goes back to work and tries to apply the new standards for team interaction. Jack works with Ned to make sure the agreements from the meeting are upheld. Ned
also continues to work with his coach to change his behavior and becomes more proactive and sensitive to conflicts when they arise. Jack also keeps in touch with Sarah to
make sure she is supporting Ned’s efforts and getting the results she needs for departmental improvement.
The intervention has a dramatic effect: The percentage of orders shipped on time increases quickly, and customer complaints plummet. Why? Because all of the stakeholders
were involved in a process that
1. created mutual understanding and insight about member differences and similarities,
2. jointly articulated the problems,
3. collectively devised a plan for dealing with them, and
4. was visibly supported by management.
As discussed in Chapter 1, participative activities usually result in buy-in because people want a say in things that affect their work lives. Although there will still be
challenges as the group relearns how to function together, Ned, Sarah, and Jack facilitated an OD intervention that was collaborative, data based, and problem focused. The
ability of Ned and the shipping department employees to resolve future conflicts will be the true test of whether the intervention was successful and helped the department
build new capacity for dealing with problems.
The success realized by the QuickCo shipping department was due in part to the work of the OD consultant, Jack, who helped Ned and his team identify and address their
problems in a way that was relevant, timely, and respectful. This chapter is about OD consultants: the different types, roles, and styles of consultants; their competencies and
skills; and the contracting process consultants engage in when working with clients.
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3.1 Defining Consultants and Clients
Chapters 1 and 2 introduced organization development and change. This chapter focuses on the people who practice OD, generally known as consultants. In Chapter 1, we
defined an OD consultant as a person who practices OD. This person may be an internal employee or external to the organization. We defined an OD consultant as a practitioner
of OD who has specialized knowledge of the action research process and facilitation skills to lead organizations through planned change. In reality, the terms practitioner and
consultant are used synonymously in OD.
See Who Invented That? Management Consulting.
Who Invented That? Management Consulting
Arthur D. Little created the first management consulting firm in 1886 at the same time management was also emerging as a field of study. At the time, Little focused on
technical research and later shifted to management consulting. Frederick Winslow Taylor started an independent consulting practice in Philadelphia in 1893; however, he
is better known as the creator of scientific management, or Taylorism (a method of analyzing and synthesizing production work for efficiency). The consulting industry
did not factor prominently as a resource organizations turned to for help until the late 20th century with the rise of major, global consulting firms in the 1980s and 1990s.
You can learn more about these firms and their services at http://www.stormscape.com/inspiration/website-lists/consulting-firms (http://www.stormscape.com/inspiratio
n/website-lists/consulting-firms) , which lists the 50 major consulting firms and links to their websites. Forbes also has compiled a listing of the most prestigious consulting
firms at the following link: https://www.forbes.com/sites/vickyvalet/2019/03/19/americas-best-management-consulting-firms-2019/#1a22845b3d00 (https://www.forb
es.com/sites/vickyvalet/2019/03/19/americas-best-management-consulting-firms-2019/#1a22845b3d00) .
Consultants Are Helpers, Influencers, and Persuaders
Consultants are often described as helpers (Lippitt & Lippitt, 1986; Schein, 2011). Schein (2011) commented,
Helping is a basic relationship that moves things forward. We take helping so much for granted in our ordinary daily life that the word itself often comes up only when
someone is said to have “not been helpful” in a situation where help was taken for granted. (p. ix)
Consulting is about helping—specifically about providing “helpful help,” rather than “unhelpful help” (Schein, 2011, p. 1). Simply, consultants specialize in creating
understanding and trust with their clients via relationships.
Consultants also need to influence the OD process as they do not have positional power to delegate the activity that has to occur to implement change. They also need to be
persuasive about what routes of action might work more effectively in the organization. Peter Block (2011), considered a master of OD consulting, explained:
A consultant is a person in a position to have some influence over an individual, group, or organization but [who] has no direct power to make changes or implement
programs. A manager is someone who has direct responsibility over the action. The moment you take direct responsibility, you are acting as a manager. (p. 2)
Jack, the consultant in the QuickCo vignette, had little power over the shipping department and could not simply march in and give orders. But Jack and Ned were able to
collaboratively intervene in a way that addressed the problems, and they developed new insights and skills to help the department handle future issues. Cockman, Evans, and
Reynolds (1996) noted that consultants are
people who find themselves having to influence other people, or advise them about possible courses of action to improve the effectiveness of any aspect of their
operations, without any formal authority over them or choosing not to use what authority they have. (p. 3)
Consultants are also persuaders. Although they have little power to implement change, they compensate by developing persuasive skills to promote change with their clients.
These skills include prevailing on a person or organization to adopt a course of action through advising, urging, or providing compelling evidence. One example of persuading
the client might be using the organization’s own performance data to show information that would motivate change, such as retention statistics, quality performance, or product
rankings. A consultant might also persuade a leader to examine and perhaps change his or her leadership style using feedback from employees.
“A consultant is one who provides help, counsel, advice, and support, which implies that such a person is wiser than most people” (Burke, 1992, p. 173). OD wisdom is
developed through learning OD theory and process and having the ability to explain it to the client and persuade the organization to change its course.
Consider This
Think about people who have helped you. What about them made you seek or accept their help? They are likely people who made you feel that they understood you and
you could trust them (Schein, 2011). Now think about people who are “unhelpful.” How are they different from helpers?
Think about the helping, influencing, and persuading behaviors you have either used yourself or observed in your work and life. How can you use them more often in
your own practice?
Consultants Work With Clients
http://www.stormscape.com/inspiration/website-lists/consulting-firms
https://www.forbes.com/sites/vickyvalet/2019/03/19/americas-best-management-consulting-firms-2019/%231a22845b3d00
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Mediaphotos/E+/Getty Images Plus
A consultant works with clients to agree on parameters for the
consulting agreement.
Consultants work for a person, team, or department, any of which can be a client. Block (2011) defined a client as anyone who
1. attends the initial OD planning meeting,
2. sets objectives for the project,
3. approves any actions to be taken,
4. receives the report on the results of the consultant’s work, and
5. is significantly affected by the OD effort.
Consultants seek to accomplish at least three things when working with clients, according to Block (2011): establishing a collaborative relationship, solving problems so they
stay solved, and ensuring that both the business problem and the relationship with the client are given adequate attention. The QuickCo vignette highlights how these goals can
be achieved.
Schein (1997) took a broader view and distinguished six types of clients:
1. Contact clients: Individual(s) who make the initial contact with the consultant to request
services, ask a question, or raise an issue
2. Intermediate clients: Individuals or groups participating in data collection, meetings, and
activities related to the OD project
3. Primary clients: Individual(s) who ultimately “own” the issue subject to OD consulting. They
are also usually the ones who pay the bills or budget for the project.
4. Unwitting clients: Members of the organization or system who are affected by the intervention
but are not aware of it
5. Indirect clients: Members of the organization who know about and are affected by the OD
intervention but are unknown to the consultant
6. Ultimate clients: The community, wider organization, and other stakeholders affected by the
intervention
When beginning a relationship with a client, a consultant must first determine the identity of the
primary client. That is why Schein’s (1997) typology is helpful. Novice consultants often mistake
contact clients for primary clients. Let us say you are a consultant who is called by a department
manager to help the organization do strategic planning. The manager was tasked with making the first
contact because she recommended you as a potential consultant during a management team meeting.
Her recommendation was based on some consulting you provided to a nonprofit organization she
belongs to. The person making contact was the contact client because she requested services. The
primary client in this case would be the top executive of the organization whose job is to set strategy.
The primary client worked with you to create a strategic planning process that was inclusive and involved a cross-section of representatives from the business who attended
meetings and developed surveys to share with a randomized segment of the organization. These were intermediate clients, who participated in the process in some way, possibly
from business units across the organization that were affected by the problem. During the strategic planning process, the employees who were not aware of and did not
participate in the process were the unwitting clients. The employees who were aware of the process but did not participate in any way were the indirect clients. Finally, the
stakeholders of the organization—such as the community, other company divisions, or suppliers—were the ultimate clients because they were affected in some way by the
strategies created.
Burke (2017) defined the ultimate client differently. He held that the ultimate client is the behavior in organizations represented by people’s interactions, relationships, and
interfaces. He argued that these interactions are representative of the realities of organization life, and thus they were the focus of his consultancy. He focused his OD practice on
how the organization manages subordinate relationships: managing up, managing laterally, and managing unit interfaces. Change happens through these relationships, and
understanding their related issues and challenges ultimately helps the OD process.
Regardless of the type of client a consultant encounters, it is important to build a trusting relationship. If a client does not trust a consultant, it will be difficult for meaningful,
impactful OD to occur. Think of someone you trust and note the reasons. Chances are you identified interpersonal attributes such as honesty, dependability, responsibility,
respectfulness, and believability. You also might have listed competencies such as expertise, experience, or being a recognized authority. These elements help build trust with the
client.
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Goodshoot/Thinkstock
Some companies choose to retain internal
consultants, whereas others hire external
consultants on an as-needed basis.
3.2 Types, Roles, and Styles of OD Consultants
Steele (1969) likened OD consultants to detectives, noting the following shared attributes of each:
They have temporary involvement in a system.
They focus on data gathering and problem solving.
They offer the potential for “dramatics.”
They are oriented toward action and excitement.
They rely on experts.
Their work involves juggling several stimulating cases simultaneously.
Today, Steele’s comparison still rings true as we consider the challenging, exciting work of implementing planned change in organizations. This section begins by distinguishing
the two types of consultants—internal and external—introduced in Chapter 1. It then identifies a variety of roles of consultants and explores various consultant styles.
Internal and External Consulting Types
OD consultants can be classified by type according to their relationship with the organization. People act as an internal
consultant if they are a permanent member of the organization who facilitates OD, whether or not that is their sole or
primary responsibility. For example, an internal consultant might work for the organization as a full-time, permanent
employee with a client base of organization members and departments. Some internal OD consultants might have
responsibilities that are broader than just OD, such as managing the human resource function or designing and delivering
training. Others will be dedicated to providing OD services full time.
If, in contrast, someone has a temporary relationship with the organization and is not an insider or permanent employee,
he or she is an external consultant. A consultant may be self-employed or work for a consulting firm that provides
services to a number of organizations and industries. Organizations usually contact external consultants when the needed
consulting expertise is not available in-house. An example would be an organization that hires an external diversity
expert to develop an inclusive recruitment and retention plan in the event that no one inside the organization has such
expertise.
Advantages of Internal and External Consulting
Advantages for the internal consultant include possessing privileged historical and contextual organization knowledge
that usually provides deep insight into its problems and challenges. Internal consultants typically have built long-
standing, trusting relationships with other organization members.
External consultants also have advantages. Their temporary status gives them more leeway to take risks than internal
consultants, and they enjoy higher prestige and ready credibility due to their unique peripheral status.
Disadvantages of Internal and External Consulting
Internal consultants may be more vulnerable to organization politics; for example, if they are working on an unpopular
change initiative, there may be backlash or undermining of them and future projects. They could also be pressured to
divulge confidential information or take sides when individuals involved in the OD process disagree. Internal consultants
are also more likely to be taken for granted because their skill set is readily available for the organization to use. Internal
consultants have to live with the OD interventions they create, including maintaining relationships with other organization members who may not like the changes they have
helped implement. These realities might cause internal consultants to be more personally invested in an intervention’s success but also more timid about taking necessary risks.
External consultants, on the other hand, have less insight into the organization and are rarely able to see the long-term impact of their efforts. Table 3.1 provides a more
exhaustive list of the pros and cons of internal and external consulting. There are more pros and cons associated with internal consultants.
Table 3.1: Pros and cons of internal and external consulting
Internal consultant pros Internal consultant cons
They have knowledge of the client and organizational problems.
They have insight into the organization’s history, politics, and culture.
They likely share similar values with the client.
They know where to find information and resources.
They understand the client and can predict reactions and behaviors.
They have an established reputation.
They have other colleagues internally who may be helpful.
They can monitor and evaluate the effectiveness of OD intervention.
They belong to the culture they are trying to change (this could also be a
pro).
Their department’s image may follow them (it helps if it is a good one).
Their image may be a liability.
Their services may be mandated by the organization.
They may have insights they must keep confidential.
They may be challenged by confidentiality issues.
They may be part of the problem.
They may not be comfortable consulting outside their rank.
They may have to confront people with whom they work.
They may be discounted as a prophet in their own land.
They may fear that giving bad news could adversely affect their
advancement prospects.
External consultant pros External consultant cons
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Their entry timeline is usually short.
They are viewed as novel.
Their outsider status allows them immediate prestige and credibility.
Their capacity to take risks is high.
They have a neutral, objective viewpoint on the organization.
They do not need to fear repercussions of addressing difficult issues or
people.
They do not receive ready trust.
They have limited knowledge of the client or organization history, culture,
and politics.
Block’s Consultant Roles
Block (2011) identified three roles played by consultants: expert, pair-of-hands, and collaborator. They apply whether the consultant is internal or external.
Expert Role
When clients have a problem and lack the time and interest to deal with it, they often turn to a knowledgeable consultant who serves in an expert role by telling them what to
do. For example, if two employees are on the warpath with each other, the client might hire a consultant who has expertise in conflict mediation. Or if an organization wants to
administer a survey, it might contract with an expert to conduct it. When consultants play the expert role, clients expect them to provide answers and usually give them authority
to fix the issue.
Pair-of-Hands Role
When clients have a task that needs to be completed and want someone else to do it, they are seeking a consultant to play the pair-of-hands role. Usually, clients seeking this
type of consulting devote little time to or take little interest in the problem at hand. Instead, they hire a consult and tell him or her what to do, such as facilitate a meeting or
implement a process.
Neither the expert nor the pair-of-hands role is ideal. A collaborative approach is generally preferred for its mutuality and effectiveness.
Collaborator
When the client and consultant mutually engage in and share responsibility for the OD effort, they are involved in collaborative consulting. The clear benefit of collaborative
consulting is that it helps clients diagnose their own problems and build capacity to become independent of the consultant. When a consultant helps clients learn the OD action
research process and build capacity to solve problems and implement change in the future, the consultant has successfully completed a sustainable intervention. In the QuickCo
vignette, Jack functioned in this role. See Table 3.2 for additional descriptions of these three types of consulting.
Table 3.2: Comparison of Block’s consulting roles
Expert role Pair-of-hands role Collaborator role
Consultant plays an active role, while manager is
inactive.
Consultant assumes passive role. Consultant and manager are interdependent.
Consultant makes decisions about how to proceed. Manager decides how to proceed and consultant follows
manager’s direction.
Decision making is bilateral.
Consultant controls information and intervention. Manager selects procedures for data collection and
analysis.
Data collection and analysis are joint efforts.
Technical control rests with the consultant. Control rests with the manager. Control issues become matters for discussion and
negotiation.
Collaboration is not required. Collaboration is not really necessary. Collaboration is considered essential and permeates
project.
Two-way communication is limited. Two-way communication is limited. Communication is two-way.
Communication is from the consultant to the manager. Consultant makes recommendations to manager. Consultant and manager share a give-and-take role in an
equal partnership, facilitated by consultant.
Consultant plans and implements main events. Manager specifies change procedures for consultant to
implement.
Implementation responsibilities are determined by
discussion and agreement.
Manager judges after the fact. Manager evaluates results and judges from a distance. Manager participates in a joint evaluation with
consultant.
Consultant’s goal is solving immediate problem. Consultant’s goal is to make the system more effective
by the application of specialized knowledge.
Goal is long-term problem solving—ensuring problems
stay solved.
Source: Adapted from Flawless Consulting: A Guide to Getting Your Expertise Used (2nd ed.), by P. Block, 1999, New York, NY: Pfeiffer.
Lippitt and Lippitt’s Continuum of Consulting Roles
In their 1986 book The Consulting Process in Action, Lippitt and Lippitt observed that consultant behaviors could be characterized as occurring along a continuum from
nondirective to directive. To illustrate these ideas, consider a consultant named Miranda. When Miranda sits back and observes the client grappling with and solving a problem
without much help, she is being nondirective. Nondirective consulting promotes client buy-in because the client is involved in identifying a problem’s root cause and proposing
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a solution. The consultant’s nondirective behavior would be to ask the client questions that promote reflection and problem solving. Consultants in this mode are patient and will
wait before taking a more active, forceful role with the client.
When Miranda is more assertive about telling the client what to do or providing answers, her behavior is considered directive. This consulting behavior is appropriate when the
client lacks expertise to solve the problem. Whereas nondirective consulting merely provides information to the client and leaves it to the client to act, directive consulting
assumes a leadership stance and initiates activities.
Lippitt and Lippitt (1986) identified eight roles of consultants, which they placed along their nondirective–directive continuum as shown in Figure 3.1. They stressed that all of
the eight roles can be appropriate to address a range of OD issues, as long as they are negotiated with and agreed on by the client. There is no one-size-fits-all role for OD
consultants. The eight roles are described in the next sections, using the example of Miranda to illustrate their specific functions and approaches.
Figure 3.1: Continuum of consulting roles
The eight consulting roles identified by Lippitt and Lippitt are effective across a range of OD issues, but clients and consultants
should determine the consultant’s role early in the process.
Source: Gordon L. Lippitt and Ronald Lippitt, from The Consulting Process in Action. Copyright © 1994 John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Reproduced by permission.
Objective Observer
When Miranda patiently waits for clients to discover the answer to their issue independently by creating the time, space, and right questions to bring it to the surface, she takes
the role of an objective observer. This is the most nondirective, client-centered role she can take as a consultant.
To assume this role, Miranda must be highly effective at asking questions that help the client reflect, clarify what is important, and make decisions. She keeps her opinions and
ideas to herself and coaches the client toward the right answer. Although she shares feedback with the client based on her observations, she gives the client full responsibility for
coming up with actions and implementing them. When being an objective observer works, the client will build confidence, mastery of the change process, and independence
from the consultant.
For example, Miranda might be working with a client named Larry on becoming a more participative leader. She might ask him, “What have you done in the past week to be
more participative?” She could also ask follow-up questions that push him to reflect on the situation and identify possible actions to try in the future, such as “How is it working
for you?” or “What is one thing you can do to be more participative next week?”
Process Counselor
When Miranda observes a client engaging in problem-solving processes and offers suggestions for improvement, she is serving as a process counselor. To assume this role,
Miranda collaborates with the client to jointly diagnose issues, and the client takes the lead in resolving problems. Her concern here is with the client’s interpersonal and
intergroup dynamics that affect the problem-solving process. She would observe the client, collect data on the issue, and provide feedback to help improve client relationships
and processes.
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Skynesher/E+/Getty Images Plus
A nondirective consultant lets the client solve the problem. In this
scene, the businessman in the forefront of the photo allows his
four clients to discuss issues and solve problems while he takes
notes.
Ridofranz/iStock/Getty Images Plus
Directive consultants actively engage in the OD process, using a
more hands-on, assertive approach.
Returning to the example of the manager who seeks to become more participative, in this role Miranda
would sit with the manager during a staff meeting and observe his behavior. After the meeting ends, she
would offer comments on what she saw, such as when she saw him interrupt others, tell people what to
do, or too quickly offer solutions without seeking input.
Fact Finder
Serving the client as a researcher who collects, analyzes, synthesizes, and interprets relevant
information is a fact-finder role. Data collection typically occurs in one of five ways: (a) interviews, (b)
surveys, (c) observations, (d) analysis of records and documents, and (e) tests. Through fact finding, a
consultant learns about the client’s procedures and challenges and then uses the evidence to propose
appropriate interventions.
Continuing with the example of the manager who seeks to become participative, as a researcher,
Miranda might decide to conduct a 360-degree evaluation (discussed in detail in Chapter 7) that seeks
input from direct reports, peers, supervisors, and other designated organization members. This data
would be shared with the client, and steps to address problems would be identified.
Alternative Identifier
When Miranda helps the client generate alternative solutions to a problem and establish criteria for
evaluating the alternatives, her role is to identify alternatives and link to resources. She leaves the final
decision about the course of action to the client.
Once the manager has data on his participative behavior (or lack thereof), Miranda would identify several resources for continued learning. These might include books,
seminars, other individuals the manager might want to emulate or seek mentoring from, or executive coaching. The client then decides on what will work best for him.
Joint Problem Solver
When Miranda works in conjunction with the client to diagnose and solve the problem, taking a major role in defining the results, she is a joint problem solver. This function
consists of offering multiple interpretations of the problem, helping the client maintain objectivity, isolating problem causes, generating alternative solutions, evaluating
alternatives, choosing a solution, and developing an action plan. She may also function as a third-party mediator when conflict arises during the problem-solving process.
Let us suppose Miranda is consulting with a production team working furiously to meet a deadline to
introduce a new product line. There is a lot of conflict in the group over roles, decision making, and
best practices. Miranda has been brought in to help the team meet its goal within the time frame, quality
specifications, and budget. Her actions as a consultant might be to mediate conflict between warring
members. She might also help them identify key problems in their process and possible ways to solve
them.
Trainer or Educator
When Miranda organizes learning and development activities to address the client’s problem, she
serves in the trainer–educator role. Most OD consultants have formal training and experience in
learning and development. A caution with this role is that training is often not the most effective
intervention to prescribe. It can be costly and time consuming. Additionally, when training is
incorrectly prescribed, the organization’s problems will persist, and both organization morale and a
consultant’s credibility will suffer.
Continuing Miranda’s work with the production team, it becomes obvious that the team would benefit
from more formalized learning around conflict management and project management. She organizes a
daylong seminar to help the team learn about these issues.
Information Specialist
When Miranda provides expert knowledge, information, or answers to the client’s dilemmas, she is serving as an information specialist. Although there are times when a
consultant’s expertise is needed, functioning primarily in this role can create client dependency and foster an inability to independently problem solve. Serving in this role also
makes it more difficult to strike a collaborative relationship with the client.
For example, Miranda might decide to give the team some handouts she developed to provide shortcuts to conflict mediation and project planning. However, she continues to
allow team members to problem solve independently.
Advocate
When Miranda pushes the client in a direction of her preference, she is being an advocate. She uses her power and influence to promote certain ideas and values in the decision-
making process. This is the most directive consulting role and is considered to be consultant centered.
As an advocate, Miranda might start to push the team toward a certain meeting structure. Or she might promote certain specific procedures for facilitating the team’s meetings.
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Blake and Mouton’s Intervention Styles
In addition to assuming different roles, consultants also embody different intervention styles when they deal with clients. So far, this chapter has covered several roles
consultants can play. They are all potentially useful, depending on the client and the situation. Most consultants develop a unique style that capitalizes on their skills, interests,
and comfort. Blake and Mouton (1976, 1983) identified four roles that were later summarized by Cockman and colleagues (1996) in their book Client-Centered Consulting.
These are discussed in the following section using a hypothetical consultant named Benjamin.
Acceptant Style
When Benjamin helps clients by listening with empathy and providing emotional support, he is employing an acceptant style. The acceptant style offers neutral, nonjudgmental
support that helps clients relax their defenses, confront disabling emotional reactions, and solve problems independently.
For example, Benjamin might help a client distinguish an issue from a person. If the client is having an emotional reaction to a person that evokes anger, frustration, or
confusion, the issue at hand may be clouded. Although the client may hate the CEO, that matter is separate from the need to implement the organization’s strategic plan created
by the CEO. Helping the client see this distinction can be cathartic and get him or her focused on problem solving. By providing an atmosphere of acceptance in which a client
feels safe and not threatened, an acceptant style helps the client clear whatever is blocking him or her from dealing logically and rationally with the problem.
Catalytic Style
If Benjamin is skilled at helping clients gather data about the problem, analyze it, and decide its relative importance, he is using a catalytic style. Working from this style,
Benjamin would help the client make an evidence-based diagnosis to identify intervention options and choose solutions. He would help the client focus on the who, what, why,
when, where, and how related to the problem. In short, when Benjamin uses a catalytic style, he pushes the client to generate solutions based on the data. Results from an
organization-wide attitude survey could provide an impetus for management to make changes.
Confrontational Style
When Benjamin calls attention to discrepancies between the client’s professed values and how the client puts them into practice, he is using a confrontational style. You can
probably think of examples in which someone claims he or she values one thing, like being a good listener or seeking input in decision making, yet does the complete opposite
when interacting with other people by interrupting or failing to get input. Consultants using a confrontational style point out these contradictions so clients can see the
discrepancies and decide if they want to change.
For example, Benjamin might say to a client, “You told me you were a good listener, yet you constantly interrupted and talked over people during the meeting. What’s up with
that?” This particular style can be highly effective at targeting and changing dysfunctional behaviors of individuals and groups during the OD process.
Prescriptive Style
When Benjamin listens to the client’s problem, collects the data the client requires, makes sense of the data from his own experience, and presents the client with a solution or
recommendation, he is using a prescriptive style. This style is commonly used in OD, although it is not the most effective, because it tends to cast the consultant in the expert or
pair-of-hands role. Consultants working from this style may assume that clients lack the skill, knowledge, or objectivity to effectively diagnose and solve problems. In reality,
this is rarely the case. Consultants can be “experts” without driving the process and knowing when expertise is needed. This style is similar to the information specialist and
advocate roles specified by Lippitt and Lippitt (1986).
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3.3 Competencies of OD Consultants
What does it take to do OD consulting well? In addition to following a change model (such as one introduced in Chapter 2) and an action research process (to be discussed in
Chapter 4), a consultant must master certain competencies. This section profiles these competencies using the example of a hypothetical consultant named Bridget.
Block’s Competencies
Recall Peter Block, one of the most influential scholars of consulting. In his classic book Flawless Consulting, first published in 1981, Block (2011) identified two competencies
essential for consulting: being authentic and completing the business of each consulting phase.
Being Authentic
When Bridget frankly and respectfully communicates her experience with the client and leverages commitment through communication and trust, she is being authentic.
Authenticity means Bridget addresses issues directly with the client. When the client is defensive or uncooperative, she confronts the behavior in a way that does not alienate the
client. Being authentic requires Bridget to give honest feedback, help the client save face in difficult situations, and provide coaching as needed. Clients will come to rely on her
ability and willingness to identify the “elephant in the room” if she can learn to do it tactfully and respectfully.
Building a trusting relationship with clients centers on a consultant’s ability to be authentic. This involves the consultant asking clients whether they trust his or her
confidentiality, addressing any doubts clients have about working with the consultant, and raising issues related to distrust when they arise. Without trust, it will be difficult to
appear authentic.
As a personal example of being authentic, I was working for a new leader and received feedback that, at speaking engagements, he was leaving a negative impression about our
organization. I had to raise the issue in a respectful and helpful way. Sharing the feedback required some risk, because the working relationship was new. The encounter went
something like this:
I said, “Part of my job is to make sure you’re successful. I’m hearing great things about you in the halls. I’ve also received feedback from multiple sources that when you make
public speeches about our organization, your message is too gloomy. What do you think about adjusting the tone in future speeches?”
He looked a bit surprised at first, and then we talked about what changes he might make. The next speech he made was impeccable and reflected favorably on both him and our
organization. Being direct and respectful of clients is almost always appreciated, because they want to be effective. It also builds trust.
Completing the Business of Each Phase
The other requirement for flawless consulting, completing the business of each phase, means a consultant follows the planned change process using the action research model.
This model was briefly introduced in Chapter 1 and is the subject of Chapter 4. It means approaching the OD process by contracting with the client, collecting data on the
problem, sharing feedback from the data analysis, identifying and implementing an appropriate intervention, and evaluating the results.
Technical, Interpersonal, and Consulting Skills
Being authentic and completing the business of each phase are important steps but are not enough to be an effective consultant. As Block (2011) observed, consultants also need
technical, interpersonal, and consulting skills, all of which are discussed in the following section using a consultant named Miguel.
Technical Skill
The discipline-specific knowledge Miguel brings to the consulting relationship is known as technical skill. OD is a technical skill in itself, but each consultant has a unique
blend of technical skills in other areas. Cummings and Worley (2009) suggested these include an understanding of organizational behavior, individual psychology, group
dynamics, management and organization theory, research methods, comparative cultural perspectives, and functional knowledge of business.
For example, Miguel might have expertise in banking and financial organizations that will be invaluable when consulting with clients in similar industries. Having appropriate
technical expertise is necessary if you are to help a client.
Consider This
What are your technical skills? In relation to your day-to-day activities, what skills do you possess to address change?
Interpersonal Skill
Miguel’s ability to engage, communicate, and develop a mutual relationship with his client is known as interpersonal skill. Consultants form relationships with a variety of
individuals and groups and need flexibility, tolerance, respect, and adeptness to maintain these relationships. The role of a consultant is largely developmental: Miguel must meet
the clients where they are, not where he thinks they should be. By demonstrating personal charisma, presence, and integrity, Miguel increases the likelihood that clients will want
to work with and please him.
It is also helpful for Miguel to pay attention to his own reaction to the client. It is likely that others in the organization experience the client similarly, whether negative or
positive. Miguel can identify important teachable moments for the client by being attuned to these subtle signals and acting on them.
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Kupicoo/E+/Getty Images Plus
Honing interpersonal skills involves finding ways to connect with
the client and the client system.
The following interpersonal skills for effective consulting have been adapted from Burke (1992):
Tolerating ambiguity. Every organization and problem is unique and requires a customized
solution.
Influencing the client. Consultant was defined in the beginning of this chapter as typically
having influence without power, making it essential that consultants be effective persuaders
and build trust with the client.
Confronting difficult issues a client is reluctant to face. This competency is aligned with the
importance of authenticity. Being direct and tackling difficult issues is never easy work,
although it is often pivotal when addressing challenges in the organization and helping it move
toward a change.
Nurturing others, particularly during times of conflict or stress. This involves using listening
and empathy with clients.
Recognizing your feelings and intuitions quickly and using them when appropriate and timely.
Educating the client throughout the process. This involves grasping teachable moments and
creating learning opportunities that help the client build capacity to maintain the change and
manage future change when the consultant exits the picture.
Maintaining a sense of humor. Consulting work can be challenging and stressful, so sustaining
the ability to laugh and enjoy the process keeps both the consultant and the client grounded.
Exuding self-confidence, interpersonal savvy, and a sense of mission. OD work is worthwhile
and potentially helpful to others, and consultants must own that mission.
How would you rate yourself according to Burke’s list? What are your top three strengths? What are your top three weaknesses? What would you add to the list?
Consulting Skill
OD practitioners take their clients through a multistep process—known as action research—that begins the moment they meet. Consulting skill requires mastering each step of
the action research process. Developing consulting skill is a daunting goal, but this book is devoted to helping you achieve it. Maintaining that skill is a lifelong endeavor that
requires ongoing learning and personal development.
Freedman and Zackrison (2001) identified four areas of consulting skill: interpersonal, technical, consulting, and self-management. Table 3.3 offers brief descriptions of these
competencies.
Table 3.3: Consultant skills
Interpersonal Technical—business or functionspecific Consulting Self-management
Confrontation
Risk-taking ability
Collaboration
Conflict management
Relationship building
Engineering
Project management
Planning
Marketing
Manufacturing
Personnel
Finance
System analysis
Analysis and diagnosis
Strategic and implementation
planning
Change management
Evaluation
Core values articulated
Self-confidence
Self-awareness
1. Control and influence
needs
2. Need for personal contact
3. Need to belong
4. Need for prominence
Freedman and Zackrison (2001) cautioned that competence does not necessarily arise from experience, but rather from one’s ability as a consultant to learn from that experience.
They recognize three types of consulting experience: experience dealing with similar issues, experience at a specific organization level, and experience with similar
organizations or industries. Potential clients may ask about any one of these areas when assessing a consultant’s skill and competence.
Balancing Responsibility in the Consultant–Client Relationship
Earlier, the collaborator role was identified as one of Block’s three key roles for consultants. An ability to balance responsibility in the consultant–client relationship is a key
competency in this collaborator role. It begins with a mutual agreement that there is a 50–50 split in responsibility between consultant and client.
As discussed, effective OD consultants have strong interpersonal skills, with a heavy dose of emotional intelligence, patience, tact, and tenacity. Sometimes you have to trust
your intuition about what your client is really committed to. Paying attention to your feelings—and those of your client—will yield valuable insights. How is the client working
on the problem? Is there ownership? Accountability? Are there signs of resistance? Is the client getting appropriate support from upper management? If you sense that the client
is reluctant to own the problem and share responsibility for the solutions, you need to directly and quickly identify and address the underlying issues.
Holding a client equally responsible for the change helps ensure that your own needs are being met in the consulting relationship. Block (2011) noted that it is easy for
consultants to fall into a “service mentality” (p. 16) at the expense of their own needs. It is fair for you to expect access to and support from the organization, as well as inclusion
among the team and validation that your work is having an impact.
Block (2011) recommended that you assess the balance of responsibility you and the client are taking in the OD engagement by completing the checklist in Table 3.4. If you
discover that you are always required to take the lion’s share of responsibility or have very little responsibility, it is time for a frank conversation with the client and renegotiation
of expectations. See also Tips and Wisdom: Balancing Client and Consultant Responsibilities.
Table 3.4: Checklist to assess the balance of responsibility
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Client has major responsibility;
consultant has little 50–50 shared responsibility
Consultant has major responsibility;
client has little
Define the initial problem
Decide whether to proceed with the
project
Select the dimensions to be studied
Decide who will be involved in the
project
Select the method
Do discovery
Funnel the data and make sense of it
Provide the results
Make recommendations
Decide on actions
Source: Adapted from Flawless Consulting: A Guide to Getting Your Expertise Used (3rd ed., p. 36), by P. Block, 2011, San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Tips and Wisdom: Balancing Client and Consultant Responsibilities
“Let’s hire a consultant so we have someone to blame.”
—David Bigelow, retired law enforcement officer who pursued art full time upon retiring in 2001.
His paintings, drawings, and etchings have a whimsical quality that reveals life’s truths.
This advice, although perhaps cynical, serves as a warning: Avoid clients who need a scapegoat or want to dump their problems in someone’s lap. For example, a
consultant was invited to a small manufacturing company to conduct a diversity workshop after the organization received a sanction from the Equal Employment
Opportunity Commission (EEOC) mandating diversity training due to complaints of discrimination on the basis of race. As she was making her way to the organization’s
entrance on the day of the training, she noticed a dummy hung in effigy in a tree near the entrance. It was clear to her from that unfortunate display, and the company’s
reaction to it, that the organization was not serious about changing its history of racial discrimination. Rather, the team members were fulfilling the required sanction only
so they could resume “business as usual.” She did not continue her association with the company on ethical grounds. It is a good practice as an OD consultant to be
particular about your clients. It may be a best practice not to take on clients unless you are interested in the work, qualified to meet their needs, comfortable with their
ethics, and convinced that they will be a mutual partner in the process.
OD consulting centers on building mutual, collaborative relationships with clients. It is most effective when the client owns the problem and shares responsibility for
authorizing, implementing, and maintaining the planned change. Thus, its success hinges on effectively balancing a consultant’s responsibilities with those of the client.
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AndreyPopov/iStock/Getty Images Plus
Negotiating a written contract for OD consulting protects both the
client and the consultant and keeps the process on track.
3.4 Contracting
An external consultant should develop a consulting contract that specifies the responsibilities of the parties involved. Note that internal consultants may also draw up contracts,
although there may be an established practice within the organization and it may be more informal in cases of internal consulting. Sample contracts are readily available via a
Google search, or you may want to develop a contract template that helps you easily draft one. This section offers contracting guidance; however, it is not legal advice. You
should follow the contract law for your specific state and consult a lawyer if you have questions.
A contract is a legally enforceable agreement that is drawn when someone is hired to provide an expert service, such as consulting. A consulting contract does several things:
1. Specifies an offer of services such as On this day [insert date] the Consulting Company A is entering into a contract to conduct a climate survey for Company B
(“Client”), and Consultant C (“Consultant”) will administer the survey, facilitate feedback meetings with all departments, and provide final recommendations to
management by [insert date] for [specify amount].
2. Represents mutual consideration and agreement of the terms
3. Signals agreement as both parties sign the document
4. Binds each party legally for fulfilling the terms
The contract also clearly identifies the parties entering the contract (e.g., “Client” and “Consultant”) and details the services being rendered, roles of each party, and completion
dates. As noted in the example, the compensation is also spelled out clearly. It might be a total dollar amount, an hourly fee, a retainer, or a detailed budget. It is also a good idea
to have a termination clause that allows either party to cease the agreement. Contracts also usually have provisions that allow both parties to amend the document. The last page
of the contract is a signature page. Both parties should receive a copy of the contract and during the execution phase will either accept the contract in full or negotiate terms until
an agreement is reached and the contract is signed.
When our hypothetical consultant Miguel meets with the client to learn about the problem and define the parameters of their working relationship, he is contracting. Also
known as “gaining entry,” contracting can be initiated by the client contacting Miguel or vice versa, or a third party can connect him and the client. Once Miguel and the client
are in contact, he immediately begins negotiating the boundaries of the project and building a relationship based on trust and openness.
This initial process eventually culminates in a meeting to draw up the contract. Miguel’s sheer presence at the first client meeting is an intervention (Schein, 1988b), meaning
that Miguel’s presence alone influences change, whether it is a change in behavior, attention to the problem, resistance, or readiness to commit to and implement change. This is
true throughout the consultation. Because of this, it is essential that Miguel conduct himself with integrity from the instant he begins working with a client. He must be conscious
of his every move and statement during this initial meeting.
Because the consulting relationship depends on trust, the ability to put a client at ease and quickly establish an open relationship is critical to a consultant’s success. Clients may
be initially suspicious or resentful of a consultant, especially if hiring someone like Miguel was not their idea or if he was hired to address a problem that they have not been able
to solve. The image Miguel presents will have a direct impact on the outcome of the contracting, so he must be prepared, poised, and positive.
Additionally, Miguel must be authentic. If a consultant is dishonest, exaggerates his skills, or tries to manipulate clients, he can expect problems related to trust and satisfaction
with his work.
As discussed, each consultant develops a preferred style; it will be helpful to identify yours. Are you good at small talk? Can you identify something the client is interested in
and talk about it? What can you ask about the business to show your concern and learn more about the organization? What can you share about your previous projects? Even
though you may have a preferred style of consulting, you may have to adjust it to best accommodate the client or the situation.
It is also a good idea for Miguel to make time for the client to ask him questions about his background, style, and other issues of import to the client when he initiates a
consulting relationship. Often, consultants provide a written biography or description of services that can help the client understand what they offer. These considerations are
important to keep in mind so consultants can put their client at ease. Once that is accomplished, a consultant can move to the next steps of contracting.
Key Elements of Contracting
When Miguel and his client have agreed to engage in a consulting relationship, it is a good idea to
detail that agreement in writing in the form of a contract. Block (2011) identified key elements of
contracting that can serve as a guideline for writing up a formal contract of engagement. Each aspect
will be considered and then an example shared.
Boundaries of Analysis
During the initial entry or shortly thereafter, Miguel should clarify the problem or issue to be addressed
by creating a simple problem statement that describes what he intends to do. In effect, this creates
boundaries of analysis. For example, he might wind up with a simple statement such as this one:
The purpose of this OD engagement is to address retention problems of diverse employees at
entry- and mid-level management.
The statement might also include information on what will not be addressed:
This project will not address nonmanagerial positions.
The consulting contract becomes an important record of what was agreed to initially. The boundaries of analysis should be clear as in the example. There should be ongoing
evaluation of the project by the consultant and key manager to ensure the project is staying within scope. If it starts drifting from the purpose, that is a moment for discussion
between the consultant and manager and renegotiation if the boundaries change. For example, a consultant is working on a mentoring program with a client and they decide to
add an aspect to the program that was not agreed on in advance, one that required the consultant to make an extra trip and facilitate a half-day workshop. The contract and
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budget are amended to reflect that change. In another example, when the author of this text engages in executive coaching, the contract is clear that she will spend twelve 1-hour
sessions with the client. If, at the end of that time, the client wishes to continue working on issues, they re-up the contract for another six sessions.
Effective consultants plan for ceasing the consulting relationship, because if they have done their job well, the consulting engagement ends with the client gaining the capacity to
deal with problems on their own.
See Tips and Wisdom: Establishing Clear Boundaries.
Tips and Wisdom: Establishing Clear Boundaries
Establishing boundaries of analysis requires correctly identifying the primary client (and it may not be the person who initiated the consulting relationship). Here are
some tips to help ensure you have established clear boundaries:
1. Make sure you can identify the primary client. Ask questions until you are certain.
2. Understand who serves to benefit from the consulting: management, employees, customers?
3. Establish clear expectations. Take time to discuss what you need and expect as a consultant and give the client a chance to do the same.
4. Know when to walk away from a project. Projects that hold little interest and do not fall within your expertise are compromised from the start. Projects that have
wavering support and resources are also risky.
5. Set an expectation for ongoing feedback to ensure the consulting stays on track and meets expectations.
Project Objectives
Once the boundaries of analysis are clear, Miguel is ready to generate project objectives. These might include solving technical or business problems (business objectives),
creating new opportunities for the organization (business objectives), teaching clients how to solve a problem for themselves the next time it arises (learning objectives),
improving how the organization manages itself (business or learning objectives), changing the culture (business or learning objectives), or other issues relevant to the client
(Block, 2011).
Useful Information to Seek
Once the boundaries of analysis and project objectives are determined, Miguel should seek out data relevant to solving the issue. Information sources will be fully discussed in
Chapter 4, but generally there are at least three types of information that will be particularly useful to consultants: technical data, people’s attitudes, and roles and responsibilities
(Block, 2011). During contracting, Miguel should identify the information he needs and how he intends to retrieve it (e.g., surveys or interviews).
The Consultant’s Role
Earlier in this chapter, we discussed the different types, roles, and styles of consultants. Usually, a consultant’s role is negotiated during the contracting process. In addition to
determining if Miguel will serve in an expert, pair-of-hands, or collaborative role, he and the client also need to agree on a mutual partnership in which the client is accountable
for the process and outcomes. As the consultant, Miguel is responsible for creating a process that allows the client to address problems. The client is accountable for providing
the resources, support, and incentives for the change. If the client does not want to assume responsibility for the process, Miguel will want to carefully consider whether he
should continue the project. This is also a good time to explain that he may play different roles that range from nondirective to directive.
The Product to Be Delivered
Next, Miguel should specify the product or service the client can expect him to provide, for example, a report, conflict mediation, or coaching. He should work to be very
specific about the deliverables to avoid problems later. Here is an example of specifics from a contract related to recruitment and retention of technical employees:
Conduct a survey on retention issues.
Interview employees who have left the company.
Benchmark best recruitment and retention practices at competing companies.
Analyze collected data and provide recommendations in a report by a specific date.
The Support and Involvement a Consultant Needs From the Client
Block (2011) called support and involvement from the client “the heart of the contract for the consultant” (p. 63). With this in mind, Miguel should describe in detail what he
needs from the client for the project to succeed. Examples might include one-on-one meetings with certain employees, access to organization records, clerical services, or
managerial support. A budget for the project should also be developed at this stage. In addition, Miguel and the client should agree on a process for requesting approval for
additional funds if necessary.
The Time Frame
Next, Miguel should specify the timeline of the project, including its start date, major milestones, and end date. This is another opportunity for Miguel to revisit the scope of the
project and ensure that the plans fit within it. It can be useful to establish a Gantt chart (Clark, Polakov, & Trabold, 1952) (see Figure 3.2 for an example), particularly for long,
complicated projects. Similar to the budget, the timeline should be reviewed regularly to make sure the project is on track.
See also Who Invented That? The Gantt Chart.
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Figure 3.2: Example of a Gantt chart
This is an example of a simple Gantt chart over a 7-month period detailing typical stakeholders and activities of an OD intervention.
A consultant could take each intervention and make a much more specific chart by week and activity.
Who Invented That? The Gantt Chart
A Gantt chart was invented by Henry Gantt (1861–1919) to illustrate a project timeline or schedule. The chart is constructed by listing the tasks on the vertical axis and
the time intervals on the horizontal axis. The chart gives an at-a-glance view of the timeline of a project with clear start and finish dates, as well as interim milestones. To
apply this, you might create a Gantt chart of your university study that could cover a single semester with course assignments, or your full academic program with major
thresholds. Free Gantt chart templates are readily available online, and Excel also has templates that allow you to plot your tasks.
The Confidentiality Expectations
Maintaining confidentiality and integrity promotes a strong collaborative relationship. External consultants may have more flexibility with confidentiality than internal
consultants because they can refuse to share information should higher management demand it. Internal consultants are in a tougher position and might be pressured to share
data collected on a problem with someone higher up in the organization. Both internal and external consultants should negotiate how data will be used up front. A consultant will
lose trust quickly if organization members perceive that confidentiality has been breached. Writing confidentiality expectations into the contract will help avoid
misunderstandings and problems later.
The Agreement for the Client to Provide Postintervention Feedback
Asking the client to provide feedback on the project after the consultant leaves or once the project is finished can be a powerful accountability motivator for the client. It also
gives the consultant a means of self-evaluation and providing evidence of his or her consulting skills to future clients. Figure 3.3 demonstrates how these key elements might
read in a contract.
Figure 3.3: Example of a consulting contract on leadership development for midlevel managers
This sample contract between a client and a consultant shows the level of detail required for each of the key elements of contracting.
Download a PDF of this sample contract (https://media.thuze.com/MediaService/MediaService.svc/constellation/book/Bierema.6269.20.1/{
pdfs}samplecontract_protected ) .
https://media.thuze.com/MediaService/MediaService.svc/constellation/book/Bierema.6269.20.1/%7Bpdfs%7Dsamplecontract_protected
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Contracting Ethics
Ethics guide one’s activities as a consultant, including at the contract stage. Chapter 1 introduced OD’s code of ethics as put forth by the International Society for Organization
Development and Change. The code emphasizes quality of life, health, justice, dignity, win–win outcomes, holistic perspectives, and participative decision making. Gellerman,
Frankel, and Landenson (1990) recommended the following values to guide OD practice:
Promote quality of life.
Enhance health, human potential, empowerment, growth, and excellence.
Provide freedom and responsibility and give people choice in the process.
Advocate justice.
Pursue dignity, integrity, worth, and fundamental rights of all stakeholders.
Seek all-win outcomes.
Conjure authenticity and openness in relationships.
Adopt a holistic, systemic perspective, mindful of all stakeholders.
Invite wide participation in the process.
Freedman and Zackrison (2001) distinguished between OD consultants and what they termed “techspert consultants” (p. 179) who function in the expert role. These functions
are contrasted in Table 3.5.
Table 3.5: OD consultants versus techspert consultants
OD consultants Techspert consultants
Participative
Exploratory and experimental
Empower leaders and organization members
Work in isolation
Definitive, confident, and decisive about solutions
Maintain control
Freedman and Zackrison (2001) consulted the International Council of Management Consulting Institutes to develop their code of ethics. Notice how many of these values
pertain to the contracting stage:
Preserving confidentiality
Creating realistic expectations
Avoiding any type of commissions, bribery, or kickbacks from third parties
Accepting only assignments that you have the skill and knowledge to perform
Creating contracts for services
Refraining from recruiting client employees for alternative employment without the client’s knowledge
Holding other consultants accountable for meeting ethical standards (Freedman & Zackrison, 2001)
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Tucker (2006), in an article about forging successful consulting relationships between clients and consultants, advocated a relationship that values integrity, communicates with
openness and completeness, holds the client’s objectives paramount, respects time and its constraints, and uses contracts.
See Case Study: Ethical Scenarios for the OD Consultant to evaluate different scenarios.
Case Study: Ethical Scenarios for the OD Consultant
Evaluate the following scenarios based on the ethics information presented in this chapter.
Scenario 1: You are contacted by a company that needs some help with implementing a process you have little familiarity with. Although you could probably learn it,
you would not be up to speed within their time frame. Still, you could really use the extra income right now. What are the implications for deciding not to do it? What are
the implications for deciding to do it?
Scenario 2: Another consultant contacts you and offers you a chance to take a consulting job that she could not take because she is booked during the time the client
needs a leadership development program. You are very skilled at this type of consulting and have not worked for this company before. At the close of your discussion,
the consultant who has offered you the gig asks for 10% of your fee for the consulting because she referred you. What is your next step?
Scenario 3: You are working with a chemical company to reorganize its production process, which currently releases significant greenhouse gas emissions into the
environment. During the initial planning with the client, you suggest that the action research team be expanded to include some other stakeholders in the process, such as
elected officials and community advocates. What competing interests and values might you expect to encounter from this diverse stakeholder group?
Scenario 4: You have completed a consulting engagement with a company that conducted survey research and prioritized key actions needed to change the culture. Over
the past year, the company has worked to address its top four priorities from the survey research. You are now at a point where organization members can continue the
work without your regular involvement, and you are negotiating to maintain your consulting services only intermittently. You were really impressed with one of the
members of the action research team. He approaches you after a meeting on-site and tells you how much he enjoyed working with you and learning from you. He asks if
you have any positions open in your consulting firm. Is it ethical for you to consider hiring this person? Why or why not? If you were to proceed, what is your
responsibility to the client organization?
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Summary and Resources
Chapter Summary
OD consultants help, influence, and persuade their clients to change, although they have no formal organization power.
There are several different types of clients during a typical OD process, including contact, intermediate, primary, unwitting, indirect, and ultimate. It is imperative that
the consultant correctly identify the primary client.
Consultants can be internal to an organization (permanent, full-time employees) or external (temporary and working for multiple organizations).
Consultants often play one of three roles: expert, pair of hands, or collaborator. Functioning in a collaborative mode is considered most effective because it creates
mutuality and accountability with the client.
Consulting roles can also be understood along a continuum of nondirective to directive. The closer the consultant gets to directive roles, the more she or he will be
functioning as an expert.
Consultants have different ways of intervening that include acceptant, catalytic, and prescriptive styles.
Peter Block held that being authentic and completing the business of each phase are key to effective consulting.
Effective consulting competencies include technical, interpersonal, and consulting skills.
Balancing responsibility in the consultant–client relationship helps ensure support and accountability in the OD process.
Key elements of contracting include determining the boundaries of analysis, identifying project objectives, deciding on the kind of information you are seeking,
articulating your role as a consultant, specifying the product you will deliver to the client, identifying the support and involvement needed by the client, noting the time
frame, discussing confidentiality, and planning for postintervention feedback.
Think About It! Reflective Exercises to Enhance Your Learning
1. The chapter began with a vignette about problems in the shipping department of QuickCo. Recall a situation from your experience that would have benefited from
having an OD consultant assist. What would you have done as a consultant?
2. Recount a time you or someone close to you participated in an OD intervention led by a consultant. What were the outcomes and consequences? How well did the
consultant do, based on the principles presented in this chapter?
3. This chapter has profiled different roles and styles consultants employ when working with clients. What are some of the similarities and differences in these approaches
to working with clients?
Apply Your Learning: Activities and Experiences to Bring OD to Life
1. Look up some job descriptions of consultants and identify the themes, salaries, and competencies required.
2. Develop a biography and description of your technical, interpersonal, and consulting competencies (current or desired). Be sure to include a paragraph explaining the
role and style you use for consulting.
3. Prioritize the technical, interpersonal, and consulting competencies you need to learn.
4. Review the results of your consultant style inventory score. What insights did you gain from this assessment?
5. Develop a consulting contract.
Additional Resources
Media
What Should Consultants Do?
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vv3p6lMdC7c (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vv3p6lMdC7c)
Web Links
International Council of Management Consulting Institutes, an international membership organization and a network of the management advisory and consultancy
associations and institutes worldwide:
http://www.icmci.org/ (http://www.icmci.org/)
Institute of Management Consultants USA, the certifying body and professional association for management consultants and firms in the United States:
http://www.imcusa.org (http://www.imcusa.org)
Key Terms
Click on each key term to see the definition.
acceptant style
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover#)
A consulting style characterized by neutral, nonjudgmental support of clients that helps them relax and let down their defenses so problems can be solved more easily.
catalytic style
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A consulting style that uses data and evidence to help clients diagnose and solve problems. The data usually provides an impetus for action or change.
collaborative consulting
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The role a consultant assumes when the client wants a mutual partnership in solving problems and is willing to share responsibility from the beginning to the end of the project.
http://www.icmci.org/
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confrontational style
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover#)
A consulting style that challenges inconsistencies between what a client professes to value and what he or she actually does in practice.
consultants
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover#)
People who practice OD (or another technical skill) and combine it with technical, interpersonal, and consulting skills to help clients resolve issues and problems.
consulting skill
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover#)
The skill a consultant develops that requires mastering each step of the action research process.
contracting
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover#)
The process of determining the parameters of a working relationship with a client. This is best put in writing according to the guidelines offered in this chapter.
directive
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover#)
A hands-on style of consulting in which the consultant is assertive about telling the client what to do or readily gives the answer.
expert role
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover#)
The role a consultant plays when clients want someone with expertise who will tell them what to do. The client has a low level of involvement in the OD consulting in these
situations.
external consultant
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover#)
A consultant who has a temporary relationship with the client or organization and is an outsider.
internal consultant
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover#)
A consultant who is employed by the client organization and is an insider with a permanent relationship with the organization.
interpersonal skill
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover#)
A consulting competency to engage, communicate, and develop a mutual relationship with clients.
nondirective
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover#)
A hands-off style in consulting that involves patience, observation, and asking questions to subtly guide clients to find a solution on their own.
pair-of-hands role
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover#)
The role a consultant plays when the client wants a task completed and seeks someone else to do it. The client generally takes little interest in the problem or the process and
simply wants the issue resolved.
prescriptive style
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover#)
A consulting style that involves listening to the client’s problem, collecting the data the client requires, making sense of the data from the consultant’s own experience, and
presenting the client with a solution or recommendation.
technical skill
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover/books/Bierema.6269.20.1/sections/cover#)
Discipline-specific knowledge that consultants bring to the consultancy. OD is one of these types of skills. Consultants are found in every field, from medicine to technology to
agriculture.
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