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Development and Inequality

Final Exam (60%)

Learning Outcomes being assessed:

LO1. Introduce ideas and theories of inequality and development in the

global context.

LO2. Use these ideas to explain why people living in selected regions of the

world continue to be severely disadvantaged.

LO3. Introduce topics related to the themes of ethnicity, gender and class to show the

many ways in which disadvantage may be manifested.

Exam Instructions:

• The test will be posted on Stream on Monday 27 January at 8:00am NZDST (NZ
Daylight Saving Time)

• You will have until Sunday 2 February at 11:55 pm NZDST to complete and upload
the exam. The dropbox will close after 11:55pm.

• Each question/response must be in a separate word document. Each word document
should include: your name and student number, the question you are responding to,

and your response. The file name must include your last name and the question

number. You will upload four separate responses/word documents or PDFs to Stream.

Only upload your responses once you have all 4 prepared. They should all be

uploaded and submitted at the same time.

o Example of file name: Korson_Q1

• Each answer should be 700-800 words in length. Note that 800 words is the upper
limit. We will stop reading once answers exceed this limit. You will need to write in

a very concise manner.

• As stated in the Course Guide, extensions will only be granted where there is clear
justification for this and supporting documentation provided e.g. medical

emergency or family bereavement. You must contact me immediately if you think

you have a case to make

• You have been given a week to complete the exam, and it is open book, thus a
high standard of answers is required for a pass.

You may NOT use the Internet to source supplementary information for this exam, but you may

use your notes, course readings, and access additional Massey library resources (including

electronic journal articles) if you wish. You should not include any quotes. All information from

other sources should be kept to a minimum and paraphrased in your own words. Where

appropriate you can use in text citations with the author’s last name and date of the publication.

However, you should not need to include a reference list. Responses with large sections of

paraphrased material or any quoted material will not be graded. The exam is a chance to

showcase what you have learned and what you know, not what you can regurgitate from your

readings.

As indicated in the Course Guide, ‘students must complete all three pieces of assessment to
be eligible to pass this course’ so if you have not completed the two assignments, there is
little point in doing this exam. Please contact Cadey if you wish to discuss your options.

Additional Tips:

Focus on answering the question that is asked.

Plan your answers in a structured manner as you would for a short essay. It helps to create a

brief outline that you can then go back and fill in.

Do not only rely on the material written in the Study Guides or lessons. This is not sufficient

to pass. You must include ideas from the course’s required readings. Note that you are not
restricted to using the readings specific to a particular topic e.g. there may be ideas in

readings from the ‘Understanding Development’ module that you can incorporate in your
answers relating to questions drawn from later modules. It is not necessary for you to include

ideas from academic articles or books outside of the required readings, but you can do this if

you wish. Remember you are not allowed to use any material directly from the internet.

When you draw on ideas from the course readings, you should cite the references as you

would in an essay e.g. Rashbrooke (2013) argues that …. Or … (Rashbrooke 2013).

Do not plagiarise: These exam answers will be put through Turnitin. If anyone copies material,

whether phrases, sentences or paragraphs, from the Study Guides, lessons, or readings, they will

receive ‘0’ (zero) marks for a question. The same applies to anyone who copies the work of other

students who are doing this course currently or have done this course in the past.

Good luck!

School of People, Environment and Planning

Geography Programme

Final Exam

2019/2020 Summer Semester

Answer any four (4) of the following six (6) questions.

1. Amartya Sen’s work contributed significantly to the development of the multi-
dimensional Human Development Index (HDI). How do the HDI and the Human

Development Reports reflect Sen’s capabilities approach?

2. How have “colonial imageries and narratives been recycled and reformulated in
contemporary discourses and practices of development” (Kothari, 2006, p.12)?

3. Using examples, examine a) how separatist movements emerge, b) why they can be

difficult to resolve, and c) instances where progress has been made.

4. With reference to the New Internationalist article and the reading by Roberts, discuss

the ways in which inequalities are shifting within South Africa.

5. Can empowerment be measured? What are some of the challenges

to measuring empowerment?

6. Does globalisation offer new, empowering opportunities to women or exploit both

their poverty and cultural positioning to gain cheap, compliant labour? Discuss in

relation to women’s work in global factories.

+++++++++++++

145.218

Development & Inequality

Lesson
WEEKS 6-

Nicole Ashley
School of People, Environment & Planning

Cadey Korson

School of People, Environment & Planning

2019

Acknowledgement

This course was originally written and taught by Regina Scheyvens, and much of the material in the
modules is from her research. Since 2012 the course has been updated and revised by Sharon McLennan.

THIS MATERIAL IS PROTECTED BY COPYRIGHT AND HAS BEEN COPIED BY AND SOLELY FOR THE
EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES OF THE UNIVERSITY UNDER LICENCE.

YOU MAY NOT SELL, ALTER OR
FURTHER REPRODUCE OR DISTRIBUTE ANY PART OF THIS COURSE PACK/MATERIAL TO ANY OTHER
PERSON. WHERE PROVIDED TO YOU IN ELECTRONIC FORMAT, YOU MAY ONLY PRINT FROM IT FOR
YOUR OWN PRIVATE STUDY AND RESEARCH. FAILURE TO COMPLY WITH THE TERMS OF THIS
WARNING MAY EXPOSE YOU TO LEGAL ACTION FOR COPYRIGHT INFRINGEMENT AND/OR
DISCIPLINARY ACTION BY THE UNIVERSITY.

145.218 Study Guide Module 2 Class i

Contents

Figures

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. i

Readings

………………………………………………………………………………………………………. ii

What do we mean by ‘class’?

…………………………………………………………………………..

Week 6: Squatter Settlements and the Urban Underclass

………………………………………. 3
Learning Outcomes / Objectives ……………………………………………………………………… 3
Why Are There So Many Squatters? ……………………………………………………………….. 3
The Difference Between Slums And Squatter Settlements …………………………………

Slums …………………………………………………………………………………………………. 10
Squatter Settlements …………………………………………………………………………….. 10

Organised Action In Shanty Towns: Latin America ………………………………………….

Changes in Government Responses Over Time ……………………………………………….. 1

Warm Up Exercise ……………………………………………………………………………………….

Readings / Activities ……………………………………………………………………………………. 1

Reading 13 …………………………………………………………………………………………. 18
Reading 14 …………………………………………………………………………………………. 1

Optional Videos ………………………………………………………………………………….. 21

Summary ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 22
References ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 22

Week 7: Inequalities in the ‘New’ South Africa

…………………………………………………… 2

Learning Outcomes / Objectives ……………………………………………………………………. 25
South Africa ……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 25

Regina’s Experiences …………………………………………………………………………… 25
Inequality in South Africa …………………………………………………………………….. 2

Warm Up Exercise ………………………………………………………………………………………. 27
Readings / Activities ……………………………………………………………………………………. 28

Reading 15 …………………………………………………………………………………………. 28
Reading 16 …………………………………………………………………………………………. 30
Reading 17 …………………………………………………………………………………………. 30

Summary ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 31
References ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 31

Figures
Figure 1: The rich and the rest …………………………………….. Error! Bookmark not defined.

ii 145.218 Study Guide Module 2 Class

Figure 2: New Zealand inequality 1982-2012 ……………….. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 3: The largest cities in the world, 1950 and 2005 ……………………………………………..

Figure 4: Slum proportions in selected countries in Africa …………………………………………. 5
Figure 5: Slum proportions in selected countries in Asia ……………………………………………. 6
Figure 6: Slum proportions in selected countries in Latin America ……………………………… 6
Figure 7: Urban population living in slums ………………………………………………………………. 7

Readings

WEEK 6
Gilbert, A. (2014). Housing the Urban Poor. In V. Desai and R. B. Potter (eds.) The
Companion to Development Studies. Routledge, New York: 306-310.

Chambers, B. (2005). The Barriadas of Lima: Slums of Hope or Despair? Problems or
Solutions? Geography. 90(3): 200-224.

WEEK 7
Roberts, M. (1994). The Ending of Apartheid: Shifting Inequalities in South Africa.
Geography 79 (1): 53-64.

New Internationalist (1995) The New South Africa. New Internationalist: March.

Seekings, J. (2007). Poverty and Inequality after Apartheid. CSSR Working Paper No.
200. 1-

145.218 Study Guide Module 2 Class iii

What do we mean by ‘class’?

“Class is a group whose members share a common economic position,
differentiated in terms of power and status, and the chances of bettering
themselves in material terms” (Bradley, 1996)

In this module we examine how inequalities based on class, that is, people’s access to
economic resources and opportunities, influences our lives. The term ‘class’ has received
somewhat less attention in the literature and in the general media than other causes of
inequality (such as ethnicity and gender) however it remains a very important and useful
concept. Indeed, observant social science students might have noticed a re-emergence of
the concept in recent years – although not always labelled as such – with the Global
Financial Crisis and the rise of the Occupy movement, and the recent literature on
inequality (in particular books such as Wilkinson and Pickett’s The Spirit Level).

As Duncan (2009) notes, the term class refers to structured inequalities in the distribution
of wealth, status, and power, and these have existed in most, if not all, societies.
Differences in the opportunities and power an individual has largely depend on the rank,
order, caste, estate, or class into which they happen to be have been born. This is a good
point at which to pause and think about your own position in relation to class. What was
your family’s class group? What class would you consider yourself a part of now?
Although we might like to think of New Zealand as a relatively egalitarian society, the
Tom Scott cartoon below illustrates once aspect of class divisions in New Zea

land

society. Which queue do you identify with? Do you think there is much movement between
these queues?

2 145.218 Study Guide Module 2 Class

In this module we examine three specific topics which provide examples of class
inequalities.

The first topic on global crisis takes a wide angled look at some of the drivers of class
inequality, in particular the scale and impact of inequalities between nations related to
neoliberalism and the recent global financial crisis. It explains the origin and impacts of
the crisis, and the why it has become increasingly difficult for governments to invest in
education, health and other important sectors.

The second topic then looks specifically at the urban underclass, examining the lives of
people living in shanty towns. This blows apart some of the myths that abound about the
lack of productivity of the poor, and shows how cleverly they sometimes adapt to difficult
circumstances.

In the third topic, we shift to a country that is seen as one of the most ‘developed’ in the
African continent, but which struggles with vast inequalities: South Africa. While the
racially-based systematic discrimination that was in place under Apartheid was thankfully
put to rest in 1994, there have been growing class inequalities that have continued to
cause tensions in this fascinating country.

145.218 Study Guide Module 2 Class 3

Week 6: Squatter Settlements and the Urban
Underclass

Learning Outcomes / Objectives

At The End Of This Topic You Will:

• be able to see how many people living in squatter settlements are the product of

social injustice and of structures beyond their control.

• know the meaning of the term ‘struggle settlements’ and understand why they

evolved.

• be able to describe several innovative strategies used by squatters to encourage the

state to recognise them as citizens, treat them equally and provide them with

services.

• understand ways in which governments can utilise the initiative and drive of

squatters to develop housing within the city.

Why Are There So Many Squatters?

At the beginning of the 20th century only one in eight people lived in urban areas. By
2008 the world’s population passed the 50/50 threshold for the first time, and 54% of the
world’s population is now live in urban areas (U.N., 2014). The U.N. estimates that more
than 60% of world’s population will live in urban areas by 2030. The majority of these are
living in less-developed regions as most of the fastest growing and largest cities are in the
developing world (see figure 3). Many in these new mega-cities are not living in formal
housing (see figures 4, 5, 6, & 7). On average 43% of urban dwellers in the Third World
live in slums or squatter settlements, rising to 78% in the least developed countries. It is
estimated that 6% of the population of Western cities live in slum-like situations (New
Internationalist, 2003:7).

The slum and squatter problem has resulted from a number of factors:

• the failure of governments to invest in rural areas

4 145.218 Study Guide Module 2 Class

• development programmes (such as dams and forestry) which displace rural

peoples from their source of livelihood

• the effect of ‘green revolution’ style projects which force small farmers off the

land

• the failure of governments to invest in job creation in the cities

• inadequate state provision of housing

• population growth.

Figure 1: The largest cities in the world, 1950 and

2005

1950

2005

New York 12.3m 1

Tokyo 35.2m

London 10.4m 2

Mexico City 19.4m

Rhine-Ruhr 6.9m 3

New York 18.7m

Tokyo 6.7m 4

Sao Paulo 18.3m

Shanghai 5.8m 5

Mumbai 18.2m

Paris 5.5m 6

Delhi 15.1m

Buenos Aires 5.3m 7

Shanghai 14.5m

Chicago 4.9m 8

Kolkata 14.3m

Moscow 4.8m 9

Jakarta 13.2m

Calcutta 4.6m 10

Buenos Aires 12.4m

Los Angeles 4.0m 11

Dhaka 12.4m

Osaka 3.8m 12

Los Angeles 12.3m

Milan 3.6m 13

Karachi 11.6m

Bombay 3.0m 14

Rio de Janeiro 11.5m

Mexico City 3.0m 15

Osaka-Kobe 11.3m

Source: UN 1989, 2005b, in: Potter et al. 2008, p.386

145.218 Study Guide Module 2 Class 5

Figure 2: Slum proportions in selected countries in Africa

Source: UN-HABITAT, 2008: 34

6 145.218 Study Guide Module 2 Class

Figure 3: Slum proportions in selected countries in Asia

Source: UN-HABITAT, 2008: 36

Figure 4: Slum proportions in selected countries in Latin America

145.218 Study Guide Module 2 Class 7

Source: UN-HABITAT, 2008: 35

Figure 5: Urban population living in slums

Read the information on the following pages, from a New Internationalist
edition on squatter towns, gives an overview of urbanisation and squatter
settlements at the beginning of the twenty-first century.
New Internationalist (2006) Urban explosion: The facts. New
Internationalist 386, Jan/Feb

8 145.218 Study Guide Module 2 Class

145.218 Study Guide Module 2 Class 9

10 145.218 Study Guide Module 2 Class

The Difference Between Slums And Squatter Settlements

UN Habitat (n.d.) estimates that in order to provide housing and access to basic
infrastructure and services such as water and sanitation systems would require building
96,150 housing units per day from now till 2030. As most cities are not building houses at
anywhere near the rate required, people often have to find their own housing either in
existing inner city urban areas and buildings (slums) or ‘new’ land on which they build
their own dwellings (squatter settlements).

Slums
Inner city slums typically emerge in central city areas where the rich have moved out. As
these properties deteriorate they are subdivided and provide a home for the poor, who
welcome the close access to work and transport systems which their inner city location
provides. Such slums, however, are characterised by poor public service provision,
leading to poor health, hygiene and, often, crime.

Squatter Settlements
As opposed to slums, squatter settlements (also referred to as shanty towns) do not emerge
in existing buildings. They usually occur when people illegally occupy land and build
their own dwellings on it. Squatter settlements are a common solution to the problem of
inadequate urban housing. Around 2/5ths of the population of Third World cities live in
squatter settlements. Squatter settlements often reveal high levels of organisation.

In the most organised cases, squatter families, together with lawyers, identify unoccupied,
idle land that has owners who, they feel, will not contest a squatter invasion. Housing lots
and public buildings are staked out at night, when hundreds of families may rush in and
erect their crude dwellings. If the occupation is not contested, the squatters improve their
dwellings over time, replacing cardboard with bricks, plastic with corrugated iron.

In some cases, landowners and private developers have manipulated the squatters by
obtaining some urban infrastructure for them, thus enhancing the land value, then opening
the way for profitable housing construction. Squatters are then expelled from the land so
that this can go ahead (Castells, 1988).

Lucy Mair (1984) discusses the idea of slums of hope versus slums of despair (a theory
first devised by Stokes in 1962). Chambers (2005) also draws upon this idea in one of the
readings to follow. Stokes used the word ‘slum’ to refer to both slums and squatter
settlements. Slums of despair were home to the dropouts from society who became

145.218 Study Guide Module 2 Class 11

apathetic about their situation, thus replicating a ‘culture of poverty’, rather than actively
working to attain better things for themselves and their children. ‘Slums of hope’, by
contrast, were said to be home to the upwardly mobile, those who have higher aspirations
for themselves and their families, whether or not circumstances allow this to occur in
practice. They usually manage to find some source of livelihood, whether in wage labour
or the informal sector.

‘Slums of despair’ were said to be typically located in run-down buildings in the centre of
a city. The so-called ‘slums of hope’ are the squatter settlements described above, located
on the outskirts of the city where people can escape from the squalor of the inner city and
can build their own homes according to their needs.

Trivia question:
What do flamenco, hip hop, reggae, rock and roll, blues, jazz and
breakdance forms of music and dance have in common?
All arose in slum or squatter settlements where there was a mixing of diverse
cultures.

Organised Action In Shanty Towns: Latin America

From Van Garderen, 1989

Squatter settlements are very common in Latin American cities. However far from being a
chaotic free-for-all these often take very organised forms. There is often a set organisation
which a number of neighbourhoods form together and this has responsibility for:

• providing legal advice to people from the associated neighbourhoods.

• stimulating unity between the neighbourhoods.

• negotiating with government organisations on behalf of residents.

• organising demonstrations.

Demonstrations may include:

• peaceful protest marches through the central city, complaining about a lack of

services.

12 145.218 Study Guide Module 2 Class

• strikes.

• violent demonstrations (e.g. because of a 70% hike in bus fares in a Peruvian city

streets were blocked off and some buses were burnt).

Negotiating with government may include:

• letter writing and door knocking on the offices of politicians and government

ministries (e.g. Ministry of Housing, Ministry of Health) who could help them to

secure essential services.

• negotiating with the water supply and electricity company to provide their services

as cheaply as possible.

Changes in Government Responses Over Time

Governments have reacted to squatter settlements in a variety of ways:

1960-70 : Slum or squatter settlement clearance
1970-80 : Relocation, public housing
1980/90s+ : Slum or squatter settlement upgrading
(Boonyabancha 2005).

Governments, often with the help of groups such as UN-Habitat or NGOs, are
increasingly likely to focus on upgrading and improving squatter areas rather than
demolishing them. Unfortunately this isn’t always the case (you may have heard news
stories about favela clearances and demolitions prior to the FIFA World Cup and 2016
Olympics for example).

Warm Up Exercise

Before reading the essay by Gabriela Tôrres Barbosa on the following page on the
following page, make a list of words you would use to describe people who live in
squatter settlements/shanty towns:

145.218 Study Guide Module 2 Class 13

At the top of the hill
Gabriela Tôrres Barbosa, translated from Portuguese by Hjalmar-Jorge Joffre-Eichhorn.

Gabriela Tôrres Barbosa lives in one of Rio de Janeiro’s many favelas that stretch up the steep hillsides to surround the

‘official’ city.

I am really not feeling too well these days. My brain doesn’t

stop thinking. It seems like I am going crazy. I live in several

Brazils at the same time.

I wake up, drink English tea and sit down to study for a degree

that I could never pay for if it weren’t for the scholarship.

Today I study English, Philosophy and Sociology: all these

beautifully strange subjects invading my simple home – a home

I love the way it is, but would like to see finished one day.

I feel different from other people

They do not seem to care any longer

It looks like they have accepted their fate.

I will not accept mine

I am a stranger in the nest.

I wish to advise everyone that I like living in the favela. The

only thing I would like to change is that its inhabitants one day

have more options to choose from and can walk around freely

without other people getting scared when they hear the magic

word: ‘favela’. Sometimes when I talk to people and tell them

where I am from they are stunned and say: ‘Wow. You speak

so eloquently. Write beautiful things and are nicely dressed.

How is it possible?’

The newspapers don’t even bother to show

The ‘other’ favela.

Hey, You! Yeah, You.

Don’t get too caught up about the news you read,

There is so much more to say.

I invite you to walk up the morro

To meet the real favela.

14 145.218 Study Guide Module 2 Class

When you are born up there on top of the morro (hill), in the Zona Sul of Rio de Janeiro, it seems like your destiny has

been decided like an arrow that hits its target and leaves its mark forever. But it is not impossible to change your fate. It is

necessary to resist: to transform your reality.

To live in the favela is só alegria, all joy. When I come back to the communidade it is like a tribe – everybody knows me,

and people talk to each other and kiss and hug and genuinely take care of one another. In the favela I feel safe and

recognized; I have the freedom to be who I am without having to meet other people’s prejudices of how people like me are

supposed to be. To live in a communidade means an extension of one’s home. No-one will ever go hungry because there

will always be an open door and a gesture of solidarity.

Let there still be hope and future,

Sincerity and resilience.

And let it be authentic and pure,

the life of her that has little.

And that what she has will be enough

To bring her happiness.

The other day in a middle-class apartment building I noticed that people do not greet one another in the elevator. Many do

not even know their neighbours. If one day they needed help, it would be quite difficult to find it next door.

Brazilian Woman.

Indigenous, Black and White.

Favela Woman,

Born from a belly in the Senzala.

Samba Woman,

Dancing to the rhythm of life.

Nobody ever comes up here to film our fashion shows, our dances, our young people playing Capoeira (a famous martial

arts/dance originally brought to Brazil by the African slaves). Nobody wants to see all our culture, so beautiful and intense.

Yet it’s up here in the morros where one sees the hard and sweet reality that is not shown in the newspapers. Of course

drug trafficking exists. And all the violence shown on TV is also real; but it is obvious that the news gets manipulated to

increase ratings. In fact, all this violence is perpetuated by the same people that denounce it in the first place.

When the bullet leaves the gun

It is news in the papers.

But she who lives in the favela

Always knows so much more:

145.218 Study Guide Module 2 Class 15

the pagode starts at ten;

Seu Jorge is sick;

A new life has been born.

When I go to work with the homeless, I am confronted with all the energy and depression of those that society has

forgotten. Even the little bit they ask for – some kind of social inclusion – may be impossible. They sit in the eternal

waiting room of the excluded. I open the door of the community library and find our new books soaking wet. The water

coming in through the roof destroyed the bookshelf and I – totally impotent – cannot do anything. This library has always

been like a second home for me. I helped build it and here I learned how to be a storyteller. And now everything is lost.

They forget how to love,

How to love their country.

Detached from the respect

That they will owe it forever.

They never see you,

Country of the black,

Country of the poor,

Excluded from everything.

I walk up the Favela Santa Marta and notice all the different faces invisible to society. The kindergarten kids are awaiting

me anxiously and I can only offer them my voice, love and attention, and a handful of old books that they already know but

never get tired of seeing. And every time they listen to the stories their little eyes brighten as if they were hearing

something totally new. It makes me feel even more impotent and sad, and angry. I feel like I could have done more and

better.

Hypothetically

Impeded to act,

Impatient to live,

Impotent to be.

Imploring for freedom.

I walk back home on the wealthy streets of Botafogo where the beautiful and expensive cars of local private school

students block half the street and cause the same huge traffic jam twice a day. They think the whole city is at their service

like the empregadas (poor, usually black, maids) serving them 24 hours a day. And I keep walking. Past 10-year-old drug

dealers with machine guns bigger than themselves. Past 12-year-old mothers selling their little bodies for drugs, money or

the latest cellular phone. Past the 73-year-old lady selling chewing gum at the local cinema where people pay more for a

ticket than she earns in 3 days’ work.

16 145.218 Study Guide Module 2 Class

I never stopped dreaming.

I know that the poor don’t study:

The rich and powerful have told me many times.

But I also know that

if I really want to do it,

they cannot stop me.

I leave home a bit earlier and walk to university in order not to spend money on public transport. For so many years I tried

to get into university and now that I am finally ‘allowed’ to study, long walks or lack of money will not discourage me. If

there is one thing the favela teaches you from early on, it’s to improvise; to re-invent yourself every day. I sit down

comfortably in the university’s modern computer lab and take advantage of the technology available to enter the digital

world. The digital world! It is amazing how we keep creating things that could benefit humanity but that actually just

widen the gap between haves and have-nots. Then I sit in the lecture theatre –

Everything is now illusion,

Nothing really exists.

We live in a big play

That never goes beyond the last act.

The other day my literature professor had the gall to say: ‘If the Government built apartment buildings for the inhabitants

of the Santa Marta Favela, they would destroy everything within a week since they would not even know how to use the

bathroom.’ Obviously I could not let his remark go unchallenged. We fought for a few minutes, destroying the ‘civilized’

atmosphere of the university. I feel nauseous and guilty when I go home after class and see the woman with her crying

child asking people for money, or the homeless man battling his army of ghosts. It upsets me, this surreal middle-class

world of mediocrity and isolation. Everything is about consuming.

Let them jump freely,

With neither limits nor pain,

Let them jump freely,

Without fear or shame,

Let them fly freely,

Absorbing the essence of the air.

At the same time, I have made many friends from the middle class. I have the support of many people that encourage me

constantly and help me to keep going. They are people who see the world very clearly even though they were born into a

world of illusion. I feel much stronger after exchanging with them all the anguishes and limitations that plague our lives.

Perhaps my existence in these multiple Brazils may allow me to empower myself and attempt to change a few things with

more firmness and self-confidence.

145.218 Study Guide Module 2 Class 17

Once you have read the essay go back to your original list and see if you would change
any of the original words you used, or add any others.

To live is to allow for change,

Is being vulnerable at every moment,

Is to move towards the unknown,

Is everything and nothing.

And I would like to stress that I am not complaining about my condition. I even feel privileged to live with something

where others have nothing. How many 26-year-olds reach their age without having children? How many people are

allowed to study at university – to read and write; to live another language; to have their voices heard; to get a job they

like? How many?

I defy the statistics. But I do not want to do this on my own. I want to be joined by all the other excluded. All those so

conveniently forgotten. It may seem a bit idealistic to want everyone to be able to do such things. But if I cannot dream at

least a little, I won’t have the strength to continue.

My brain is my weapon. By constructing my ideals and dreams – transforming them into poetry – I can use my capacities

in favour of the excluded. Equipped with pencil and paper and lots of ideas, I will keep fighting: always searching for a

new reality for and with those that have never lost their hope.

I have to keep smiling in order to be able to survive in this jungle. And I will keep smiling even though I am sad, and I will

treat everyone with love and patience although they may not deserve it. The day I lose my smile, my life will end. I will not

let this happen.

The poor cannot allow that others rule their lives.

We have to fight from the moment we are born

till our last breath.

Cry out! Cry out if the cause is noble!

http://newint.org/features/2006/01/01/brazil/

18 145.218 Study Guide Module 2 Class

Readings / Activities

Reading 13

Gilbert, A. (2014). Housing the Urban Poor. In V. Desai and R. B. Potter (eds.)
The Companion to Development Studies. Routledge, New York, 257-262.

Why does Gilbert argue that ‘…the housing problem is not something that can
be solved by architects and planners’ (2014:306)?

‘…the third world housing problem is about politics and economics’ (Gilbert
2014:309). Explain this using examples.

145.218 Study Guide Module 2 Class 19

Reading 14

Chambers, B. (2005). The Barriadas of Lima: Slums of Hope or Despair
Problems or Solutions? Geography. 90(3): 200-224.

Describe the processes that have led to rapid growth of barriadas in and around
Lima.

Chambers argues that ‘the informal economics of barriadas may be a catalyst
for growth…’ (2005:200). How could this be so?

20 145.218 Study Guide Module 2 Class

The virtues of squatter settlements which governments can build on

Rents are either non-existent or very low, meaning families can provide for themselves
more effectively because they have more money to spend on food.

People can build to a standard they can afford and can improve their homes (e.g. adding
another storey, or replacing cardboard walls with bricks) as they can afford.

People can settle where it suits them best – e.g. rural migrants often settle near relatives
or people from their home area and this provides a crucial social support network and
safety net for those living below the poverty line. For example, they can still hold
ceremonies according to their customs, which helps to cushion people against the
alienation of city life.

Squatter settlements don’t impose inappropriate western planning restrictions, therefore
they can be places of small business employment as well as of residence.

Drawing on the two readings, discuss the difference between good and bad
public housing schemes for Third World cities:

145.218 Study Guide Module 2 Class 21

Drawing on the two readings, provide examples of effective strategies for
development devised in ‘slums of hope’.

Optional Videos

City of God
Based on a true story, this film portrays the harsh reality of growing up in a
Brazilian housing project, the City of God. Poverty, drugs, crime and
violence characterize the settlement. The story is narrated by Buscape, a poor
black youth who manages to escape the cycle of poverty and violence by
following his passion for photography and shooting pictures, not bullets.

Slumdog Millionaire

If you didn’t watch this earlier in the course, this would also be a good movie
to watch at this point. While not without its critics, it does give the viewer
insights into the lives of those living in shantytowns, their hope as well as
their often desperate circumstances.

22 145.218 Study Guide Module 2 Class

Summary

Squatter settlements house over half the population of some Third World cities and
squatters, those people who live in the settlements, are an integral part of the life of the
city. Their numbers are continuing to grow rapidly (see pp. 82-83 New Internationalist
article). They contribute to the city in many ways: by working there (some in professional
occupations), by educating their children and by improving the small pieces of land on
which they live.

To see them as a scar on the landscape, something abhorrent to be hidden away or
bulldozed over and shunted out of town, is to deny the reasons behind their basic
existence. Most would not have left the rural areas if their chances of making a livelihood
there were better. That rural areas are finding it increasingly difficult to sustain people’s
lives is a result of the lack of government investment in these areas, the vagaries of the
global economic system, and high population growth rates.

This topic area has shown the courage and strength of squatters. Rather than being
powerless, desperate groups of people, they have shown themselves to be dynamic,
innovative and capable of high levels of organisation. It has also provided examples of
different strategies of dealing with squatters, finding that there are very constructive ways
in which governments can improve their cities by building upon the initiative that
squatters demonstrate.

References

Auty, R.M. (1995). Patterns of Development: Resources, Policy and Economic Growth.
E. Arnold, London, 140-147.

Boonyabancha, S. (2005). Baan Mankong: going to scale with slum and squatter
upgrading in Thailand. Environment and Urbanization. 17(1):21-46.

Castells, M. (1988). Squatters and the State in Latin America. J. Gugler (ed). The
Urbanisation of the Third World. Oxford University Press, Oxford, 338-350.

Dixon, C. and Drakakis-Smith, D. (1997). Uneven Development in South East Asia.
Aldershot, Hants.

145.218 Study Guide Module 2 Class 23

Drakakis-Smith, D. (1988). Housing. In M Pacione (ed). The Geography of the Third
World. Routledge, London, 148-197.

Higgins, B. (1990). The place of housing programs and class relations in Latin American
cities: The case of Managua before 1980. Economic Geography 66: 378-388.

Neuhouser, K. (1995). “Worse than men”: Gendered mobilization in an urban Brazilian
Squatter settlement, 1971-91. Gender and Society 9(1): 38-59.

New Internationalist (2006) Squatter Town: The South’s Urban Explosion. New
Internationalist 386, Jan/Feb

Potter, R.B., Binns, T., Elliott, J.A. and Smith, D. (2008) ‘Urban spaces’ in Geographies
of Development. Prentice Hall: Pearson, pp. 381-441.

Staples, J. (2007). Livelihoods at the Margins: Surviving the City. Life Coast Press,
Walnut Creek.

United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division (2014).
World Urbanization Prospects: The 2014 Revision, Highlights (ST/ESA/SER.A/352).
Retrieved from http://esa.un.org/unpd/wup/Highlights/WUP2014-Highlights

UN-Habitat (2003). The Challenge of Slums: Global Report on Human Settlements.
Earthscan, London.

UN-Habitat (2006). The state of the World’s Cities Report 2006/2007: The Millennium
Development Goals and Urban Sustainability. Earthscan, London.

UN-Habitat (2008). The state of the World’s Cities Report 2010/2011 Bridging the Urban
Divide. Earthscan, London. Retrieved from

UN-Habitat. (n.d.) Housing and Slum Upgrading. Retrieved from
http://unhabitat.org/urban-themes/housing-slum-upgrading

Van Garderen, T. (1989). Collective action in squatter settlements in Arequipa, Peru. In
F. Schuurman and T. van Naerssen (eds). Urban Social Movements in the Third World.
Routledge, London, 27-44.

http://esa.un.org/unpd/wup/Highlights/WUP2014-Highlights

http://unhabitat.org/urban-themes/housing-slum-upgrading

24 145.218 Study Guide Module 2 Class

145.218 Study Guide Module 2 Class 25

Week 7: Inequalities in the ‘New’ South Africa

Learning Outcomes / Objectives

At The End Of This Topic You Will:

• be able to provide examples of how class inequalities are intensifying in the new

South Africa.

• understand how space was manipulated by the ruling elite under the apartheid

regime in order to disadvantage black Africans.

• explain how the apartheid system engineered group divisions among the oppressed

in order to support a ‘divide and rule’ strategy.

South Africa

The ‘new’ South Africa may at first seem better positioned under the ethnicity module,
but the readings referred to will soon show you why class inequalities have become
increasingly significant in South Africa. The readings also reveal the complex ways in
which class and ethnic inequalities may overlap. In the former South Africa the privileges
of white people were enshrined in the law and, correspondingly, they were economically
much better off than most coloureds and blacks.

South Africa provides an excellent example of how inequalities can be stressed through
the conscious manipulation of space. By looking at homelands and townships in South
Africa, human geographers can come to understand how the manipulation of space can
disadvantage certain groups within a society, and even turn members of certain ethnic
groups against one another (see Taylor, 1991).

Regina’s Experiences

From May – July 1998 I was in Southern Africa as part of a period of sabbatical leave
which was granted so that I could conduct research on community involvement in eco-
tourism.

26 145.218 Study Guide Module 2 Class

A newspaper article which appeared during my time in South Africa seemed to epitomize
the problems that the country is having in overcoming the apartheid legacy. The article
discussed the case of a black man who had been beaten badly by a white farmer while
driving his cart down a rural road. The white man was apparently incensed by what the
black man’s vehicle represented: his cart was pulled by two donkeys, one white and one
black. On a plaque on the back of the cart he had written ‘the new South Africa’.

While discrimination based on colour is still the most evident form of inequality to the
visitor in South Africa, the phenomenon of class is also gaining increasing weight as a
social division. This increases conflict particularly within impoverished black
communities where so many people are competing with each other to try and receive the
economic rewards of their newly democratic country. The government has struggled to
provide sufficient housing, services and the all-important employment opportunities to
keep the underclass satisfied. For example, competition between an emerging class of
entrepreneurs was manifested in the ‘taxi wars’ which were responsible for 90% of
murders during my time in Johannesburg. ‘Taxis’ in South Africa are minibuses that
serve as communal buses and are well utilised by the black community. The industry is
not regulated, however, and owners of minibuses will often compete for lucrative routes,
paying hitmen to shoot rival taxi drivers and burn out their minibuses. We witnessed one
such incident in Soweto.

Years of inequality enshrined in legislation have made for a very difficult situation in this
otherwise rich and beautiful country. The ‘solutions’ required to overcome inequality will
necessarily be complex, and must be sensitive to ethnicity, gender and class.

Inequality in South Africa

It is now over 20 years since the first free multi-racial elections in South Africa in 1994,
but this has not been matched by a movement from poverty to prosperity for most of the
country’s citizens. South Africa has one of the highest Gini coefficients in the world. It
reached a peak of about 0.72 in the late 2000s, one of the highest ever recorded (van der
Berg, 2014). The ‘Black Economic Empowerment Policy’, initiated by the post-Apartheid
government to address black economic inequality has, in reality, enabled a minority of
blacks to accrue large amounts of wealth thanks to preferential access to employment and
management positions. As such, while while inequality between ethnic groups has
decreased, intra-group inequality has increased (Leibbrandt et al, 2012).

145.218 Study Guide Module 2 Class 27

In 2000, a poverty and inequality report published by the South African government
revealed that:

• 61% of black families lived below the poverty line

• only 2.7% of whites lived below the poverty line, but this had increased from only

1% in 1994

• unemployment of whites doubled from 3.3% in 1994 to 6.8% in 1999 (Harman,

2001:1).

Warm Up Exercise

Do you watch Super 14 rugby, or did you follow the 2010 FIFA world cup in
South Africa? Perhaps you have seen news reports or documentaries on South
Africa? Think about images of South Africa presented to different viewers.

New Zealand has also seen considerable in-migration from mainly white South
Africans, who may be your friends, neighbours or colleagues. If you’re a more
‘mature’ student, you may recall protests over the Springboks tour in 1981.
Drawing on the eclectic range of background information you may have on this
fascinating country, jot down your ideas on opportunities available to black
Africans and to whites in the ‘new South Africa’:

Black Africans Whites

Do you think all people have the same opportunities and rights under the post-apartheid
regime?

28 145.218 Study Guide Module 2 Class

Readings / Activities

Reading 15

Roberts, M. (1994). The Ending of Apartheid: Shifting Inequalities in South
Africa. Geography 79 (1): 53-64.

List the central features of the apartheid ideology

Discuss inequalities associated with the creation of homelands

145.218 Study Guide Module 2 Class 29

Note inequalities associated with the creation of townships

Discuss perceptions of changes in the new South Africa for the following
groups

Whites

Middle class blacks and Asians

The majority of blacks

30 145.218 Study Guide Module 2 Class

Reading 16

New Internationalist (1995) The New South Africa. New Internationalist:
March.

What examples do
a) the New Internationalist, and
b) Roberts
provide of how inequalities are shifting within the new South Africa?

Reading 17

Seekings, J. (2007). Poverty and Inequality after Apartheid. CSSR Working
Paper No. 200. 1-13

What disadvantages do lower classes face in South Africa?

145.218 Study Guide Module 2 Class 31

Provide evidence of increases in income poverty, despite economic growth, in
the new South Africa.

Summary

In South Africa the separation according to racial classification has disappeared in a legal
sense but another inequality is growing stronger: separation by income. Inequalities
between rich and poor are greater than ever. Seekings (2007: 1) concludes that “economic
growth alone will not reduce poverty or inequality”.

How can these divisions be countered? Only by addressing material inequalities and
reordering the structures of society. The BEE (Black Economic Empowerment)
programme and social support mechanisms have sought to do this. However they have
also faced problems as the country pursued neoliberal growth strategies under which plans
to overcome structural inequalities were often scaled back.

References

van der Berg (2014) South Africa will remain a hugely unequal society for a long time.
The Conversation. Retrieved from
https://theconversation.com/south-africa-will-remain-a-hugely-unequal-society-for-a-
long-time-25949

https://theconversation.com/south-africa-will-remain-a-hugely-unequal-society-for-a-long-time-25949

32 145.218 Study Guide Module 2 Class

Binns, T. (1998). ‘Geography and development in the ‘new’ South Africa’. Geography
358: 3.

Harman, D. (2001). In South Africa: Poverty Tinged with a New Colour Christian
Science Monitor 93(159):1.

Kotzé, H., du Toit, P., Khunou, G., Steenekamp, C.L., Burger, R., van der Berg, S., Zock,
A. & Krige, D. (n.d.) The Emergent South African Middle Class. University of
Stellenbosch Research Division. Retrieved from
http://resep.sun.ac.za/index.php/projects/emergent-middle-class-in-south-africa/

Lawuyi, O.B. (1998). ‘Local/Global Encounters – Democracy and Resistance in South
Africa’. Development 4: 49.

Leibbrandt, M., Finn, A. & Woolard, I (2012) Describing and decomposing post-apartheid
income inequality in South Africa, Development Southern Africa, 29:1, 19-34

Lemon, A. and Battersby-Lennard, J. (2009). Emerging geographies of school provision
in Cape Town, South Africa. Geography 94 (2): 79-87.

Lester, A. (1998). ‘Impressions of a new South Africa”. Focus 45(2):1.

Mayekiso, M. and Sessions, A. (1997). ‘Township politics: Civic struggles for a new
South Africa’. Critical Sociology 23(2): 117.

Peet, R. (2002). Ideology, discourse, and the geography of hegemony: from socialst to
neoliberal development in Postapartheid south Africa. Antipode 34(1): 54-84.

Rogerson, C. (2000). The economic and social geography of South Africa: Progress
beyond apartheid. Tijdschrift voor Economische en Socale Geografie. 91(4): 335-346.

Seekings, J and Nattrass, N. (2005). Class, Race and Inequality in South Africa. Yale
University Press.

Taylor, R. (1991). The Myth of Ethnic Division: Township Conflict on the Reef. Race
and Class 33 (2): 1-14.

http://resep.sun.ac.za/index.php/projects/emergent-middle-class-in-south-africa/

Summary
References
The virtues of squatter settlements which governments can build on
Week 7: Inequalities in the ‘New’ South Africa
Learning Outcomes / Objectives
South Africa
Regina’s Experiences
Inequality in South Africa
Warm Up Exercise
Readings / Activities
Reading 15
Reading 16
Reading 17
Summary
References

145.218

Development & Inequality

Lesson Week 1-2

Nicole Ashley
School of People, Environment & Planning

Cadey Korson

School of People, Environment & Planning

2019

Acknowledgement

This course was originally written and taught by Regina Scheyvens, and much of the material in the
modules is from her research. Since 2012 the course has been updated and revised by Sharon McLennan.

THIS MATERIAL IS PROTECTED BY COPYRIGHT AND HAS BEEN COPIED BY AND SOLELY FOR THE
EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES OF THE UNIVERSITY UNDER LICENCE.

145.218 Study Guide Introductory Module i

Contents

Readings:

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ii

Introduction

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 1
Learning Outcomes: ………………………………………………………………………………………. 1
1. Why Study Inequality? ………………………………………………………………………………. 1
2. Studying Inequality ……………………………………………………………………………………. 2
3. Why Study Ethnicity, Gender and Class? ……………………………………………………… 3
4. How Are Power And Inequality Related? …………………………………………………….. 5

Warm-up Exercise

…………………………………………………………………………………………………. 5

Regina’s experience of social divisions and inequality

……………………………………………….. 5
Your Experiences Of Social Divisions And Inequality ………………………………………. 7

Week 1: Readings and Activities

…………………………………………………………………………….. 8
1. What is development? ………………………………………………………………………………… 8
2. Measuring Development …………………………………………………………………………… 10
3. Optional Activities …………………………………………………………………………………… 21

Week 2: Readings and Activities

…………………………………………………………………………… 23
1. What is inequality? ………………………………………………………………………………….. 23
2. Analysing Inequality ………………………………………………………………………………… 25
3. Inequality in New Zealand ………………………………………………………………………… 31
4. Optional Activities …………………………………………………………………………………… 34

Summary

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 36

Glossary

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 38

References

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 39
Background reading …………………………………………………………………………………….. 40

ii 145.218 Study Guide Introductory Module

Readings:
WEEK 1
Greiner, A.L. (2014) ‘Geographies of development’. In Visualizing Human Geography.
Wiley, pp.263-295

Todaro, M. & Smith, S. (2012). What do we mean by development? In Economic
Development (pp. 14–23). Pearson Education Ltd.

WEEK 2
Thekaekara, M. M. (1999). ‘Calvin Klein and the Tea Pickers’. New Internationalist,
March: 12-15.

Rashbrooke, M. (2013). ‘Why inequality matters’. In Rashbrooke, M. (ed.) In Inequality:
A New Zealand Crisis. Bridget Willams Books, pp.1-17

145.218 Study Guide: Introductory Module 1

Introduction
Learning Outcomes:

At the end of this topic on understanding development and
inequality you will:

• Have broadened your understanding of various
dimensions of development and inequality.

• Be able to name several different ways of measuring
development and inequality.

• Understand the impact of inequality on development
outcomes.

1. Why Study Inequality?
Feedback from past students doing this course indicates that they learned a great deal
about the impact of ‘development’ on people’s lives and that they gained deeper insights
into some current global issues. Not surprisingly, however, they also found that studying
inequality can also be somewhat depressing. Why, then, do we persist in teaching this
topic? Taylor (1992:20) has conveniently provided me with two very good reasons:

1 He argues that ‘…global inequalities are going to become the most important

political issue in the world in the wake of the demise of the Cold War’.

2 Taylor goes on to say that ‘…understanding global inequalities is a key stage in the

process of overcoming them’.

Taylor’s first point has proved prescient. From the revelations of the Global Financial
Crisis and the Occupy movement to the release of documentaries such as Inequality for
All (Kornbluth, 2013), and the publication of top-selling books on inequality including
Wilkinson and Pickett’s (2010) The Spirit Level and Piketty’s (2014) Capital in the
Twenty-first Century, discussions of inequality have become highly prominent in global
politics. New Zealand has not been exempt from this, with the publication of the book
Inequality: A New Zealand Crisis (Rashbrooke, 2013) and a steady stream of commentary
on the issue from politicians and the media. These all go some way towards addressing
Taylor’s second point, that understanding inequalities is a key stage in overcoming them.

http://encore.massey.ac.nz/iii/encore/record/C__Rb3271337

http://encore.massey.ac.nz/iii/encore/record/C__Rb2212209

http://encore.massey.ac.nz/iii/encore/record/C__Rb3112549

http://encore.massey.ac.nz/iii/encore/record/C__Rb2788263

145.218 Study Guide: Introductory Module 2

This course is designed to help you better understand global inequalities and how they
might be addressed. As you work through the course you may also want to give some
thought to the following quote:

‘Like slavery and apartheid, poverty is not natural. It is man-made and it
can be overcome and eradicated by the actions of human beings’.
Nelson Mandela, 2005.

2. Studying Inequality
Throughout the course we will refer to a wide range of maps, graphs and other
media to explore inequality and development. To begin, we take a global view.
Take a look at Figure 1 below (Figure 9.1 from Greiner, 2014 – Reading 1, p.265).
If poverty is indeed ‘man-made’, why is it that so many of the world’s low-
income countries are concentrated in Africa, South Asia, and South-East Asia?
(think of processes of colonization, exploitation of labour and natural resources).

Figure 1: Global inequality and economic development

Optional: The inequalities between nations can also be explored using National
Geographic’s interactive map of “The World of Seven Billion1”.

1 http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2011/03/age-of-man/map-interactive?

http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2011/03/age-of-man/map-interactive?utm_content=bufferdc8a9&utm_medium=social&utm_source=twitter.com&utm_campaign=buffer

145.218 Study Guide: Introductory Module 3

While Figure 1 and the National Geographic map give a global view of the impact of
inequality, research has shown that inequality within a country can have a significant
impact on the well-being of all people. High rates of income inequality within countries
coincides with: a) higher rates of poverty; b) slow rates of economic growth; c) high rates
of unemployment; and d) high crime rates (Wade, 2004, p. 582). While we tend to
associate these impacts with the lower income countries, this is increasingly also a
concern in high income countries (including New Zealand). This is revealed in Wilkinson
and Picket’s 2009 book The Spirit Level: Why More Equal Societies Almost Always Do
Better, which focuses on high income countries. Wilkinson and Pickett found that for
eleven different health and social problems (physical health, mental health, drug abuse,
education, imprisonment, obesity, social mobility, trust and community life, violence,
teenage pregnancies, and child well-being) outcomes are significantly worse in more
unequal countries. As such, although the primary focus of this course is on global
inequalities and inequalities within lower income nations, we will also explore the impacts
of inequality in rich nations including New Zealand. This will raise some interesting
questions about the nature of development and what we mean by the term ‘developed’
nation.

3. Why Study Ethnicity, Gender and Class?
Inequality is often discussed in terms of income (including in the studies cited above),
however the social divisions that social scientists believe exert the greatest influence and
carry the most explanatory power are those associated with class, gender and ethnicity.
These divisions shape societies, determining how wealth, opportunities, resources
(material and cultural) and life chances are distributed between different groups in society.
This distribution is typically uneven and leads to many inequalities.

There are other social divisions as well of course; age, physical and mental disability,
come to mind for me. You can probably think of some other social divisions. The main
ones we will examine in this course are discussed in the following box:

145.218 Study Guide: Introductory Module 4

Why Are Gender, Ethnicity And Class Of Interest To Geographers?

Because they are social processes and all social processes have spatial form. Social
processes, such as class, gender and ethnicity, result in spatial forms and
distributions. Nothing happens on the head of a pin. The best way to explain this is by
use of examples.

Ethnicity manifested in space:

The location of a hydroelectric dam in a valley which once provided the
subsistence needs of an indigenous people results in their displacement to the
streets of an overcrowded city; here, distanced from their source of livelihood,
from religious sites and from their land, which has spiritual significance for them,
their culture quickly erodes.

SOCIAL DIVISIONS

1. Class

Class inequalities arise from the differential access of

different groups to economic goods, resources and
opportunities.

2. Gender

Inequalities of gender are associated with the differential:
– status accorded to men and women
– opportunities open to men and women
– the power and influence men and women exert.

3. Ethnicity

Inequalities associated with ethnicity refer to situations

where one group is disadvantaged in comparison to
another because of its ethnic characteristics.

(Open University, 1991)

145.218 Study Guide: Introductory Module 5

Gender manifested in space:
Multinational corporations locate factories in certain Asian countries where there
is a large pool of reserve labour; here they choose to employ mainly females who
are seen to possess desirable cultural traits, such as being docile and not
participating in political activities.

Class manifested in space:
Exploitation of rural peasants by large landowners forces the peasants to move to
towns where they occupy shanty towns or ghettos within a city.

4. How Are Power And Inequality Related?
Different social classes, gender groups and ethnic groups have different degrees of power,
influence and authority in any society. They also have unequal access to wealth, goods
and material resources and consequently there are significant degrees of inequalities
between them.

The powerful are able to amass wealth, have higher incomes, own a greater share of the
property and purchase more goods and resources than those with less
power. Interestingly, world leaders have the power to divert more resources to
overcoming poverty and inequality at their fingertips, but they choose not to do
this. Instead, they continue to devote 20 times as much expenditure to military purposes
than what is spent on aid projects (Fickling, 2004). Thus world leaders do not lack the
resources to educate the world’s children, they lack the political will. This provides a clear
example of how power and inequality are related. We will be exploring this relationship
further throughout the course.

Warm-up Exercise
Regina’s experience of social divisions and inequality

Through travelling overland from Indonesia to Turkey, and doing
research in the Solomon Islands, Papua New Guinea and Southern
Africa, I have witnessed inequality on a number of different scales.In
several countries there were certain ‘sensitive’ areas where travellers
were forbidden from venturing unless they had special permission.
These areas included East Timor and the northern areas of Sulawesi in

145.218 Study Guide: Introductory Module 6

Indonesia, the Chittagong hill tracts in Bangladesh and Kashmir, India, where stones were
thrown at my bus by independence fighters angry at the Indian government. While the
inhabitants of these regions are labelled dissidents by the government because of their
struggle for independence, in most cases they have experienced extreme hardship and
outright repression at the hands of the state.

In Calcutta, poverty was prevalent. People begging, sleeping, cooking, raising their
families and delivering babies on the street was testament to this. This was no place to
feel sorry, however, for the ‘human horses’ who pulled the rickshaws around the busy
streets both day and night for we learned that, while exploitation at the hands of
moneylenders, landlords and the police was likely, those who had a rickshaw to pull at
least had some income to bring home to their family at night.

In the Solomon Islands and Papua New Guinea, agricultural programmes continually
targeted men even though women were traditionally the chief agriculturalists and had
much knowledge about effective ways of cultivating their land. Similarly, girls were kept
out of school because they were more useful at home than boys, and because most girls
would eventually move away to live with their husband’s family, so their education was
seen as being of little use to their own family.

In Southern Africa, wonderful game parks had been created out of land that once provided
the basis of livelihoods for thousands of indigenous Africans. While safari operators and
governments reap the economic benefits of these parks and predominantly white tourists
feast their eyes on the aesthetic beauty of Africa’s wildlife, the impoverished people
surrounding the parks have often been denied access to resources such as water, meat,
craft materials and medicinal plants from within the parks.

And let us not forget, inequality exists ‘at home’ as well. Whether it is from media reports
on landlords not wanting Asian or Pacific Island or Maori tenants, statistics on the
growing gap between the ‘rich’ and ‘poor’ in New Zealand, or an acquaintance speaking
with sadness of how her 5 year old son came home from school stating ‘Mum, I wish I
could change my brown skin to ‘white’, it is clear that New Zealand does not offer all
citizens the same opportunities.

145.218 Study Guide: Introductory Module 7

Your Experiences Of Social Divisions And Inequality
What experiences of inequality have you had, either personally or what you
have witnessed, either in New Zealand or overseas? (Try to identify it as either
class, ethnic or gender inequality).

145.218 Study Guide: Introductory Module 8

Week 1: Readings and Activities

1. What is development?

What do you think ‘development’ involves? List your ideas below:

Required reading

Read page 264 of Reading 1 (Greiner, 2014): What is Development?

What is Greiner’s definition of development? How does this relate to the list you wrote?

This is a good point at which to start your own glossary. Use a Word
document or pen & paper to list terms you are unfamiliar with or
which have multiple definitions (such as development), adding
definitions as you come across them in the course materials and
readings. You can also check the Stream glossary for this course.

Did your list include anything about a fair distribution of resources or wealth? How
might inequality relate to Greiner’s definition of development?

Were you thinking about Western countries as well when devising your list?

Figure 2 (Figure 16.4 from Dicken, 2011) clearly shows development problems
exist within supposedly highly ‘developed’ countries, and Figure 3 (Figure 16.12
from Dicken, 2011) shows there are major inequalities emerging within rapidly
developing countries such as China. Even here in New Zealand, income
inequality is on the rise: the bottom 50% of the population had only 7% of the
wealth in 2001, while the top 10% had 48% of the wealth (Easton, 2012).

145.218 Study Guide: Introductory Module 9

While Western countries are conred ‘developed’, the unequal distribution of
wealth and resources means that development does not bring ‘changes in
economic prosperity and the quality of life’ to all. Keep this in mind as we move
on to consider how we might measure development.

Figure 2: Counties within the USA with high levels of economic distress

Source: Dicken (2011), pp. 487

145.218 Study Guide: Introductory Module 10

Figure 3: Income inequalities within China

Source: Dicken (2011), pp. 491

2. Measuring Development

2a. Economic Measurements

Required reading

Reading 1: Greiner, 2014. Economic Indicators pp. 264–267
Reading 2: Todaro, M. & Smith, 2012. What do we mean by development:
Traditional economic measures pp. 14-16

145.218 Study Guide: Introductory Module 11

Gross National Income / Gross Domestic Product

GNP and GNI have long been used as a measures of development.
Indeed the first map we asked you to look at was based on GNI. Take
careful note of Greiner’s and Todaro & Smith’s explanations and
write out definitions of these terms (and add to your glossary).

GNI and GNP still used by economists and politicians, however as measures of
development they have fallen out of favour. Reasons for this include:

 They do not include the value of subsistence goods (such as food) which

people produce for themselves.
 They do not consider purchasing power; the same amount of money will

buy different things in different countries.

Measuring development in terms of consumption

Some people have suggested that development should be measured in terms of
consumption, rather than in terms of income or production. A ‘light-hearted’
example of this is the Big Mac index published annually by The Economist. This
index is based on the theory of purchasing-power parity (PPP – see Reading 1,
Greiner, p.267). Figure 4 is based on this data, and shows how many minutes it
would take a minimum wage worker in various cities to earn enough money to
buy a Big Mac.

http://www.economist.com/content/big-mac-index

145.218 Study Guide: Introductory Module 12

List any problems you may foresee with this ways of measuring
development:

One reason why these things may not be considered as good indicators of
development is that they can be harmful for people. In 1979 Smith published a
similar graphic showing the time taken to earn the price of a car and a packet of
cigarettes. He noted that:

…cigarettes cause illness and death, which imposes costs on individual smokers and their
families and also on the community that pays the price of medical care….Shortage of cars
may be a conventional indicator of underdevelopment, but part of the price of mobility
they bring is death on the roads, environmental degradation and air pollution. (Smith,
1979, p. 66)

145.218 Study Guide: Introductory Module 13

Figure 4: Minutes of minimum wage work to buy a Big Mac

Poverty Lines

Another largely economic measure is poverty lines. These are usually set by
governments and are therefore not particularly useful for between-country
comparisons, although they may generate some useful data for the analysis of
poverty within countries. The World Bank has however established two
international poverty lines – the frequently quoted US$1.25/day and US$2/day
lines. As Greiner (2014) notes, the number of people living in extreme poverty
(less than US$1.25/day) has dropped significantly although, as we will see later
in this module, this drop has been offset by a rise in inequality.

http://www.ibtimes.com/minutes-minimum-wage-work-buy-big-mac-36-minutes-us-6-hours-afghanistan-1392339

145.218 Study Guide: Introductory Module 14

Look at the chart on page 268 of reading 1 (Greiner, 2014). Which
regions have experienced the most change? In which regions has
poverty levels not changed or become worse? What are some of the
reasons for change?

2b. Social, demographic and environmental development indicators:

Required reading
Reading 1: Greiner, 2014. Socio-demographic Indicators, Environmental
Indicators, Development and Gender-Related Indicators, Environment and
Development pp.267–277

145.218 Study Guide: Introductory Module 15

List the socio-economic, environmental and gender-related indexes
identified by Greiner. Can you think of any others?

The Human Development Index (HDI) was created by Pakistani economist
Mahbub ul Haq and the Indian economist Amartya Sen and adopted by the
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) in 1990. It is a composite
index which uses three indicators to compute a value between 0 and 1, which can
be used as a relative measure of development. It is now one of the most often
quoted measures of development.

What are the three indicators used to generate the HDI?

1. __________________________________________________________________
2. __________________________________________________________________
3. __________________________________________________________________

Compare the map of HDI on page 272 of Reading 1 (Greiner) with

the map of GNI on page 265 of the same reading. What are the
similarities and differences? Does anything surprise you?

145.218 Study Guide: Introductory Module 16

2c. Alternative measures of development

Required reading
Reading 1. Greiner, 2014: Bhutan’s quest for gross national happiness
p.262
Reading 2. Todaro, M. & Smith, 2012: Amartya Sen’s “capability”
approach, Development and happiness, Three core values of development pp.
16-23
Reading 3. Thekaekara, 1999: Calvin Klein and the tea-pickers -all

Coates (1992) suggests that many geographers have biased people’s perceptions
of the world by giving so much attention to patterns of consumption or
production. For example, because people from certain countries produce less or
consume less than those in the West, it has been suggested that their countries are
underdeveloped or that the people are inferior.

Coates’ (1992, p. 11) alternative suggestions for how we could measure
development include:

• Self-esteem
• Happiness or laughter
• Self-fulfilment
• Personal relationships

These suggestions are echoed by Sen and Goulet (In Reading 2:
Todaro and Smith). Sen rejects the idea that poverty can be measured
by income. Explain his alternative ‘capabilities’ approach to
understanding poverty:

145.218 Study Guide: Introductory Module 17

Also, take note of the way in which Sen defines development and his argument
that development should be concerned with enhancing the freedoms we enjoy as
this is an idea we will return to in our discussions of inequality next week.

Todaro discusses the ideas of Professor Goulet who argues that there are three
core values of development:

a) Basic needs or life sustenance (food, shelter, health and protection).

b) Self-esteem (a sense of worth and self-respect, dignity, honour or

recognition).

c) Freedom from servitude – to be able to choose (people should not be

slaves to other people, to ignorance, to misery or to dogmatic
beliefs). Freedom involves the expanded range of choices for
societies and their members together with the minimisation of
external constraints in the pursuit of development.

Did the ideas on development which you jotted down earlier in this module cover
these three elements? Chances are that only basic needs were covered. It is
important that you realise the significance of these other elements of development
as well.

Another suggested measure of development is happiness, which is based on
individual values. As such it is even more difficult to measure than freedom. To
some people it is found in material possessions, while to others it may be more
spiritual, or intangible, including trips to the countryside, relationships with
people or a trip to see their favourite band. It can only be judged by individuals.
The attraction and difficulty of measuring happiness is discussed by Todaro and
Smith (p.19).

What are some of the factors that contribute to happiness? How might these
be measured?

145.218 Study Guide: Introductory Module 18

One measure of happiness in development is the Happy Planet Index which uses
life expectancy (from UNDP data), life satisfaction (from the Gallup World Poll),
and a nation’s ecological footprint (from WWF data) to give a score. The score is
calculated as follows:

Figure 5: Happy Planet Index 2016: Top Ranked Countries

Source: http://www.happyplanetindex.org/

Compare the Happy Planet Index (figure 5 and online at
http://www.happyplanetindex.org/data), with the maps of GNI,
poverty and HDI in Greiner. What are the similarities and differences?
Does anything surprise you?

Homepage

http://www.happyplanetindex.org/data

145.218 Study Guide: Introductory Module 19

Note that NZ ranked 29th in the 2016 Index. What does this tell us
about development in NZ?

Despite the difficulties in measuring happiness the concept remains attractive,
and now world leaders seem keen on following Bhutan’s lead in promoting ‘gross
National Happiness’ (see Figure 6).

Figure 6: The Telegraph – Leaders want happy nations

145.218 Study Guide: Introductory Module 20

Source: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/wordnews/asia/bhutan/8355042/

Gross National Happiness is just one alternative measure of development
proposed by academics over the years. Smith (1979, p. 77) suggests that as
an alternative to production or consumption, we could measure security
(e.g. from war, from domestic violence, from physical discomfort).
Meanwhile, Sidaway (2002, p. 18) lists a number of ‘alternative visions’ of
development, including ‘democracy, popular culture, resourcefulness and
environmental impacts’, which, if considered as legitimate measures of
development, ‘would transform the imagined map of more or less
developed countries’. He also makes the important point that our
discussions of poverty and destitution too often overlook how these
problems are manifested in Western contexts, while the overconsumption
habits of Westerners are also conveniently ignored.

All of the measurements have one thing in common. They are designed by
outside experts, academics and leaders. In Reading 3 Thekaekara highlights
a different perspective – that of the ‘subjects’ of development.

145.218 Study Guide: Introductory Module 21

What does ‘wealth’ mean to the Indian tribal people discussed in this article?

How do they see themselves as ‘better off’ than some people in Western
Countries?

3. Optional Activities

Hire out the video ‘City of Joy’ (NB. This is quite old now and
there is only one copy in the Massey library, so you may need to
source it through an on-line store).

‘City of Joy’ provides excellent insights into the lives of Third World peoples. It
centres around the lives of a poor rural family who lose their farm to money-
lenders after two years of no rain. They decide to move to Calcutta. They end up
living in a squatter settlement known as the ‘City of Joy’. This video exposes the
desperate poverty faced by many people in this world but it also shows that some
of their basic concerns are similar to those of you and I: to provide a home and
food for their families, to send their children to school and to be healthy.

Alternatively, watch the more recent Academy Award winner ‘Slumdog
Millionaire’ which raises some similar themes.

145.218 Study Guide: Introductory Module 22

While you watch ‘City of Joy’ or ‘Slumdog Millionaire’, try to answer
the following questions:

How/by whom are the poor exploited?

What work options are there for rural families who come to the city and does age or gender
make a difference?

How does the system of dowry perpetuate the poverty of the poor in India?

What was stopping many of the poor from standing up to their oppressors?

145.218 Study Guide: Introductory Module 23

Week 2: Readings and Activities

1. What is inequality?
1a. Definitions of inequality

What do you think ‘’inequality’ means? List your ideas below:

Required reading
Read page 277-282 of Reading 1 (Greiner, 2014): Development and
Income Inequality

What is Greiner’s definition of inequality? How does this relate to the list
you wrote?

145.218 Study Guide: Introductory Module 24

You might have noticed that this section of the reading from Greiner
focuses on income inequality. While most discussions do focus on
income this is just one aspect of inequality. Look back at the
discussion on measuring development from last week. What other
aspects of inequality are highlighted by different measures of development?

Read the following quote from Crow and Lodha (2011):

The goal of equality expresses the idea that each person should have
comparable freedoms across a range of dimensions. Inequalities are,
then, constraints that hinder accomplishment of these freedoms. There
is debate about which dimensions of freedom should be prioritized. At
the same time, however, there is substantial global common ground
that deprivations below a range of achievements constitute
unacceptable inequality. This common ground is formulated, most
obviously, in the Millennium Development Goals2, but also in the
Universal declaration of Human Rights (1948), and in the constitutions
of many nations.
Another way of answering the question “What is inequality?” comes
from sociologist Göran Therborn (2006:4): inequalities are differences
we consider unjust. Humans are diverse, and social conditions across
the planet vary, but they are raised to the level of injustice – an
inequality – when they violate a moral norm and when, as Therborn
puts it, the inequality is capable of being changed (2009:20). When 2
percent of adults possess more than half of all global wealth, when one
child in seven dies before the age of five in Sub-Saharan Africa, when

2 Optional: For more information on the Millennium Development Goals, see Reading 1, Greiner: pp.287-
288).

145.218 Study Guide: Introductory Module 25

one in five girl children is allowed to die young, or is selectively
aborted, as happens in China, many consider that unjust.
(Crow & Lodha, 2011, p. 9)

Did your list include anything about freedom or justice?

Keep these definitions of inequality, as constraints that hinder the accomplishment of
freedoms and as differences we consider unjust, in mind as you continue through the
course. How do class, ethnic and gender differences constrain freedoms? Why are these
differences unjust?

1b. Causes of Inequality

Therborn (in Crow & Lodha, 2011, p. 9) suggest four key causes for inequality:

i. Exploitation: the extraction of value by a superior group from an inferior group,

for example, employers using low-paid labor.

ii. Exclusion: discrimination by one group excluding another, for example, racism.

iii. Distantiation: economic mechanisms, such as the bonus culture, for example that

result in a widening distance between low-ranking employees and executives,

countries that are not industrializing and those that are.

iv. Hierarchy: advantages within formal organizations, such as rank within an

administration, corporation, or army.

You might note that some of these are related to an individual’s skill or luck (such as
advancement up a workplace hierarchy), while others are the result of their geographical
location, class, ethnicity or gender. They can also operate at any scale, from an individual
or face-to-face level to international levels.

2. Analysing Inequality
As noted at the beginning of last week’s topic, inequality is often discussed in terms of
income, however the social divisions that social scientists believe exert the greatest
influence and carry the most explanatory power are those associated with class, gender
and ethnicity. These divisions shape societies, determining how wealth, opportunities,
resources (material and cultural) and life chances are distributed between different groups

145.218 Study Guide: Introductory Module 26

in society. We will be examining these divisions throughout the remainder of the course,
however before we do so it is important to look more closely at how inequality is analysed
and measured.

Perhaps the simplest way to measure inequality is to simply compare indicators – such as
the development measures we discussed in the previous topic (something you have
already been doing when looking at the maps in the readings). For example, the map of
infant mortality in Greiner (p.270), tells us a lot about disease, malnourishment and access
to child and maternal health care particularly when, as suggested by Greiner, it is
compared with a map of GNI (Greiner, p.265). However there are also some measures
used specifically to analyse inequality, including economic measurements (such as the
Gini coefficient) and the Gender equality index.

2a. Measuring inequality

As inequality can be defined at various scales, it is also measured at different
scales. Look at the map of Africa on page 271 of Greiner (Reading 1). This
shows the percentage of households with piped water. There is clearly
enormous differences at the continental scale. What does this tell us about
inequality on the African continent?

145.218 Study Guide: Introductory Module 27

Now compare this with Figure 6 below (from Crow & Lodha, 2011, p.
56) which shows the percentage of piped connections in rural areas
globally, and with Figure 7 which shows the percentage of the population
using ‘improved water and sanitation’ within the Sudan.

What does each map highlight? What is obscured? How do you think you could account
for the differences between and within nations? Think about economic and political
systems, historical factors, conflict (the effects of this are particularly evident in the Sudan
map) etc.

Figure 6: Percentage of rural households with piped water supply (2006)

Source: Crow & Lodha, 2011, p.56

145.218 Study Guide: Introductory Module 28

Figure 2: Water and sanitation in the Sudan

Source: http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-12115013, based on figures from the Sudan Household

Health Survey, 2006 (http://ssnbs.org/storage/SHHS%20Published%20report )

Optional: Another way to look at this is illustrated in the UNEP Global Water Supply and
Sanitation Assessment 2000 report (click here3), which compares urban and rural water
and sanitation. What does this tell us about inequalities within Africa?

3 https://globalizationstudies.sas.upenn.edu/system/files/images/water_supply_and_sanitation_coverage_in_africa

http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-12115013

https://globalizationstudies.sas.upenn.edu/system/files/images/water_supply_and_sanitation_coverage_in_africa

145.218 Study Guide: Introductory Module 29

2b. The Gini Coeffecient

Measurements such as the piped water percentages discussed above, and other
measurements of development (discussed last week), can also help us measure and
understand inequality. Geographers and development practitioners use these figures, maps
and graphs to understand differences between and within nations. However there are also
some specific measurements of inequality, the most common of which is the Gini
coefficient.

Review the graph of the Lorenz curves and the map of the Gini coefficient

in Reading 1 (Greiner, 2014, pp. 280–281).

The Gini coefficient is a number between 0 and 1 and is based on net income. In this
measurement 0 represents perfect equality and 1 represents perfect inequality. It is
computed from the difference between the line of equal income and a country’s Lorenze
curve (explained on page 280, Reading 1, Greiner, 2014).

Note that while the Gini coefficient is a very useful tool to highlight inequality it is an
economic measure based on income only. As such it can obscure other aspects of
inequality such as class, ethnicity and gender. Indeed, a wealthy country and a poor
country can have the same Gini coefficient, as it only measures the distance between the
highest and lowest incomes. Being based on income, rather than wealth (which would
include property and capital investments), the Gini coefficient can also obscure the true
scope of inequality.

Compare the map of the Gini coefficient in Reading 1 (Greiner, 2014, p.

281) with the Happy Planet Index maps, the maps of GNI, poverty
and HDI in the same reading. What are the similarities and
differences? Does anything surprise you?

145.218 Study Guide: Introductory Module 30

Optional: Watch this video4 which explains the problems with
measuring inequality in New Zealand (and gives a basic overview of Gini
coefficient and consumption-based measurements of inequality).

2c. Inequality and Freedom

To help move beyond economic analyses of inequality, it is useful to look again at the
definitions of inequality given by Therborn. Reading these, you might have made a
connection with the discussion of Amartya Sen’s approach to development discussed last
week. For Sen, development is about functionings and freedoms, the things people want
to do and be:

Functionings: desired individual outcomes such as a long life or being nourished.

Freedoms: a broad set, including political freedoms, economic facilities, social
opportunities, transparency guarantees and protective security.

(Sen, in Crow and Lodha, 2011:10)

Sen therefore describes inequalities in relation to the ability of people to live lives they
value (Crow & Lodha, 2011, p. 10). While this approach does not directly give us with a
set of tools with which to measure development it does provide a nuanced analysis of
development and inequality, and his work has provided new ways of thinking about
progress and development and has spurred global debate and new measurements of social
progress.

In particular, Sen’s work contributed to the development of the multi-
dimensional HDI. Have another look at the HDI map on page 272 of
Reading 1 (Greiner) and the discussion of HDI on the same page. How do
the HDI and the Human Development Reports reflect Sen’s capabilities
approach? What can we learn from these about the freedoms people enjoy
in different nations?

4 http://www.3news.co.nz/New-Zealands-record-on-inequality/tabid/1348/articleID/345603/Default.aspx

http://www.3news.co.nz/New-Zealands-record-on-inequality/tabid/1348/articleID/345603/Default.aspx

145.218 Study Guide: Introductory Module 31

3. Inequality in New Zealand

Required reading
Reading 4. Rashbrooke, 2013: Why Inequality Matters

This is the first chapter of the book Inequality: A New Zealand Crisis, edited by Max
Rashbrooke, which was released last year, sparking considerable debate within
the New Zealand media. While this course takes a global view of inequality and
development, the New Zealand context provides an interesting example of the
impact of inequality and illustrates some of the ideas we have discussed this far.

Why does Rashbrooke think inequality – rather than poverty – is a major
concern in New

Zealand?

145.218 Study Guide: Introductory Module 32

Think about the example of the Eastern Porirua that Rashbrooke
describes on page 1. Have you come across these ‘disconnected worlds’ in
your neighbourhood / town / city? What might be the impact of this type of
disconnection?

This disconnection can also be visualized at a national level. In May 2014 the New
Zealand Deprivation index was released, which draws on data from the 2013 census. The
deprivation index is a multi-dimensional tool, taking into account communication (internet
at home), income, employment, qualifications, home ownership and other indicators.
Figure 8 maps the distribution of deprivation in NZ using this index

Optional: The NZ Herald turned this into an interactive map of deprivation in New
Zealand. Use this online map5 to explore the distribution in more depth.

What does this map tell you about the distribution of inequality in New

Zealand?

5 http://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=11254032

http://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=11254032

145.218 Study Guide: Introductory Module 33

Figure 3: Distribution of deprivation in New Zealand

Source: Atkinson, Salmond & Crampton (2014)

145.218 Study Guide: Introductory Module 34

You might have been interested to note the inclusion of internet access in the
indicators that were used in the deprivation index. Think about this in relation
to Rashbrooke’s discussion on pages 7-8 “Why Inequality – Not jus
Poverty”. In particular consider his arguments regarding participation in and
contributions to society. How might inequality – as evidenced by a lack of
access to the Internet – affect people’s functionings and freedoms in New
Zealand?

Note, once again, that Rashbrooke’s focus is on income inequality. His justification of this
(p.3) clearly explains the reasons why income is so often used as a key indicator for
inequality however you should also be able to pick up references to class, gender and
ethnic inequalities throughout the chapter (ethnic inequalities are particularly problematic
in New Zealand, something we will discuss further in the ethnicity module). As we work
through the modules on class, ethnicity and gender it is worth thinking about the
relationship between income and these other aspects of inequality. To what extent is
income both a cause and a consequence of other types of inequality? For example, how
does income affect class inequalities? What impact does class have on earning potential?

4. Optional Activities

Read page 282-290 of Reading 1 (Greiner, 2014): Development Theory

This section of Greiner’s chapter gives a brief overview of the major theories of
development. It provides some theoretical background to the discussion on
development and inequality in this module, as well as an introduction to some
ideas we will cover later in the course (in particular structural adjustment and the

145.218 Study Guide: Introductory Module 35

MDGs). It will also be particularly useful for (and/or familiar to) any students
taking Development Studies papers!

The development theories discussed here can be loosely grouped into three
approaches:

• Capitalist models: the classical model & neo-liberalism
• Neo-Marxist models: dependency and world system theories
• Alternative models: Poverty reduction approaches (amongst others).

Using this section of Greiner compare the key features of capitalist
models, Neo-Marxist models, and alternative models.

Causes of poverty and inequality:

Capitalist models ____________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Neo-Marxist models _________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Alternative models __________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

Model of development (how to alleviate poverty / inequality):

145.218 Study Guide: Introductory Module 36

Summary
By now you will see that development means much more than a country’s output, its
consumption or material wealth alone. There are social, cultural and political dimensions
to development and often it is the intangibles, such as self-esteem and happiness, which
may say more about the development of a people than economic measures of well-being.
Development has a complex and cross-cutting array of dimensions.

Development theories and measurements have changed dramatically in the past fifty
years. Many have, however, continued to focus on macro-economic improvements as an
indicator of a country’s development. Such indicators say little about the distribution of
income within a country or such values as freedom of speech or equal rights for women
and ethnic minorities. Over the past few decades this has led to the emergence of a range
of new measures for development, and has stimulated much discussion on what
development is, from freedom, to happiness, to individual community and personal
priorities.

However, while we have improved our ability to measure development, and significant
progress has been made towards poverty reduction in many places worldwide, recent
years have also seen the rise of inequalities globally. Inequality has a significant negative
effect on development within countries (Easterly, 2007), and contributes to a range of
different health and social problems including poor physical and mental health, drug
abuse, poor education, imprisonment, a lack of trust and community life and violence
(Pickett & Wilkinson, 2010). The negative outcomes associated with inequality were
highlighted by Rashbrooke (2013, p. 7) who quotes British Sociologist, Ruth Lister,
describing poverty as ‘a shameful and corrosive social relation’ which includes not only
financial hardship, but also ‘a lack of voice, disrespect,… powerlessness, denial of rights
and diminished citizenship’. As such, inequality is clearly a threat to development,
particularly if our understanding of development encompasses health and education, self-
esteem, freedom or happiness. These links between development and inequality will be
explored throughout the remainder of this course, which examines the lack of voice,
disrespect and denial of rights experienced by millions worldwide because of their
ethnicity, class or gender.

Before moving on to the next module however, it is worth refocusing our attention on
those most disadvantaged. As Brohman (1995) asserts, the domination of Third World
countries by Eurocentric theories and strategies of development has arrested, or deterred,
indigenous development:

145.218 Study Guide: Introductory Module 37

…little attention is afforded to the views, desires and ambitions of Third World peoples
themselves, particularly if they are from traditionally disadvantaged and marginalised
social groups (e.g. the lower classes, the peasantry, women, ethnic minorities) (Brohman,
1995, p. 128)

Friedmann, one of a number of theorists who have rejected the Eurocentric and global
nature of the ‘grand development theories’ of the past, takes a novel approach to
development theory. He takes as his focus marginalised peoples of the world and how
they can become active at the local level to empower themselves. He realises, however,
that it is not sufficient to simply focus on the local level because ‘…local action is severely
constrained by global economic forces, structures of unequal wealth, and hostile class
alliances. Unless these are changed as well, alternative development can never be more
than a holding action to keep the poor from even greater misery and to deter the further
devastation of nature’ (Friedman, 1992, p. viii)

Friedmann accepts that the system of global accumulation which dominates economies is
a fact, but he seeks to humanize this system. He feels this can be done through forms of
everyday resistance and political struggle that argues for the rights of all citizens, many of
whom have been totally excluded from decision making power and from any benefits
which integration into the global economic system may have brought (Friedman, 1992, p.
13).

After completing this module and perhaps watching ‘City of Joy’ or ‘Slumdog
Millionaire’ you should also understand more about the complexity of development
problems around the world: of urbanisation, class exploitation, and the daily struggle to
survive faced by millions of people. Don’t let this get you down: remember, the
philosophy behind this course is that ‘…understanding global inequalities is a key stage in
the process of overcoming them’ (Taylor, 1992, p. 20).

145.218 Study Guide: Introductory Module 38

Glossary
A glossary is included at the end of each topic and is intended for your own use.
Whenever you come across an unfamiliar word or term either in the readings or study
guide, jot it down here and find a definition for it. While every effort is made to use
simple language in the study guide, it is also natural that when studying a specialist
subject you will have to be prepared to expand your vocabulary. Using this glossary
should enhance your understanding of the material covered.

Unfamiliar words
and terms

Definitions

Note: The Stream site for this course has an excellent Glossary that might help
you.

145.218 Study Guide: Introductory Module 39

References
Atkinson, J., Salmond, C., & Crampton, P. (2014). NZDep2013 Index of Deprivation.

Wellington, NZ.

Brohman, J. (1995). Universalism, Eurocentrism, and ideological bias in
development studies: from modernisation to neoliberalism. Third World
Quarterly, 16(1), 121–140.

Coates, B. E. (1992). Our unequal world. Geography, 77(1), 1–11.

Crow, B., & Lodha, S. K. (2011). The Atlas of Global Inequalities. University of
California Press.

Dicken, P. (2011). Global Shift (6th ed.). London: Sage.

Easterly, W. (2007). Inequality does cause underdevelopment: Insights from a
new instrument. Journal of Development Economics, 84(2), 755–776.
doi:10.1016/j.jdeveco.2006.11.002

Easton, B. (2012). Income and wealth distribution. Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New
Zealand. Retrieved June 05, 2014, from www.teara.govt.nz/en/income-and-
wealth-distribution/5/3

Fickling, D. (2004). World Bank Condemns Defence Spending. The Guardian.

Friedman, J. T. (1992). Empowerment: The Politics of Alternative Development (p. 208).
Cambridge: Wiley-Blackwell.

Greiner, A. (2014). Visualizing Human Geography: At Home in a Diverse World.
Danvers, MA.: Wiley.

Kornbluth, J. (2013). Inequality for All. RADiUS-TWC.

Open University. (1991). Society and Social Science: A Foundation Course – Block Two,
Social Structures and Divisions. Milton Keynes.

Pickett, K., & Wilkinson, R. (2010). The Spirit Level: Why Greater Equality Makes
Societies Stronger. Bloomsbury Publishing.

Piketty, T. (2014). Capital in the Twenty-First Century. Harvard University Press.

Rashbrooke, M. (2013). Inequality: A New Zealand Crisis. Bridget Williams Books.

Sidaway, J. D. (2002). Post-Development. In V. Desai & R. B. Potter (Eds.), The
Companion to Development Studies. London: Arnold.

145.218 Study Guide: Introductory Module 40

Smith, D. M. (1979). Inequality among nations. In Where the grass is greener: living
in an unequal world (pp. 52–103). London: Penguin.

Taylor, P. (1992). Understanding global inequalities. Geography, 77(11), 10–21.

Thekaekara, M. M. (1999). Calvin Klein and the Tea Pickers. New Internationalist,
March, 12–15.

Therborn, G. (2006). Inequalities of the World: New Thoeretical Frameworks, Multiple
Empirical Approaches. London: Verso.

Todaro, M. & Smith, S. (2012). What do we mean by development? In Economic
Development (pp. 14–23). Pearson Education Ltd.

Wade, R. H. (2004). Is globalization reducing poverty and inequality? World
Development, 32(4), 567–589.

World Economic Forum. (2014). Global Risks 2014. Geneva.

Background reading6

Bodley, J. H. (2008). Anthropology and Contemporary Human Problems AltaMira

Press, Lantham.

Brazier, C. (1997). State of the World Report. New Internationalist,

January/February: 4-9.

Brohman, J. (1996). Popular Development: Rethinking the theory and practice of

development. Blackwell, Cambridge, Mass.

Corbridge, S. (1991). Definitions of Development. Geography Review

5 (2): 15-18.

Crush, J. (1995). Power of Development. Routledge, London.

Desai, V., & Potter, R. B. (eds) (2008). The Companion to Development Studies.

London, Arnold.

Escobar, A. (1995). Encountering Development: The Making and Unmaking of the

Third World. Princeton University Press, New Jersey.

145.218 Study Guide: Introductory Module 41

Held, D. and Kaya, A. (2007). Global Inequality: Patterns and Explanations. Polity,
Cambridge.

Jomo, K. S. with Baudot, J. (2007). Flat World, Big Gaps: Economic Liberalization,

Globalization, Poverty and Inequality. Zed, London.

Kohl, R. (2003). Globalisation, Poverty and Inequality. OECD, Paris.

Murray, W.E. (2006). Geographies of Globalisation. Routledge, London.

Potter, R.B., Binns, T., Elliot, J.A. & Smith, D. (2008) Chapter 1: Questioning

Development. In Geographies of Development: An introduction to
Development Studies. Pearson Education, Harlow.

Potter, R.B., Binns, T., Elliot, J.A. & Smith, D. (2008) Chapter 4: Globalisation,

development and underdevelopment. In Geographies of Development: An
introduction to Development Studies. Pearson Education, Harlow.

Rahnema, M. and Bawtree, V. (eds) (1997). The Post-Development Reader. Zed,

London.

Richardson-Ngwenya, P. (2010). The EU sugar reform and the responses of

Caribbean sugar producers. Geography 95 (2): 70-79.

NB: World Development journal, Volume 38 (6) 2010, is a special issue
containing nine papers on ‘Globalization, Poverty and Inequality in Latin
America.

Icons in this study guide are by Christian Burprich: http://findicons.com/pack/1742/ecqlipse

(Creative Commons licence)

http://findicons.com/pack/1742/ecqlipse

145.218

Development & Inequality

Lesson Week 3-5

Nicole Ashley
School of People, Environment & Planning

Cadey Korson

School of People, Environment & Planning

2019

Acknowledgement

This course was originally written and taught by Regina Scheyvens, and she developed much of the course material.

Since 2012 the course has been updated and revised by Sharon McLennan.

This material is protected by copyright and has been copied by and solely for the educational purposes of the

University under licence.

You may not sell, alter or further reproduce or distribute any part of this course

pack/material to any other person. Where provided to you in electronic format, you may only print from it for your

own private study and research. Failure to comply with the terms of this warning may expose you to legal action for

145.218 Study Guide Module 1 Ethnicity i

Contents

Readings:

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… iii

Week 3: Race, Ethnicity and Development

………………………………………………………………………………………………. 1

Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 1

Learning Outcomes ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 2

Warm-up Exercise ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 3

Ethnic Inequality…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 4

Why Are We Interested In Ethnicity In This Course? ………………………………………………………………………………. 4

Ethnicity and poverty …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 4

Definitions Of Social Groupings ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 6

Week 3: Readings and Activities ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 7

Race and development……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 7

Ethnodevelopment …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 10

Summary …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 11

Week 3 References ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 12

Week 4: Indigenous Peoples & ‘The Development Project’

………………………………………………………………………. 13

Learning Outcomes ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 13

Who are indigenous peoples? ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 13

Issues at the root of conflicts between indigenous peoples and states ………………………………………………………… 14

1. Definition, membership and legal status …………………………………………………………………………………….. 14

2. Land, territory and resources ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 15

3. Economic Development ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 18

4. Language, education and culture ………………………………………………………………………………………………. 18

5. Indigenous law and social organisation ………………………………………………………………………………………. 19

6. Self-government, autonomy and self-determination ……………………………………………………………………. 19

Week 4: Readings and Activities …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 19

Optional Videos ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 23

Summary …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 24

Week 4 References ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 25

Week 5: Ethnic Conflict and Separatist Movements

…………………………………………………………………………………. 27

Learning Outcomes ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 27

Ethnicity & Conflict ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 27

ii 145.218 Study Guide Module 1 Ethnicity

Separatism & Secession ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 28

Week 5: Readings and Activities …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 31

Internal Colonialism …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 33

Optional case study West Papua ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 37

Summary …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 40

Week 5 References ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 40

145.218 Study Guide Module 1 Ethnicity iii

Readings:
WEEK 3
Kothari, U. (2006). An agenda for thinking about ‘race’ in development. Progress in
Development Studies 6(1): 9–23.

Willis, K. (2011). Ethnodevelopment. In Theories and Practices of Development (2nd ed. pp. 133-
138) New York: Routledge.

Optional
Chernela, J. (2012). Indigenous Rights and Ethno-Development: The Life of an Indigenous
Organization in the Rio Negro of Brazil. Tipití: Journal of the Society for the Anthropology of
Lowland South America, 9:2

WEEK 4
Bodley, J. H. (2008). Progress and indigenous peoples. In Victims of Progress (5th ed. pp. 15-36)
Lanham: AltaMira Press.

Briggs, J. (2005). The use of indigenous knowledge in development. Progress in Development
Studies 5 (2): 99-114.

Optional
Poata-Smith (2013). Inequality and Māori. In Rashbrooke, M. (ed.) Inequality: A New Zealand
Crisis (pp. 148-164). Wellington: Bridget Williams Books,

WEEK 6
Handelman, H. (2013). The politics of cultural pluralism and ethnic conflict. In The Challenge of
Third World Development (7th ed. pp. 106-141). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson

Regan, A. (2013). Bougainville: Conflict Deferred? In R. Jeffrey, E. Aspinall & A. Regan (eds.)
Diminishing conflicts in Asia and the Pacific: Why Some Subside and Others Don’t (pp. 119-136)
New York: Routledge.

145.218 Study Guide Weeks 3-5 1

Week 3: Race, Ethnicity and Development

Introduction
This module examines inequalities associated with ethnicity, where one group is disadvantaged
in comparison to another because of its ethnic characteristics. I’m sure you have seen images
such as the ones below1 – perhaps even in your own or a friend’s travel photos. Although this
module focuses on indigenous peoples and on land, resources and conflict, these images
remind us how pervasive and normalised ethnic inequalities are. What do you think the
cumulative impact of these types of representation might be?

We will explore the impact of this type of imagery, and the racialized discourses of
development in the first topic of this module, ‘Race, Ethnicity and Development’. This topic
gives an outline of some of the terminology (what is the difference between race, ethnicity,

1 Images from fashion magazines, posted on Sociological Images.

Privilege and Poverty in Vogue India

http://thesocietypages.org/socimages/2012/07/05/more-on-whiteness-in-fashion/

Home

2 145.218 Study Guide: Introductory Module

indigeneity etc), and explores the continuing legacy of colonialism and the persistence of forms
of racial difference in development.

In the second topic of this module we look at ‘Indigenous Peoples and the Development
Project’, and how in the past ‘development’ interventions sought to modernise indigenous
peoples, and failed to recognise their land rights, value their culture, or seek to empower them.
Thankfully, voices of indigenous peoples all around the world have led to changes in the
practice of development.

The third topic in this module looks at ‘Ethnic Conflict’. This is a highly relevant topic in our
region. Timor Leste separated (finally) from Indonesia in and became a sovereign state in 2002
after many years of oppression and conflict. They are still struggling to rebuild their state. In
Bougainville, Papua New Guinea, a major conflict emerged related to claims of
Bougainvilleans that they wished to separate from the state and have their own country. You
can read more about this in the Study Guide. If you are interested, the novel ‘Mr Pip’ by Lloyd
Jones will give additional insights into life during the conflict for ordinary Papua New
Guineans (the movie version is one of the choices for the second assignment). Also, please
watch the video in the supplimentary material, ‘Blood and Treasure’, which will update you on
the Bougainvillean situation. Many of the current conflicts going on in the world are not
between states (countries), but between ethnic groups or a between a state and an ethnic group
which is not happy with their treatment by that

state.

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this topic you will:

• be able to define the terms indigenous peoples, tribal peoples, ethnic groups, minorities,

nations, and states; and understand the roots and uses of the term ‘race’ and how it

applies to development.

• understand the legacy of notions of ‘race’ in development

• be able to describe ethnodevelopment and how it can address racial discrimination and

the remnants of colonialism, and enable ethnic groups to revive their culture.

145.218 Study Guide Weeks 3-5 3

Warm-up Exercise
Think about what ethnicity means to you. What are your experiences of it?

Regina’s experience:
The significance of ethnic identity and the potential for ethnic conflict
to occur have become more obvious to me in recent years. As a child
growing up I always told my friends that my mother was
‘Yugoslavian’. I always knew, however, that the language which she
and her family spoke, Slovenian, was only spoken in the northern part
of the country. Now I tell people that my mother is from Slovenia.
Slovenia was the first state to successfully secede from the former
Yugoslavia.

One reason why they seceded without the bloodshed experienced in Bosnia/Herzegovina was
that Slovenia was made up predominantly of one ethnic group, a group with a shared sense of
history, a shared language and a shared religion. There were no significant ‘pockets’ of other
ethnic groups or religions who wished to question the split into a separate state. This is quite a
different situation from that which exists in the other parts of the former Yugoslavia. Those
over a certain age may recall the conflicts portrayed on our TV screens in the late 1990s
showing opposition between the Kosovars and the Serbs and the Muslim Bosnians and the
Serbs. Ethnic conflict will be discussed further in week 6.

4 145.218 Study Guide: Introductory Module

Ethnic Inequality
Why Are We Interested In Ethnicity In This Course?

1. Because ethnic differences and the notion of race underpinned colonialism, which in

turn has had a long-lasting impact on global inequalities and on development.

2. Because development initiatives which fail to consider ethnic groups have had poor

results in the past and have often involved worsening the life conditions of minority

groups.

3. Because ethnic conflicts impact on the development potential of the countries in which

they occur, and in those which receive refugees as a result.

Ethnicity and poverty

Throughout the world poverty falls especially heavily on minority ethnic groups and
indigenous populations. The following excerpt from Todaro and Smith (2015, p.255)
emphasises the global nature of ethnic inequality and poverty:

Some 40% of the world’s nation-states have more than five sizable ethnic populations,
one or more of which faces serious economic, political, and social discrimination. In
recent years, domestic conflicts and even civil wars have arisen out of ethnic groups’
perceptions that they are losing out in the competition for limited resources and job
opportunities. The poverty problem is even more serious for indigenous peoples, whose
numbers exceed 300 million in over 5,000 different groups in more than 70 countries.

Although detailed data on the relative poverty of minority ethnic and indigenous
peoples are difficult to obtain (for political reasons, few countries wish to highlight
these problems), researchers have compiled data on the poverty of indigenous people in
Latin America. The results clearly demonstrate that a majority of indigenous groups
live in extreme poverty and that being indigenous greatly increases the chances that an
individual will be illiterate, in poor health, and unemployed. For example, the research
has shown that in Mexico, over 80% of the indigenous population is poor, compared to
18% of the nonindigenous population…. similar situations exist in countries such as
Bolivia, Guatemala, and Peru (not to mention Native American populations in the
United States and Canada). Moreover, a 2006 World Bank study confirmed that all too
little progress had been made. Whether we speak of Tamils in Sri Lanka, Karens in
Myanmar, Untouchables in India, or Tibetans in China, the poverty plight of minorities
is as serious as that of indigenous peoples.

145.218 Study Guide Weeks 3-5 5

Todaro and Smith make a distinction here between indigenous peoples and minority ethnic
groups. The next exercises explore the meaning of these, and related terms.

Before exploring the definitions, what do you think are important characteristics of
ethnic groups?

After you have listed your ideas (come on, no cheating now!), consult the list below and ensure
that all of these ideas were covered:

• shared culture and history (although outside influences such as state boundaries that

divide or religious conversion, for example, should be considered);

• agreement on land boundaries which it has traditionally occupied (there is usually oral

or written histories of ties to the area, sacred sites and customs regulating access to land

and other resources;

• shared language (although some conflicting groups, like Hutus and Tutsis, also share a

language); and

• a socio-political organisation which pre-dates the state and remains separate from the

state.

Write down the names of three tribes/minorities/ethnic groups/races and then note
which of the following categories you think they are best described as:

• indigenous peoples

• tribal peoples

• ethnic groups

• minorities

• nations

• states

6 145.218 Study Guide: Introductory Module

Your group Category
E.g. Māori indigenous peoples
1.
2.
3.

Now read the definitions (in the box below) and see if you were correct in your judgements.
Make corrections if needed.

Definitions Of Social Groupings

Indigenous peoples
Culturally distinct groups that have occupied a region longer than other immigrant
groups or colonists.

Tribal peoples
A distinct cultural group that retains a strong sense of identity (with a separate language
and culture), a territorial base, and a self-contained socio-political organisation that
predates the creation of contemporary states.

Ethnic groups
May be minorities or majorities. They are culturally distinct groups within a state that
retain their cultural identity while accepting and operating within the political,
institutional framework of the state. They can be immigrant populations (Jews, overseas
Chinese, South Asians in Britain) or assimilated peoples who have lost or abandoned
their political autonomy to become participants in larger states. They have made an
accommodation within the state and they do not seek autonomy. They accept the state’s
authority on political issues BUT they may reassert their identity if states attempt to
destroy their cultural/religious/economic base.

Minorities
Any identifiable group which does not constitute a majority within a state (may also be a
racial, tribal, ethnic or religious group). The term minorities is often used to refer to
groups that do not have political power and therefore have limited access to economic
opportunities and social services. Thus majority groups which do not have access to

145.218 Study Guide Weeks 3-5 7

power may be thought of as minority groups (e.g. Indians in Guatemala, Bolivia or Peru;
Hutu in Burundi). Minorities can, therefore, be either numerical or sociological.

Nations
A group of people with a strong cultural and political identity that is both self-defined
and acknowledged by others. They have exercised political control in the past and still
have the institutions necessary to do this. State boundaries rarely reflect the areas
traditionally occupied by nations (e.g. Kurds).

States
Commonly refers to a country, a political entity with clearly recognised boundaries.
People within these boundaries are referred to by the name of the country, for example,
Yugoslavs, even though in many countries people do not identify with the state. For
example, in Indonesia certain groups would call themselves Timorese or West Papuans,
rather than Indonesians. European colonisers created arbitrary boundaries. People were
rarely consulted as to if they wished to belong to a state. Most states are multinational.
When states refuse to acknowledge this, let alone to grant political or economic power to
certain ethnic groups, the potential for ethnic conflict and separatist movements is high.

Source: Clay, J.W. (1989)

Week 3: Readings and Activities
Race and development

You might note that the term ‘race’ is not included in the list above. There are some very good
reasons for this. Although often used interchangeably with ethnicity, race is a highly disputed
term. It is the (mistaken) idea that “one or more genetic traits can be used to identify distinct
and exclusive categories of people” (Greiner, 2014, p.164). It has its roots in colonialism,
where physical and biological differences were used to explain cultural differences, and to
justify classifying and ranking groups of the basis of those differences (Norton & Walton-
Roberts, 2006, p.216). These days few, if any, scientists would support the view that there is
any biological basis to the concept of race. Rather, we now understand that race is a social
construction, which Greiner (2014, p.164) defines as “an idea or phenomenon that does not
exist in nature but is created and given meaning by people”.

8 145.218 Study Guide: Introductory Module

Although race is a socially constructed term, it still holds considerable power, evident in the
way in which it is widely used (think of the current ethnic tensions in the USA and how these
are described in the media). As Kothari argues in Reading 3, the notion of race underpinned
colonialism, which in turn has had a long-lasting impact on global inequalities and
development. It is therefore important that we explore the legacy of colonialism and racial
discrimination in development.

Reading 5

Kothari, U. (2006). An agenda for thinking about ‘race’ in development.
Progress in Development Studies 6(1): 9–23.

In this reading Kothari highlights the legacy of colonial meanings of ‘race’ in development theory
and practice, noting that colonial rule was justified through a racialized discourse that “positioned an
uncivilised other against a civilised white ‘self’” (p.11). Nineteenth century scientific racism, which
suggested certain groups were biologically inferior, provided further legitimacy to conquest and
exploitation, and the resulting hierarchical and exploitative colonial system. Although ideas of
biological superiority disappeared in the mid-twentieth century, Kathari argues that ideas of cultural
difference substituted in much the same form as earlier arguments about ‘race’, and that these
inequalities persist in the development sphere.

On page 12, Kothari asks how have “colonial imageries and narratives been recycled and
reformulated in contemporary discourses and practices of development”? She suggests

this occurs through the use of binaries, the process of othering, homogenisation, and
through the resulting discourse and representations of development. What do these terms mean, and
how do they contribute to inequalities in development?
Add these to your glossary if they are new terms for you.

Binaries

145.218 Study Guide Weeks 3-5 9

othering

homogenisation

discourse and representations

Kothari argues that in development practice a key binary exists between “those who
are thought to possess expertise and knowledge, and those to whom it should be

imparted” (p.15), and she describes her experience as a non-white development
consultant. She also highlights White’s (p.16) statement that “my whiteness opened me doors,
jumped me queues, filled me plates and invited me to speak”. Has your racial identity impacted
on your work life, travel experiences and opportunities? If so, how?

10 145.218 Study Guide: Introductory Module

Ethnodevelopment

Reading 6

Willis, K. (2011). Ethnodevelopment. In Theories and Practices of Development
(2nd ed. pp. 133-138) New York: Routledge.

The legacy of colonialism is undeniable and, as next week’s discussion of indigenous peoples
will highlight, many ethnic groups continue to face considerable barriers to development and
well-being. However this is increasingly recognised and is being addressed in newer
approaches to development. This reading from Willis’ book Theories and Practices of
Development highlights one such approach, ethno-development. This approach recognises the
need to eliminate all forms of racial discrimination, ethnocide and the remnants of colonialism,
and aims to enable ethnic groups to revive their culture and to resist further exploitation and
oppression (King, 2015, p.209).

How does ethnodevelopment address Kothari’s criticisms of development? Reflect on
this in relation to Hettne’s four main aspects of ethnodevelopment which Willis lists on

p. 134.

145.218 Study Guide Weeks 3-5 11

Optional reading

Chernela, J. (2012). Indigenous Rights and Ethno-Development: The Life of an
Indigenous Organization in the Rio Negro of Brazil. Tipití: Journal of the
Society for the Anthropology of Lowland South America, 9:2

This (optional!) article provides some insights into the strengths and challenges of ethno-
development. It describes an indigenous organization founded after a successful campaign to
end the trafficking of indigenous Tukanoan women from the Upper Rio Negro in Brazil, in
order to help women plan and manage their own development, including cultural heritage
activities, institution building, revenue development, health and legal services, community, and
other initiatives. It also provides a more in depth explanation of ethno-development:

In 2002 Davis enumerated the fundamental principles of indigenous development. He
held that ethno-development must be “culturally appropriate;” it must be “based on
full consideration of the options preferred by the indigenous peoples.” They should take
into account “local patterns of social organization, religious beliefs and resource use;”
and it “should support production systems that are well adapted to the needs and
environment of the indigenous peoples.” Mechanisms should be included in such plans
for the “participation by indigenous peoples in decision making throughout project
planning, implementation and evaluation,” and where indigenous peoples have their
own representative organizations these should be used as “channels for communicating
local preferences”

Summary
Ethnic inequality is the result of distinctions between ethnic groups in a society, often the result
of perceived racial characteristics. Although there is no biological basis to the notion of race,
the social construction of racial difference results in unequal treatment and opportunities
between ethnic groups, particularly where some groups are considered superior to others. This
is particularly problematic in development, which has roots in European colonialism, and
where there continues to be a clear binary between development practitioners and experts and
the recipients of development help – one which has strongly racial undertones.

Recent development approaches such as ethno-development seek to address this, ensuring the
control of development trajectories is returned to, and retained by, ethnic groups. As the next
couple of topics will show, this is not without its own problems, however it is vital that ethnic
and cultural diversity, self-determination, and mutual respect are embedded in any

12 145.218 Study Guide: Introductory Module

development endeavour if the devastating effects of ethnic inequality and conflict are to be
avoided.

The importance of ethnic control of development processes, and the critique of western, expert
(and yes, white) – led development leaves us with a conundrum. What is the role of
international development agencies and organisations? What is your role as an English-
speaking, western-educated individual? This course doesn’t provide answers to these questions,
rather we hope that the remainder of the course materials and readings will stimulate and
challenge your thinking about the ways in which you can contribute to a better world.

Week 3 References
Clay, J.W. (1989). Epilogue: The Ethnic Future of Nations. Third World Quarterly. 11:4,
223-33.

Greiner, A.L. (2014) Race and racism. In Visualizing Human Geography (pp.164-167).
Danvers, MA: Wiley

King, E. (2015). International approaches to governing ethnic diversity: Can development aid
be a tool in this toolkit?. In Boulden, J., & Kymlicka, W. (Eds.). International Approaches to
Governing Ethnic Diversity. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Kothari, U. (2006). An agenda for thinking about ‘race’ in development. Progress in
Development Studies 6(1): 9–23.

Norton, W. & Walton-Roberts, M. (2006). Power, identity, global landscapes. In Cultural
Geography: Environments, Landscapes, Identities, Inequalities (pp. 213-245). Oxford: Oxford
University Press.

Todaro, M. & Smith, S. (2015). Ethnic minorities, indigenous populations, and poverty. In
Economic Development (12th ed., p.255). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Education
Ltd.

Willis, K. (2011). Ethnodevelopment. In Theories and Practices of Development (2nd ed. pp.
133-138) New York: Routledge.

145.218 Study Guide Weeks 3-5 13

Week 4: Indigenous Peoples &
‘The Development Project’

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this topic you will:

• realise why indigenous peoples have often responded negatively to attempts at

‘development’ or ‘progress’.

• be able to provide examples of effective ways in which indigenous peoples have

managed their resources.

• understand why social movements emerge and their value to indigenous people.

• know what ‘alternative development options’ may constitute and why they may provide

a more appropriate form of development for indigenous peoples than conventional

development efforts.

Who are indigenous peoples?
There is no formal, universal definition for ‘indigenous peoples’, although there have been
many attempts to define them. The most commonly accepted definition, used by the United
Nations amongst others, is by Martínez Cobo (cited in United Nations, 2009, p4):

Indigenous communities, peoples and nations are those which, having a historical
continuity with pre-invasion and pre-colonial societies that developed on their
territories, consider themselves distinct from other sectors of the societies now
prevailing on those territories, or parts of them. They form at present non-dominant
sectors of their societies and are determined to preserve, develop and transmit to future
generations their ancestral territories, and their ethnic identity, as the basis of their
continued existance as peoples with their own cultural patterns, social institutions and
legal system.

There are some limitations to this definition. In particular it is focused on the original
inhabitants of the land and may exclude other marginalised groups. However it marks a
significant change in the way in which indigenous people are understood. Dominant groups

14 145.218 Study Guide: Introductory Module

have often represented indigenous peoples in paternalistic or evolutionary ways. Thus in 1957
the International Labour Organisation2 described indigenous peoples in the following way:

Members of a tribal and semi-tribal population in independent countries whose social and
economic conditions are at a less advanced stage than the stage reached by other sections of
the national community.

While this definition makes a generalised statement about the position of indigenous groups
within society (what do you think is meant by ‘less advanced’?) and as such is no longer
considered appropriate, many indigenous groups continue to:

• Be on the bottom rungs of the socio-economic scale.
• Make up a large number of the unemployed.
• Be over-represented in menial occupations.
• Lack political power.
• Be less educated than most.
• Be in poorer health than most.

This week’s topic explores the inequality experienced by indigenous peoples, first defining and
explaining the concept of indigeneity, the looking at concerns related to land, economic
development, language, education and indigenous law and society.

Issues at the root of conflicts between indigenous peoples and
states
From Stavenhagen (1990: Ch.8)

1. Definition, membership and legal status

Conflict can occur when the enjoyment of rights and privileges (such as the right to vote or
hold a passport) or, conversely, the limitation of rights, is linked to membership of a
particular ethnic group. For example, where preferential employment is given to members
of a particular indigenous group.

2 http://www.ilo.org/ilolex/cgi-lex/convde.pl?R104

145.218 Study Guide Weeks 3-5 15

2. Land, territory and resources

The land issue has become the principal claim of indigenous peoples in recent times. This
issue has been at the forefront of conflicts between states and indigenous peoples ever since
European expansion in the 15th and 16th centuries. The European explorers considered
that the ‘newly discovered’ territories lacked owners or inhabitants and thus they claimed
vast areas of land for themselves, their rationale being either that this was their right as
discovers of the land or that they could make productive use of ‘idle’ land. For example
Burger (1987:2) quotes the governor of Roraima in Brazil who was irate at protests about
the taking of Yanomami Indian lands:

An area as rich as this, with gold, diamonds and uranium, cannot afford the luxury of
preserving half a dozen Indian tribes which are holding up development.

Land is very important to indigenous peoples because it is typically their source of
sustenance: of food, medicine and materials for shelter. It is also the basis of cultural
identity, being home to ancestors, containing their history and having spiritual significance.
Planners and government officials have ignored such significance and therefore cannot
understand why monetary compensation cannot make up for loss of the land.

Indigenous peoples often find it difficult to protect their land because they do not have
legal tenure of the land, despite the fact that their occupation of such land may predate its
declaration as forest reserve or crown land. The government may even say that they are
illegally occupying the land. This allows the government to go ahead with, or to grant
concessions to companies for, logging operations, mining exploration, resettlement
programmes or dam construction. For example, most governments claim that subsoil
resources belong to the state so indigenous peoples are powerless to stop activities such as
mining. Because mining destroys landscapes, it can be seen by indigenous peoples as a
physical assault on the land. It often destroys sacred sites. For example, in Australia an
entire sacred mountain was mined and shipped out in the form of iron ore without any
consultation with its Aboriginal owners. Displacement can have devastating effects on
indigenous communities. At stake is an entire cultural heritage which is often closely
intertwined with a unique environment.

Another form of invasion of land occurs when indigenous people occupy border lands
which are considered strategic, or sensitive areas. In these cases, the military will often set
up bases among people who have lived in the area peacefully for generations.

16 145.218 Study Guide: Introductory Module

What Does Land Mean To Indigenous Peoples?
(From Burger, 1987:13-16)

• contains their history and sense of identity

• ensures their viability as an independent people

• provides a means for their sustenance (food, medicine, building materials)

• sacred quality

The Earth is the foundation of Indigenous Peoples. It is the seat of spirituality, the
foundation from which our cultures and languages flourish. The Earth is our
historian, the keeper of events and the bones of our forefathers. Earth provides us
food, medicine, shelter and clothing. It is the source of our independence; it is our
Mother. We do not dominate Her: we must harmonize with Her. Next to shooting
Indigenous Peoples, the surest way to kill us is to separate us from our part of the
Earth.
(World Council of Indigenous Peoples, quoted in Stavenhagen, 1990:101).

Western perceptions of land

• land that is not owned by title deed is regarded as unclaimed and is seized

• natural resources left untouched by indigenous peoples are considered to be

wasted

• economic activities which do not extract the greatest commercial benefit

(e.g. growing foodstuffs rather than cash crops such as coffee) are judged as

inefficient and primitive.

Because of the material greed of Westerners, and their scathing attitude towards
activities which do not extract the maximum gain from the land, indigenous people
across the world are struggling to protect their land.

145.218 Study Guide Weeks 3-5 17

18 145.218 Study Guide: Introductory Module

3. Economic Development

Once again, because they occupy the last large, unexploited tracts of land on the planet,
indigenous people have been increasingly subject to the effects of economic
development projects such as dams, mines and forestry. These projects, designed to
benefit the local elites or city dwellers, often result in displacement of local peoples,
desecration of sacred sites, disruption of social systems and destruction of habitats.

4. Language, education and culture

Language identifies many indigenous groups of people-groups use language to express
their identity. However in the process of colonisation, the languages of indigenous
people were downplayed, being said to be ‘dialects’. A dominant group can thus
impose its language on subordinate groups. Government policies have been designed to
help the languages of minorities to disappear; they do not receive legal recognition, they
are not taught in schools, they cannot be used in official dealings, and those who speak
only these languages are seen as being primitive. Because women have less
opportunities to learn the new language of the dominant group, they become
marginalised.

Perhaps the worst cumulative effect of such treatment is to make indigenous people
ashamed of their own language, which essentially means to be ashamed of their
identity.

Complaints have been made about:

• the denigration of tribal cultures for tourism purposes, with complete disregard for

authenticity

• the violation of sacred sites with, for example, stolen artefacts ending up in

museums and private collections around the world

• lack of respect for traditional dress or names (e.g. in 1988 a Brazilian judge said he

would not deal with Indians who were dressed in ethnic attire; they replied to the

judge that they would not deal with him either unless he were dressed in ethnic

attire too)

Because of this language rights have become an important issue among indigenous
groups in recent times. They will often demand that teaching at schools takes place in
their own language, or for the development of schools which teach in indigenous
languages – the kohunga reo movement is one such example.

145.218 Study Guide Weeks 3-5 19

5. Indigenous law and social organisation

The maintenance of traditional laws, customs and political structures enables
indigenous peoples to retain their identity in the face of assaults by outsiders.

Most national legal systems do not, however, recognise indigenous legal and political
institutions, claiming there must be one law for all of the people. Human rights
activists, on the other hand, argue that equality before one law does not exist for
indigenous peoples and that one of the best ways in which they can defend their human
rights is by using their own institutions.

6. Self-government, autonomy and self-determination

Most governments have been reluctant to grant any form of political autonomy to
indigenous peoples. It has even been a struggle for indigenous peoples to get
governments to honour the treaties which were signed during colonial times.

Because of a long history of exploitation and denial of rights, many indigenous peoples
are now becoming increasingly resistant to outside manipulation. They have demanded
new kinds of policies of their states: policies which have demanded self-reliance and
autonomy for indigenous peoples.

Conflicts between the state and indigenous peoples are often a case of a clash of two
unequal societies: one is politically and economically powerful, is tied into the world
economy, while the other is marginal to international scheming, has a self-reliant
economy with simple technology and low levels of production, and political
organisations do not extend much beyond the community. The weakest is the loser
(Burger, 1987:3).

Week 4: Readings and Activities
Consider the situation of indigenous people you are familiar with. You may like to
look at the Maori of New Zealand. How has the group you are looking at been
marginalised, politically, economically, socially and culturally?

20 145.218 Study Guide: Introductory Module

Reading 7

Reading 5: Bodley, J. H. (2008). Progress and indigenous peoples. In Victims of
Progress (5th ed. pp. 15-36) Lanham: AltaMira Press.

Describe the genocide faced by inhabitants of the Chittagong Hill Tracts in
Bangladesh.

Define Ethnocentrism.

145.218 Study Guide Weeks 3-5 21

Provide examples of how ‘ethnocentrism’ can threaten the well-being of
indigenous people.

Why is western-style ‘progress’ not necessarily desired by tribal peoples?

Optional reading
Poata-Smith (2013) Inequality and Māori. In Rashbrooke, M. Inequality: A New
Zealand Crisis. Bridget Williams Books

While this reading is not compulsory, it is highly recommended, bringing together many of the
ideas and concerns we have discussed so far in this course. As you read it, think about the
impact ‘progress’ has had on Māori communities over the past two centuries, and consider the
solutions offered by NZ governments (previous and current). Do you think current policy and
practise will lead to greater equality? If not, what do you think could work?

22 145.218 Study Guide: Introductory Module

Reading 8

Reading 6: Briggs, J. (2005). The use of indigenous knowledge in development.
Progress in Development Studies 5(2): 99-114.

What factors have led to renewed interest in the place of indigenous knowledge
in development?

Provide examples of useful indigenous knowledge relating to farming (pp.
101-102, p. 105).

Briggs suggests that indigenous knowledge and western scientific knowledge
systems need not be seen as polar opposites, or binaries. How can community
development benefit from drawing on both systems of knowledge?

145.218 Study Guide Weeks 3-5 23

Optional Videos

One of the most shocking examples of ethnic inequality and indigenous
peoples is very close to home. The treatment of the Aboriginal people of
Australia has been shocking, and it continues to be problematic. The optional
videos here will help give you an insight into the injustice faced by the

indigenous peoples of Australia, and the reasons why decreasing inequality is so important yet
such a challenge.

Utopia

In this recent documentary, award-winning Australian journalist John Pilger
draws on his long association with Aboriginal people to present an “epic
portrayal of the oldest continuous human culture, and an investigation into a
suppressed colonial past and rapacious present”. Pilger explores the injustices
faced by the indigenous peoples of Utopia, a region of northern Australia,

Examples of strategies that can sustain the development of indigenous peoples and their
environments

• Governments can establish processes for monitoring environmental destruction

in areas where local people rely on the environment; they can legislate to restrict

potentially damaging activities, e.g. restricting logging companies to removing

10% of the logs in an area.

• Local protests (blocking roads used by logging companies; petitioning

government).

• International protests (trade boycotts; political pressure).

• Establishing protected areas (national parks, wildlife sanctuaries).

• Finding alternative ways of making money from the natural resource base (e.g.

butterfly farming; exporting resins and gums; walkabout sawmills; rattan; edible

nuts; plants with pharmaceutical applications).

• Nature tourism.

• Theatre groups which increase awareness of development issues can encourage

local people to initiate their own strategies to protect the environment.

24 145.218 Study Guide: Introductory Module

alerting viewers to a “very modern, very current apartheid-like situation – one that is taking
place in one of the richest and most developed countries of the 21st century” (The London Film
Review3). For a range of commentaries on this hard-hitting documentary see this Sydney
Morning Herald article4.

Rabbit proof fence

Alternatively, watch the film ‘Rabbit-Proof Fence. This 2003 movie portrays
the racist imperialism that characterized the treatment of Aborigines by
successive white governments. As recently as 1970, the practice of removing
half-caste children from their parents and then re-educating them in the ways
of white society was commonplace in Australia. Many of the policy makers
behind this process saw that they were doing good by ‘enlightening’ the
Aborigines and improving their health and educational opportunities, when in

reality they were hoping for the eventual demise of Aboriginal culture. Set in 1931, ‘Rabbit-
Proof Fence’ tells the story of three brave young Aborigine girls as they seek to find their way
home across 1500 miles of desert after being taken away from their families to a government-
run ‘training camp’.

Summary
Indigenous people are often marginalised communities within Third World countries, both
ethnically, economically and politically. They are often geographically marginal too,
occupying highland, forested areas or barren, desert environments.

It is important, however, not to romanticise the plight of indigenous peoples, as some do when
they suggest that indigenous societies were without fault or problem before contacted, or when
they suggest that indigenous peoples would wish to return entirely to the ways of the past.
Contact situations typically lead to indigenous groups wishing to add dimensions of the contact
culture to their lives, and perhaps discarding some of their old practices. Meanwhile, there will
be important aspects of their culture and heritage which they wish to retain.

As an example, Melanesian peoples are often said to live in a state of ‘subsistence affluence’.
While they typically own few material possessions and earn little income, the strong
subsistence base to the economy (including fishing, agriculture and hunting) means that few
people go hungry. In recent times, however, Melanesian peoples have been keen to earn some

3 http://www.thelondonfilmreview.com/film-review/review-utopia-pilger-2013/
4 http://www.smh.com.au/national/with-utopia-john-pilger-wrings-the-heart-but-objectivity-is-not-his-forte-20140208-328wr.html

http://www.thelondonfilmreview.com/film-review/review-utopia-pilger-2013/

http://www.smh.com.au/national/with-utopia-john-pilger-wrings-the-heart-but-objectivity-is-not-his-forte-20140208-328wr.html

145.218 Study Guide Weeks 3-5 25

money to supplement their lifestyles, particularly so that they can send their children to school,
buy western medicines and acquire consumer goods, such as an outboard motor, clothing or a
sewing machine. With rural people having few accessible means of earning an income, they
often decide to sell their trees to loggers or to lease their land to mining prospectors, even
though they know the land provides the livelihood on which their survival is based. Those
people who choose not to sell off their natural resources are often put under much pressure
from local politicians and from developers who say that they are standing in the way of
‘development’. The pressures and dilemmas facing indigenous peoples are numerous.

Successful development can occur, however, if:
• local communities have a decisive voice in planning;
• resources are subject to local control; and
• innovative community organisations exist.

Week 4 References
Bodley, J. H. (2008). Victims of Progress. AltaMira Press, Lanham.

Briggs, J. (2005). The use of indigenous knowledge in development. Progress in Development
Studies. 5 (2): 99-114.

Clay, J. (1989). Epilogue: The Ethnic Future of Nations. Third World Quarterly 11 (4): 223-
233.

Cleary, M. (1994). Timber and Tribes: Logging the Forests of Borneo. Geography Review. 8
(1): 38-41.

Colchester, M. (1994). Sustaining the Forests: The Community-based Approach in South and
Southeast Asia. Development and Change 25: 60-100.

Coriaa, J., & Calfucura, E. (2012). Ecotourism and the development of indigenous
communities: The good, the bad, and the ugly. Ecological Economics. 73: 47-55

Dwyer, D. & Drakakis-Smith, D. (1996). Ethnicity and Development: Geographical
Perspectives. Wiley, Chichester.

26 145.218 Study Guide: Introductory Module

Engle, K. (2010). The Elusive Promise of Indigenous Development. Duke University Press,
Durham.

Greiner, A.L. (2014) What is Ethnicity? In Visualizing Human Geography. Wiley, Danver,
MA. 172-173

Kampe, K. (1992). Development, Bureaucracy and Life on the Margins. Pacific Viewpoint 33
(2): 159-64.

Poata-Smith (2013) Inequality and Māori. In Rashbrooke, M. Inequality: A New Zealand
Crisis. Bridget Williams Books

Reed, R. (2009). Forest Dwellers, Forest Protectors: Indigenous Models for International
Development. Prentice Hall, NJ.

Shaw, W. S., Herman, R. D. K., & Dobbs, G. R. (2006). Encountering indigeneity: Re‐
imagining and decolonizing geography. Geografiska Annaler: Series B, Human Geography,
88(3), 267-276.

Stavenhagen, R. (1990). Indigenous and Tribal Peoples: A Special Case. In The Ethnic
Question. United Nations University Press, Chapter 8.

Stasiulis, D. and Yuval-Davis, N. (eds) (1995). Unsettling Settler Societies: Articulations of
Gender, Race, Ethnicity and Class. Sage, London

United Nations. (2009). State of the World’s Indigenous Peoples. UN Department of Economic
and Social Affairs, New York

145.218 Study Guide Weeks 3-5 27

Week 5: Ethnic Conflict and Separatist Movements

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this topic you will:

• be able to see in what circumstances ethnic conflicts are likely to emerge

• know the meaning of cultural pluralism, secession and internal colonialism

• realise the importance of the state’s role in either overcoming, or aggravating, ethnic

dissent.

• Understand the complexity of external intervention in ethnic conflict.

Ethnicity & Conflict

Read the Foreign Policy article 10 wars to watch in 20165, or
browse the Guardian’s Conflict and Development page6 or the
world news page of a newspaper to familiarise yourself with
conflicts currently in the news. Think about the ethnic
dimensions of these conflicts. What proportion of conflicts in the
news today are partially or fully linked to ethnic tension and
inequality?

There are a number of reasons why ethnic groups, particularly indigenous peoples, are
frequently involved in conflict in the 21st century:

1. Because they are descendants of the original inhabitants of a land which has been

overtaken – with some struggle involved. Most have a history of violence at the hands

of settlers or invaders. Thus they have grievances which they may wish the state to

remedy. Governments, however, have typically responded to indigenous demands with

assimilation.

5
6 http://www.theguardian.com/global-development/conflict-and-development

28 145.218 Study Guide: Introductory Module

2. Because they inhabit ‘frontier lands’ such as deserts, mountains, forests and oceans.

Either they have always occupied these areas or they have been forced to retreat to them

because of invasion by outsiders. These areas have since gained the interest of:

• states, who wish to integrate them for national security purposes

• companies or states which wish to exploit their resources

3. Review the Foreign Policy article and Guardian page for some further ideas.

Separatism & Secession

Separatism is the desire to break away and form a separate nation-state, usually based on
ethnonationalism. This can range from strong resistance to integration into another society or
culture and desire for regional autonomy, to full formal separation from a state and the
establishment of an independent country (Kuby, Harner & Gober, 2013, p.383). The formal
separation of a region from a nation state is called secession. This occurs when the separatist
movement is successful and the breakaway region becomes a state in its own right, with its
own constitution and recognized in international law (Smith, 1996, p.270).

A geographical perspective on separatist movements can be helpful because:

1. Where separatist movements occur there is typically a degree of spatial segregation in

the population. Figure 1 (below) shows the difference between multinational and plural

societies. Separatist movements are more likely to occur in the former because there is

spatial segregation coinciding with ethnic categories.

2. Because distance from state power can be a strong mobilising force resulting in greater

uniqueness and a greater chance of separating.

The map to follow (figure 2) shows Papua New Guinea, the red flag indicating the

location of Bougainville, where a separatist movement has existed, on and off, since

1975 although a fragile peace agreement has been brokered. Note especially

Bougainville’s geographical location and specifically its physical isolation from the

country’s capital, Port Moresby and proximity to the Solomon Islands (remember this

for later).

145.218 Study Guide Weeks 3-5 29

3. Spatial inequalities (e.g. in wealth or services provided by the government) may

facilitate growth of separatist movements.

Figure 1: Hypothetical Multinational State and Plural Society

Figure 2: Papua New Guinea Map

The flag marks the location of Bougainville Island.

Source: Google Maps (https://www.google.co.nz/maps/place/Bougainville+Island,+Papua+New+Guinea/@-

6.4195652,150.7522586,6z/data=!4m2!3m1!1s0x68cedd368a18f199:0x99cab5ed068067c)

https://www.google.co.nz/maps/place/Bougainville+Island,+Papua+New+Guinea/@-6.4195652,150.7522586,6z/data=!4m2!3m1!1s0x68cedd368a18f199:0x99cab5ed068067c

30 145.218 Study Guide: Introductory Module

Some examples of separatist movements are listed below. Can you add any others to
the list?

Kurds (in Iraq, Iran and Turkey)
Croatians & Slovenians (in the former Yugoslavia)
Palestinians
Lithuanians, Estonians, Latvians, Georgians and Ukrainians (in the former USSR)
Tamils (in Sri Lanka)
Shans and Karens (in Myanmar/Burma)
Acehenese West Papuans (in Indonesia)

Four different ethnic scenarios are listed below (based on May, 1990). Below each,
write the name of the appropriate country from the following list:
Fiji, New Zealand, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea

a. One or more ethnic communities are incorporated within a larger state but they retain a

sense of separate ethnic identity. As ethnic minorities feel themselves becoming

marginalised, separatist movements are likely to emerge.

Country where this occurs: ___________________________

b. Immigrant populations come to a country as imported labour or settlers and remain to

become an integral part of the population. While the immigrant groups make demands

on the state to secure citizenship, voting rights, equal opportunity and recognition of

their culture, the indigenous group seeks to protect itself by restricting the transfer of

land, reserving places for indigenous people in the public service, and safeguarding

their political dominance. Separatism is not seen as an option as they are not usually

concentrated within any one area (territory) which they can lay claim to. Instead, they

make demands for equal participation in the society.

Country where this occurs: ___________________________

145.218 Study Guide Weeks 3-5 31

c. An indigenous population is heavily outnumbered by an immigrant settler population

and is pushed out to the social, economic and political periphery of its own homeland.

The concern is usually one of getting the dominant settler population to acknowledge

indigenous rights, especially land rights, and to recognise indigenous cultural values

while allowing the indigenous people equal access to the social, political and economic

goods of the larger society.

Country where this occurs: ___________________________

d. A large number of small groups incorporated within a state develop a sense of ethnicity

at several, overlapping, levels and use ethnicity as a means of mobilising groups of

people to compete for political power. Ethnicity may be a unifying force on one level

in terms of bringing groups together within a larger community, but it may be divisive

in terms of an emerging sense of national identity

Country where this occurs: ___________________________

(NB Answers are provided in the summary to this topic)

Week 5: Readings and Activities
Reading 9

Handelman, H. (2013). The politics of cultural pluralism and ethnic conflict.
In The Challenge of Third World Development (7th ed. pp. 106-141). Upper
Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson

This reading is a little long, but work persevering with as it gives a good overview of the nature
of ethnic conflict, and of some of the conflicts that continue to this day (how many of the
conflict regions identified in the articles you reviewed at the beginning of this topic are
ongoing today?)

This reading introduces lots of terms, some you have come across, and others that
may be new to you. Make sure you are familiar with these – add the definitions below
and/or to your glossary.

32 145.218 Study Guide: Introductory Module

Cultural Pluralism

Communal Strife

Enforced hierarchy (ethnic dominance)

Federalism

Consociationalism

Secession

145.218 Study Guide Weeks 3-5 33

How do modernisation and economic development contribute to ethnic conflict?
(p.125)

What are the challenges associated with outside intervention? When might outside
intervention be appropriate / not appropriate? (pp.134-137)

Internal Colonialism

Internal colonialism is a term that refers to the exploitation of one racial or ethnic group by
another, within a nation state. It differs from colonialism, which refers the system whereby a
Western industrial country colonised a semi-peripheral or peripheral country and exploited its
people and resources. Internal colonialism occurs when a dominant ethnic minority exploits
another group within its own borders, often forcing them from their land, and relegating them
to low prestige and low income work. It also involves cultural discrimination, whereby groups
are stereotyped as inferior, backward, uncivilised or dangerous (Smith, 1996, p.280). This
creates a match between race and class, as a person’s racial status becomes the basis on their
class and socio-economic status. The effect of internal colonialism is to create a racially-based
underclass, and the internally colonized minority usually live in poverty. Pinderhughes
(2011:236) defines ‘internal colonialism’ as “a geographically-based pattern of subordination
of a differentiated population, located within the dominant power or country”. He reminds us
that groups such as Aboriginals in Australia, African and native Americans in the USA, and
Maori in NZ can be considered to be negatively impacted by internal colonialism, as seen in
their (often) lower socio-economic outcomes.

34 145.218 Study Guide: Introductory Module

The theory of internal colonialism provides an interesting explanation as to why
separatist movements occur. Can you think of any other examples of internal
colonialism? Have another look at the list of separatist movements above, or the

articles you accessed at the beginning of this topic.

Reading 10

Regan, A. (2013). Bougainville: Conflict Deferred? In R. Jeffrey, E. Aspinall
& A. Regan (eds.) Diminishing conflicts in Asia and the Pacific: Why Some
Subsite and Others Don’t (pp. 119-136) New York: Routledge.

As previously noted a separatist movement has existed in Bougainville, on and off, since 1975.
This reading outlines the background to the crisis, the impacts on development in Bougainville,
and the peace process. As you read, think about what you now know about ethnic conflict, and
what factors are evident here.

Regan identifies resources revenue disputes, state violence and the complexity of the
conflict as contributing factors to the conflict. There was a clear ethnic component to
these. How did ethnic differences contribute to the conflict?

145.218 Study Guide Weeks 3-5 35

What role did cultural factors play in the resolution of the conflict? (pp. 127-128)
How did New Zealand contribute to this?

What are Regan’s lessons from this conflict? (pp. 131-132)

The Bougainville Civil War caused incredible devastation and loss, including this picture

taken at the ruins of Arawa Hospital in 1997. Photo: AFP 7

Consequences of the conflict
The article over the page, published at the time of the conflict, gives some insight into the
consequences for Bougainvillians. As you read it, reflect on what the long-term consequences
of this suffering might be for communities, and for Bougainville.

7 http://www.radionz.co.nz/international/pacific-news/283179/20-years-on,-bougainville-families-haunted-by-missing

36 145.218 Study Guide: Introductory Module

(Pacific Islands Monthly, 1992: August.)

145.218 Study Guide Weeks 3-5 37

Optional case study West Papua

Optional reading
Reading 10: Smith, A. L. and Ng, A. (2002). Papua: Moving Beyond Internal
Colonialism? New Zealand Journal of Asian Studies 4(2) (December): 90-114.

This optional extra reading examines the case of West Papua in more detail, an ongoing
conflict in our region which involves internal colonialism, but one that is largely unnoticed by
the rest of the world.

The map below is from a 2002 feature by the New Internationalist, profiling West Papua. Look
at the map overleaf and read the information surrounding it (New Internationalist April
2002:12-13).

OPTIONAL: Browse the Guardian’s West Papua page8 for updates on the current situation.

As you read, think about:

• How, through history, the Indonesians managed to gain control of Papua.

• What strategies have been applied by the Indonesian government in its occupation of

Papua?

• What is the value of the mineral, forest and gas reserves in Papua? What is the

relationship between natural resource wealth and internal colonialism?

• What is the long-term impact on Papuans?

8 http://www.theguardian.com/world/west-papua

38 145.218 Study Guide: Introductory Module

145.218 Study Guide Weeks 3-5 39

40 145.218 Study Guide: Introductory Module

Summary
Many ethnic problems have emerged largely because states which have been created are not
congruent with nations. The way in which a state deals with separatist movements is crucial. It
can either treat them as:

• irrational outbursts among disorganised groups.

• normal political behaviour which establishes collective identity and attains goals.

Governments can curb secessionist tendencies by devolving power and resources. They can
fuel secessionist tendencies by ignoring, or suppressing, the stated concerns of ethnic groups.

The following quote on ethnic conflict in relation to Asia could just as easily be applied to
other regions of the world:

It is not ethnicity per se that constitutes the problem since, as a whole, Southeast Asia is
composed of hundreds of ethno-linguistic groups. It becomes an issue only when a dominant
ethnic group takes control of the state apparatus and proceeds to impose its will on the rest of
the population (Encarnacion and Tadem, 1993:161).

Modernisation theory suggested that ethnic identity and ethnic conflicts would disappear in the
years of post-colonial nation-building. Instead, they became stronger in many cases. Ethnic
mobilisation can no longer be considered a pre-modern or non-rational form of social action-it
occurs in the West and the East, the North and the South, and it is a legitimate social and
political force (Stavenhagen, 1990:17).

Answers to exercise: a) Indonesia, b) Fiji, c) New Zealand, d) PNG

Week 5 References
Encarnacion, T. S. and Tadem, E. C. (1993). Ethnicity and Separatist Movements in Southeast
Asia. In P. Wignaraja (ed.) New Social Movements in the South. Zed, London, 149-164.

Handelman, H. (2013). The politics of cultural pluralism and ethnic conflict. In The Challenge
of Third World Development (7th ed. pp. 106-141). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson

145.218 Study Guide Weeks 3-5 41

Hisada, T. (2008). Indigenous Development and Self-Determination in West Papua. VDM
Verlay, Saarbrucken.

Kuby, M., Harner, J. & Gober, P. (2013) Chapter 13. Breaking up is hard to do: Nations,
States, and Nation-States. In Human Geography in Action. John Wiley & Sons, Danvers MA.
350-389

May, R. J. (1990). Ethnic Separatism in Southeast Asia. Pacific Viewpoint. 31 (2): 28-59.

Pinderhughes, C. (2011). Toward a new theory of internal colonialism. Socialism &
Democracy 25(1): 235-256.

Regan, A. (2013). Bougainville: Conflict Deferred? In R. Jeffrey, E. Aspinall & A. Regan
(eds.) Diminishing conflicts in Asia and the Pacific: Why Some Subsite and Others Don’t (pp.
119-136) New York: Routledge.

Regan, A. J. (2014). Bougainville: Large-scale Mining and Risks of Conflict Recurrence.
Security Challenges, 10(2), 71-96.

Smith, A. L. and Ng, A. (2002). Papua: Moving Beyond Internal Colonialism? New Zealand
Journal of Asian Studies 4(2) (December): 90-114.

Saha, S. (2006). Perspectives on Contemporary Ethnic Conflict. Lexington Books, Lanham.

Smith, B.C. (1996). ‘Nationalism and Secession’, in Understanding Third World Politics.
Macmillan, Basingstoke, 269-296.

Stavenhagen, R. (1990). The Ethnic Question Today. In The Ethnic Question. United Nations
University Press, Tokyo, 1-18.

Wolff, S. (2006). Ethnic Conflict: A Global Perspective. Oxford University Press, Oxford.

Icons in this study guide are by Christian Burprich: http://findicons.com/pack/1742/ecqlipse

(Creative Commons licence)

http://findicons.com/pack/1742/ecqlipse

Summary
Week 3 References
Optional reading
Week 4: Indigenous Peoples & ‘The Development Project’
Learning Outcomes
Who are indigenous peoples?
Issues at the root of conflicts between indigenous peoples and states
1. Definition, membership and legal status
2. Land, territory and resources
3. Economic Development
4. Language, education and culture
5. Indigenous law and social organisation
6. Self-government, autonomy and self-determination
Week 4: Readings and Activities
Reading 7
Reading 8
Optional Videos
Summary
Week 4 References
Optional reading
Week 5: Ethnic Conflict and Separatist Movements
Learning Outcomes
Ethnicity & Conflict
Separatism & Secession
Week 5: Readings and Activities
Reading 9
Internal Colonialism
Reading 10
Consequences of the conflict

Optional case study West Papua
Summary
Week 5 References
Optional reading

145.218

Development & Inequality

Lesson
WEEK 8 (Parts I and II)

Nicole Ashley
School of People, Environment & Planning

Cadey Korson

School of People, Environment & Planning

2019

2 145.218 Study Guide Module 3 Gender

Acknowledgement

This course was originally written and taught by Regina Scheyvens, and much of the material in the modules is
from her research. Since 2012 the course has been updated and revised by Sharon McLennan.

THIS MATERIAL IS PROTECTED BY COPYRIGHT AND HAS BEEN COPIED BY AND SOLELY FOR THE
EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES OF THE UNIVERSITY UNDER LICENCE. YOU MAY NOT SELL, ALTER OR
FURTHER REPRODUCE OR DISTRIBUTE ANY PART OF THIS COURSE PACK/MATERIAL TO ANY OTHER
PERSON. WHERE PROVIDED TO YOU IN ELECTRONIC FORMAT, YOU MAY ONLY PRINT FROM IT FOR
YOUR OWN PRIVATE STUDY AND RESEARCH. FAILURE TO COMPLY WITH THE TERMS OF THIS
WARNING MAY EXPOSE YOU TO LEGAL ACTION FOR COPYRIGHT INFRINGEMENT AND/OR
DISCIPLINARY ACTION BY THE UNIVERSITY.

145.218 Study Guide Module 2 Gender

Contents

Figures

………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 2

Readings

………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 3

Week 9: Gender and Development ………………………………………………………………………….. 4

Learning Outcomes / Objectives

……………………………………………………………………… 4

Introduction to the Gender module

………………………………………………………………….. 4

The sex / gender distinction

……………………………………………………………………………. 5

Readings & Activities

……………………………………………………………………………………. 8

Warm Up Exercise …………………………………………………………………………………………….. 8
Global sex ratio …………………………………………………………………………………………………. 8
Gender and inequality ………………………………………………………………………………………. 10
Reading 18: Gender-Related Development. …………………………………………………………. 11
Gender as a development issue ………………………………………………………………………….. 13
Reading 19: Gender and Development ……………………………………………………………….. 14
Reading 20: Rethinking gender and empowerment ………………………………………………. 16
Why does the empowerment approach make some people nervous? ………………………. 17
Optional Activity (Video) …………………………………………………………………………………. 18

Summary

……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 18

References

………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 18

Week 10: Sexuality and Development …………………………. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Learning Outcomes / Objectives …………………………. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Sexuality, gender and development …………………….. Error! Bookmark not defined.
LGBT, trans* and other non-binary identities ………. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Readings / Activities …………………………………………. Error! Bookmark not defined.

Warm Up Exercise ………………………………………………… Error! Bookmark not defined.
Reading 21: The trans revolution …………………………….. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Third genders and inequality in the global south ……….. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Gender and sexuality as a development concern………… Error! Bookmark not defined.
Reading 22: Sexuality and Development ………………….. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Summary …………………………………………………………. Error! Bookmark not defined.
References ……………………………………………………….. Error! Bookmark not defined.

Week 11:

Women and Work

…………………………………………………………………………………. 20
Learning Outcomes / Objectives ……………………………………………………………………. 20
What Is The International Division Of Labour? ………………………………………………. 20

What does the use of third world women’s labour have to do with NZ? ………………….. 27
Warm Up Exercise ………………………………………………………………………………………. 28

2 145.218 Study Guide Module 3 Gender

Readings / Activities ……………………………………………………………………………………. 32
Comparison exercise ………………………………………………………………………………………… 35
The New International Division Of Labour And Associated Problems For
Women: ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 35
Summary ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 38
References ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 39

Figures

Figure 1 Gender empowerment map ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 6

Figure 2 Global Sex Ratio, 2000-2008 ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 9

Figure 3 GII process …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 10

Figure 4: GII map ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 11

Figure 5: Poverty and Sexuality diagram ……………………………………………………… Error! Bookmark not defined.

Figure 6: Employment in global clothing industries, 2005 ………………………………………………………………………. 21

Figure 7: Leading clothing exporters 2000 and 2007 ……………………………………………………………………………… 22

Figure 8: Hourly labour costs in the clothing industries, 2008 ………………………………………………………………… 22

Figure 9: Global production of passenger cars ……………………………………………………………………………………… 23

Figure 10: Changes in the relative importance of automobile producing countries …………………………………… 23

Figure 11: Export processing Zones in Developing Countries ………………………………………………………………….. 25

145.218 Study Guide Module 2 Gender 3

Readings

WEEK 8 (Part I)
Rubenstein, J. M. (2016). Gender-Related Development. Contemporary Human Geography
(3rd ed. pp. 218-219). USA: Pearson Education.

Momsen, J. (2010). Introduction: Gender is a development issue. In Gender and
Development. Routledge, London: 1-19.

Parpart, J. (2014). Rethinking gender and empowerment. In V. Desai and R. B. Potter (eds.)
The Companion to Development Studies. Routledge, New York: 407-410.

WEEK 8 (Part II)
Gwyne, R. N. (2002). Export Processing and Free Trade Zones. In V. Desai and R. B. Potter
(eds.) The Companion to Development Studies Arnold, London, 201-206.

Mills, M. B. (2003). Gender and Inequality in the Global Labour Force. Annual Review of
Anthropology, 32: 41-62.

Chamberlain, S. (1996). ‘The female face of the proletariat’. New Internationalist. July: 28-
30.

Optional Reading:
Ghosh, J. (2011). Financial crises and the impact on women: a historical note. In Visvanathan, N.
(ed.) The Women, Gender and Development Reader. Zed Books, Halifax

4 145.218 Study Guide Module 3 Gender

Gender and Development

Learning Outcomes / Objectives

At The End Of This Topic You Will

• realise how development has impacted negatively on many women in the past.

• understand how different approaches to gender and development impact on women’s

and men’s lives.

• be able to demonstrate why the empowerment of women should be a crucial aspect of

development programmes.

The third module in this course looks at gender as a development issue. Cast your mind back
to the introduction to this course, when I cited Friedmann’s (1992) ideas on empowerment.
He argued quite forcefully that development should be about enhancing the capacity of
marginalised or disempowered peoples to participate in and benefit from society’s bounty.
We have already looked at people disadvantaged because of their ethnicity and at class
inequality. For the next three topics we will look at people disadvantaged because of their
gender.

Introduction to the Gender module

The third module in this course looks at
gender as a development issue. Inequalities
of gender are associated with the differential
status accorded to men and women,
opportunities open to men and women,
and the power and influence men and women
exert. In the photo on the left, which was
taken when Regina was in Tanzania in 2007
working with an NGO on
their gender programme, a male elder stood up

to speak out against a traditional practice of female genital cutting – evidence that men can
work for the empowerment of women and girls too!

145.218 Study Guide Module 2 Gender 5

This is a great module with which to finish off the course, because we can all relate
to gender issues! Think about how gender relations have changed dramatically in NZ from
the previous generation – compare opportunities available to girls and women today with
those of perhaps your mother or grandmother. More women are now in paid work, but some
still face ‘glass ceilings’ in the workplace or struggle with managing a double day (paid work
plus unpaid work in the home). While NZ men of today are doing far more around the
house and with childcare than the previous generation, the latest Census still shows that
women bear a heavier burden of unpaid work. Men are disadvantaged in various ways as
well, however. For example, if any of you has been a ‘stay at home Dad’ you will realise
there are far fewer support services available for you than for ‘stay at home
Mums’. Similarly, our culture is not particularly supportive of men choosing professions
involving secretarial work or early childhood education. Think about how gender impacts
on your life – and remember, gender differences aren’t the problem, it’s only gender
inequality that’s an issue!

In this module you’ll look first at ‘Gender Sensitive Development’ (showing why
development workers need to be sensitive to gender issues), then at ‘Development and
Sexuality’ (an major but under-recognised source of inequality worldwide), and lastly at
‘Women and Work’ (including a specific discussion of the issue of women working in global
factories – is globalisation empowering or disempowering for these women?). As the
worldmapper map (Figure 1) on the next page indicates, gender inequality is particularly a
problem of ‘developing’ nations, however there are some anomalies here (can you spot
them?) and, as the optional activity later shows, it is still a contentious issue in the ‘west’.

The sex / gender distinction

Rather than focusing our attention on the biological differences between men and women, a
gendered perspective focuses on the on ‘…socially acquired notions of masculinity and
femininity by which women and men are identified’ (Momsen, 2010:2) and the cultural or
social characteristics associated with being male or female (Greiner, 2014: 399). As Goetz
(1997: 6) notes:

“Gender” refers to the socially constructed and institutionalised forms of
identity which are attached to biological sex differences, and “gendering”
is the process producing these forms, through the granting or withholding
of significant social, political and economic resources and values (Goetz,
1992: 6).

6 145.218 Study Guide Module 3 Gender

Figure 1 Gender empowerment map

145.218 Study Guide Module 2 Gender 7

Thus most of the differences we observe between women and men have little to do with sex
(biology); rather, they are based on gender, the social construction of sexual differences. In
this way the traits which are seen as being desirable in men and women may vary from
society to society. For example, girls may be brought up to be complacent and demure,
while boys in the same society are expected to be assertive and independent. These traits are
associated with gender roles, the social expectations, responsibilities and rights that are
associated with masculinity and femininity (Greiner, 2014:184). These roles can vary
significantly across different societies. For example, in India, men do much of the sewing
and many women work on construction sites. This is different from the situation in many
western countries. In nearly all cases where women are designated a particular task,
however, it receives less of a reward (in terms of income and status) than men would
receive. For example, while in New Zealand many occupational stereotypes are being
broken down with, in the cases of medicine and veterinary studies, equal numbers of men
and women in training, childcare is still predominantly seen as a women’s job. For this they
receive either low wages or no pay. While we have seen a shift towards greater involvement
of men in unpaid childcare, this has not yet become an acceptable ‘norm,’ and stay-at-home
Dads may feel less supported by society than stay-at-home Mums.

Instead of looking at women alone as if they existed in a vacuum, a gendered approach to
development recognizes that men, women and gender-variant people1 are all constrained by
the way society constructs ‘men’ and ‘women’, and that all genders need to work to
transform their societies (Cornwall 2000).

1 Gender variance or gender non-conformity is a term used to describe behaviours and
interests that fit outside of what we consider ‘normal’ for a child or adult’s assigned
biological sex (Gender diversity, 2016).

8 145.218 Study Guide Module 3 Gender

Readings & Activities

Warm Up Exercise

Global sex ratio
Study the map on the following page (Figure 2).

For genetic and other reasons that no two authors can agree on at this stage, it appears that
women generally live longer than men. Thus in countries where the sex ratio shows that
there are significantly more males than females (areas shaded black on this map), it is
generally agreed that there must be cultural conditions which disadvantage women. Name 5
countries on the map where this is the case2.

• __________________________________________________________________

• __________________________________________________________________
• __________________________________________________________________
• __________________________________________________________________

I have listed one reason for this below; see if you can think of others:

• abortion of female foetuses (preference for boys).
• __________________________________________________________________
• __________________________________________________________________
• __________________________________________________________________

• __________________________________________________________________
• __________________________________________________________________

2 This may challenge your geographical knowledge as the country names are not marked on
the map! Use Google maps or an atlas to identify the names of countries you aren’t sure
about.

145.218 Study Guide Module 2 Gender 9

Figure 2 Global Sex Ratio, 2000-2008

So
ur

ce
:

M
om

se
n,

2
01

0:
2

10 145.218 Study Guide Module 3 Gender

Gender and inequality

While great strides have been made in understanding gender and gender roles, women, girls
and gender variant people continue to face considerable disadvantages in health, education,
employment and political representation, and gender-based inequality remains a major
barrier to human development and to the development of capabilities and freedom. Some of
these inequalities will be explored in the next three weekly topics, but first it is worth having
a look at one method of measuring gender-based inequality, the Gender Inequality Index
(GII). This index was introduced in the 2010 UN Human Development Report and is built
on the same framework as the HDI. It measures gender inequalities using three important
aspects of human development:

• reproductive health, measured by

o maternal mortality ratio

o adolescent birth rates

• empowerment, measured by

o proportion of parliamentary seats occupied by females

o proportion of adult females and males aged 25 years and older with at least

some secondary education

• economic status, measured using

o labour force participation rate of female and male populations aged 15 years

and older..

The process of determining the GII is shown in Figure 3 below.

Figure 3 GII process

Source: UNDP (2015)

145.218 Study Guide Module 2 Gender 11

The GII uses the same 0 to 1 measurement scale as the Gini, with 0 being 0% inequality,
(complete equality between women and men) and 1 being 100% inequality (complete
inequality between women and men)3.

Reading 18: Gender-Related Development.

Required reading

Rubenstein, J. M. (2016). Gender-Related Development. Contemporary Human
Geography (3rd ed. pp. 218-219). USA: Pearson Education.

Study the map below (Figure 4, from Reading 18) and compare with the HDI
map in Reading 1 (Greiner, 2014: 272). What do you notice about the link
between gender, inequality and human development?

Figure 4: GII map

Source: Rubenstein (2016: 218)

3 This, as Rubenstein (2016, p.218) notes, is the opposite interpretation to the HDI wherein 0
is completely undeveloped and 1 is very highly developed.

12 145.218 Study Guide Module 3 Gender

Reproductive Health
One of the indicators for reproductive health is the maternal mortality ratio (the
number of women who die giving birth per 100000 births. Do you know of any
woman who has died during pregnancy or childbirth in NZ? Fortunately for
us, this is a relatively rare occurrence, but in a number of countries this is an all
too common occurrence. Consider what could be done to improve this
situation.

Did you consider grassroots initiatives (e.g. training for traditional birth attendants) as well
as international strategies (e.g. debt relief, so governments have more money for health)?

Empowerment
Empowerment is notoriously difficult to measure. The GII does this by
measuring the proportion of parliamentary seats occupied by females, and the
proportion of adult females with at least some secondary education.

Consider what implications a relatively low rate of female literacy (and numeracy) has for
women’s life options in these countries. I have listed two implications of this below; see if
you can think of others:

• women lack the skills to deal with officials and fill in forms (therefore they miss out on bank

loans and may sign documents which they do not understand).

• women cannot write prices on cards to advertise their fruit and vegetables at the market and
they do not know the correct change to give customers

• __________________________________________________________________

145.218 Study Guide Module 2 Gender 13

Using map 9.5.4 on page 219 of the Rubenstein reading, name 3 countries with very poor
representation of women in parliament:

• __________________________________________________________________
• __________________________________________________________________

• __________________________________________________________________

Now name 3 Third World countries that do better than Western Countries on this score (and
think about why this might be)

Gender as a development issue

As your comparison between the GII and HDI maps should have highlighted, there is a link
between gender inequalities and human development. Gender has therefore become a key
focus for development agencies. However this was something that many early development
practitioners were not aware of, or interested in. When debates first arose about the need to
consider gender issues when devising development projects, many development agencies,
donors and so forth argued that their projects did not discriminate against women, rather,
they were ‘gender-neutral’. The problem with so-called gender-neutral projects is that they
make assumptions about women which are often incorrect (see the box below), and thus the
effects they have on women are unintentionally negative.

Take the example of a development agency which provides employment for men on a cocoa
plantation several hours journey from home. They feel this will benefit the community
because when the men return home once a month, they will be able to afford to pay their
children’s school fees, buy medicines, etc. They also assume that women, who, after all, are
not economically active, will be able to carry on with their own work in addition to taking
up work which arises in their husband’s absence. In practice, however, it is quite likely that
a number of the men who go to work on the plantation will find themselves a new ‘wife’ in a
nearby village. Others may return home, but may prefer to spend their wages on
consumables such as beer and a transistor radio. Meanwhile, women’s workload has
doubled: they have to break in new land for crops as well as planting, weeding around and

14 145.218 Study Guide Module 3 Gender

harvesting the crops, and they have to make repairs to their homes and collect heavy
firewood, work which the men previously did.

Common assumptions which have been made about third world women in the
past:

1. That all women live in families (many young women, in particular, leave home in

search of work, e.g., as domestics, in the city).

2. That all families have male bread-winners (around one in five households in the Third

World is headed by a woman).

3. That women do not contribute to their families through their own paid employment

(some researchers have estimated that twice as many families would live in poverty if it

were not for women’s economic contributions).

4. That the unpaid work of women in families is not related to the reward structure of the

occupational order (the relevance of domestic work to the labour force is often only

recognised in male-headed households without an adult female which are forced to buy

domestic servants or do without; also, the undervaluing of subsistence agriculture often

leads to women’s gardens being pushed further away from the village, undermining the

nutritional status of the family and increasing women’s burden).

5. That there is an equal distribution of resources within families (luxuries for males may

in fact take precedence over necessities for women and children).

Source: Broom, D.H. (1987). Another Tribe: Gender and Inequality. In C. Jennett and R.G.
Stewart (eds). Three Worlds of Inequality.

Reading 19: Gender and Development

Required reading
Reading 19: Momsen, J. (2010). Gender and Development. Routledge,
London: 1-19.

145.218 Study Guide Module 2 Gender 15

Momsen explains how gender is a social construction. For example, the roles
of men and women vary from one society to another. Give 2 examples either
from this article or your own experiences of how men’s and women’s accepted
roles may vary (e.g. in India, Regina was surprised to find so many men
operating sewing machines, while women made up a large proportion of the
labourers on building sites).

______________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

You may also think of how gender roles have changed from the time of your parent’s
generation. This shows us that culture is not static, it is constantly evolving. This is a
positive thing, as it means that the political, economic and social status of women, as you
have explored in the Rubenstein reading, can be improved!

Momsen shows how approaches to women’s development have changed
considerably since the 1970s. Describe the following 3 approaches:

WID:
_______________________________________________________________________

GAD:

The Empowerment Approach:
_______________________________________________________________________

16 145.218 Study Guide Module 3 Gender

Has economic development always led to improvements in the life of women?

_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________

Reading 20: Rethinking gender and empowerment

Required reading
Parpart, J. (2014). Rethinking gender and empowerment. In V. Desai and R. B.
Potter (eds.) The Companion to Development Studies. Routledge, New York:
407-410.

What do the terms ‘power over’, ‘power to’ and ‘power within’ mean (p.408)?
What about power with (p409)? How is this different?

Power over:
_______________________________________________________________________

Power to:

145.218 Study Guide Module 2 Gender 17

Power within:
_______________________________________________________________________

Power with:
_______________________________________________________________________

Can empowerment be measured? What are some of the challenges to measuring
empowerment (p.410)?

Why does the empowerment approach make some people nervous?

Empowerment entails a challenge to existing structures of society, which
is bound to make governments and donors alike nervous. It is not simply
a larger piece of the cake that is demanded but ‘…a fundamental
transformation of society not only in the direction of non-oppressive and
non-exploitative relationships between men and women; but also among
classes, races and nations’ (Lycklama à Nijeholt, 1991:155).

This approach ‘…leads, inevitably, to a fundamental re-examination of
social structures and institutions and, ultimately, to the loss of power of
entrenched elites, which will effect some women as well as men…. [thus] it
demands a degree of commitment to structural change and power shifts
that is unlikely to be found either in national or in international agencies’
(Rathgeber, 1990:495).

18 145.218 Study Guide Module 3 Gender

Optional Activity (Video)

Osama
In what ways does this film portray the oppression of women and girls
under the Taliban regime in Afghanistan?
How can women and men work together to improve their lives in such a
situation?

Summary

Empowerment is a vital aspect of development for any group that has been disadvantaged
and marginalised in society, whether because of their gender, ethnicity or class.

The focus of development for women should not be to entrench stereotypical ideas about
appropriate roles for women in society. It should be, instead, to improve gender relations
and to enhance women’s control over their lives: for example, control over their fertility, by
providing them with safe and effective reproductive strategies; control over resources they
need for survival by securing legal tenure for them; and by providing them with
opportunities to earn a fair income, which they control. There is increasing recognition
through a Gender and Development (GAD) approach that women and men need to work
together to achieve good change.

References

Cornwall, A. & Rivas, A. (2015) From ‘gender equality and ‘women’s empowerment’ to
global justice: reclaiming a transformative agenda for gender and development. Third World
Quarterly 36(2): 396–415

Cornwall, A (2000) Missing men? Reflections on men, masculinities and gender in GAD.
IDS Bulletin 31(2): 18-27.

Gender diversity (2016). Retrieved from
http://www.genderdiversity.org/resources/terminology/#

http://encore.massey.ac.nz/iii/encore/record/C__Rb1870162

http://www.genderdiversity.org/resources/terminology/

145.218 Study Guide Module 2 Gender 19

Goetz, A.M. (1997). Getting Institutions Right for Women. Zed, London.

Greiner, A.L. (2014) Sexuality and Gender. In Visualizing Human Geography. Wiley,
Hoboken NJ. 184-188

Kabeer, N. (1992). From Fertility Reduction to Reproductive Choice: Gender Perspectives
on Family Planning. Institute of Development Studies, Sussex.

Lycklama a Nijeholt, G. (1992). Women and the Meaning of Development: Approaches and
Consequences. Institute of Development Studies, Sussex.

Molyneux, M. (1985). Mobilization without emancipation? Feminist Studies. 11 (2): 227-
254.

Momsen, J. (2010) Gender and Development (2nd ed.) Routledge, London

Moser, C. O. (1989). Gender Planning in the Third World: Meeting Practical and Strategic
Gender Needs. World Development, 17 (1): 1799- 1825.

Parpart, J. (2014) Rethinking gender and empowerment. In Desai, V. & Potter, R. (eds) The
Companion to Development Studies (3rd Edition). Routledge, London. 407-411

Rai, S. (2011) Gender and development: theoretical perspectives. In Visvanathan, N. (ed.).
The Women, Gender and Development Reader. Halifax: Zed Books Ltd. 28-37

Rathgeber, E.M. (1990). WID, WAD, GAD: Trends in Research and Practice. Journal of
Developing Areas 24 (4): 489-502.

Rowlands, J. (1997). Questioning Empowerment: Working with Women in Honduras.
Oxfam, Oxford.

Rubenstein, J. M. (2016). Gender-Related Development. Contemporary Human Geography
(3rd ed. pp. 218-219). USA: Pearson Education.

Scheyvens, R. (1995). A Quiet Revolution: Strategies for the Empowerment and
Development of Rural Women in the Solomon Islands. PhD thesis, Massey University, New
Zealand.

UNDP (2015). Gender Inequality Index (GII). Retrieved from
http://hdr.undp.org/en/content/gender-inequality-index-gii

http://hdr.undp.org/en/content/gender-inequality-index-gii

20 145.218 Study Guide Module 3 Gender

Women and Work

Learning Outcomes / Objectives

At The End Of This Topic You Will

• understand how the new IDOL impacts on the lives of many Third World women

• know what an FTZ is and how employers justify women’s lower pay in these zones

• be able to see how MNCs exploit the cultural positioning of women in different

societies in order to get a cheap, disciplined labour force.

What Is The International Division Of Labour?

The internationalisation of capital

In the 1970s and 80s, businesses, faced with falling rates of profit and neo-liberal pressures,
were forced to ‘automate, emigrate, or evaporate’; thus many went international (Thrift,
1989:20). Global factories and newly industrialising countries (NICs) became signs of
growth and development. In 1998, however, the ‘Asian crisis’ demonstrated that the so-
called economic miracle which brought growth to the economies of Thailand, Malaysia and
other Asian countries, was somewhat flawed.

The internationalisation of capital refers to the export of capitalist relations of production,
through direct investment by multinational corporations (MNCs) which create subsidiaries
abroad, organised along capitalist lines. Think back to the material covered in week 6 on
Crisis! The internationalisation of capital and the new international division of labour is
closely tied to neoliberal processes.

The new international division of labour (IDOL)

This is a new world spatial division of labour which emerged from:

• The breakdown of traditional economic and social structures in many developing

countries, leading to a huge supply of cheap labour

• export-led strategies of Third World countries

145.218 Study Guide Module 2 Gender 21

• overseas investment by MNCs (by 1985, 65 million workers were directly employed by

MNCs) in search of cheap labour

• the homogenisation of the production process which allowed tasks to be carried out by

unskilled workers who required little training

• a fragmented production process which allowed spatial separation of stages of

production

• transport and communications technology allowing production processes to be carried

out at many new sites around the world without prohibitive technical, organisational or

cost problems.

There were particular industries which suited this new international division of labour, for
example, textiles and clothing, and automobiles (as illustrated by figures 6-10).

Figure 5: Employment in global clothing industries, 2005

Source: Dicken (2011) p. 304

22 145.218 Study Guide Module 3 Gender

Figure 6: Leading clothing exporters 2000 and 2007

Source: Dicken (2011) p. 305

Figure 7: Hourly labour costs in the clothing industries, 2008

Source: Dicken (2011) pp. 309

145.218 Study Guide Module 2 Gender 23

Figure 8: Global production of passenger cars

Source: Dicken (2011) pp. 334

Figure 9: Changes in the relative importance of automobile producing countries

24 145.218 Study Guide Module 3 Gender

Source: Dicken (2011) pp. 335

Which countries became new sites of production under the new IDOL?

The new IDOL typically involved managerial and high technology functions remaining in
western countries while labour-intensive production processes went to Third World
countries which had the following attributes:

• political stability

• governments which welcome foreign investment and are willing to provide tax

incentives and to establish vital services such as transport, energy and

communications facilities so that modern industries can function

• a low wage labour force (see Figure 8)

• lack of, or weak, trade unions

Setting up large factories in Third World countries was also attractive because, as well as
avoiding large wage bills, it meant that MNCs could avoid extra expenditure to meet safety
standards on funds such as the ACC in New Zealand, and high taxes. The power of MNCs
which allows them to threaten to take their investment elsewhere also often prevents Third
World governments from enforcing health and safety or labour laws (Garnsey and Paukert,
1987).

Globalisation means that economic decisions which see more factory work going to low-
wage Asian countries can directly affect our lives. Read the excerpts from newspaper
articles overleaf concerning the loss of hundreds of jobs at Bendon factories in New
Zealand, for example. Most of their employees were women. In New Zealand’s case, they
may also say they are forced to locate overseas because of large reductions in tariffs.

What are free trade zones (FTZs)?

So keen were some countries to attract such foreign investment that they established FTZs.
In addition to providing infrastructure (such as transportation and telecommunications) to
make investment viable, the governments provide tax incentives and subsidised utilities for
the investing companies (Arregui and Baez, 1991). For examples of where FTZs are
located, see Figure 11.

145.218 Study Guide Module 2 Gender 25

We need to consider, however, whether foreign direct investment is always beneficial to
Third World countries.

Figure 10: Export processing Zones in Developing Countries

26 145.218 Study Guide Module 3 Gender

Source: Dicken (2003) pp. 180

145.218 Study Guide Module 2 Gender 27

The new IDOL is a gender and development concern as a disproportionate number of
workers in FTZs and global factories for industries such as footwear, clothing production
and micro-electronics are women. They are particularly vulnerable to exploitation, as will
be shown in this week’s readings.

What does the use of third world women’s labour have to do with NZ?

In 1999, Bendon, the underwear label so proudly ‘New Zealand’, started closing its
manufacturing plants here. The following excerpts from two newspaper articles reveal the
reasons for Bendon’s decision to move manufacturing off-shore, while also showing the
impact on local women who were employed in these factories.

Almost 350 Waikato Bendon factory workers are today struggling in
accept they have lost their jobs. Bendon yesterday announced it was
closing its Hamilton and Te Aroha factories after making women’s
underwear in New Zealand for more than 50 years. It said it could not
compete with overseas underwear makers. Bendon will now make its
garments in Asia.

A total of 98 jobs will be lost in its Te Aroha factory next month, along
with 13 at East Tamaki, near Auckland. A further 278 people – 245 at Te
Rapa and 33 at East Tamaki – will lose their jobs from the end of March
unless the Te Rapa plant can be sold as a going concern…

Waitoa’s Bev McIntyre said many staff were distressed. ‘It was very, very
sad in there. There were some upset women. People cried, mostly the old
hands. Some of them have been there for 28 years’. National
Distribution Union textile and clothing secretary Judy Attenberger said
job prospects for the women were slim. ‘Ninety-nine per cent of them are
women. A lot of them are in their 40s and 50s, who won’t get another job
in this town’.

(Scott, 1999:1).

Bendon’s move to shift business overseas has stirred up debate about
government policy in the past 12 years.

28 145.218 Study Guide Module 3 Gender

Since 1987, clothing tariffs, which work as a tax on imports to protect
local manufacturers, have fallen from 65 per cent to 17.5 per cent. They
are due to fall further to 15 per cent by the middle of next year…

Julie Attenberger, textile and clothing secretary of the National
Distribution Union, says Bendon has become extremely efficient but it can
no longer compete with goods from overseas… Many of Bendon’s main
export markets retained strong protection of their clothing industries, she
says: ‘In light of this it must be acknowledged that it is lunacy for New
Zealand to lead the world in the reduction of tariffs’.

(Morrison, 1999:8).

Warm Up Exercise

Now that you have learned a little about the new IDOL, consider how it may impact
specifically on women’s lives. Read the quotes (on the next pages) from factory managers
in Malaysia about women’s labour. Read also the short article ‘The Tragedy of Fast
Fashion’.

Now try to make a list of problems you anticipate women may face under the new IDOL:

145.218 Study Guide Module 2 Gender 29

(Ong, 1987)

30 145.218 Study Guide Module 3 Gender

145.218 Study Guide Module 2 Gender 31

32 145.218 Study Guide Module 3 Gender

Readings / Activities

Required reading
Reading 22: Gwyne, R. N. (2002). Export Processing and Free Trade Zones. In
V. Desai and R. B. Potter (eds.) The Companion to Development Studies Arnold,
London, 201-206

What factors have led to the growth of EPZs (sometimes known as FTZs),
which now exist in over 90 countries?

Explain what is meant by the ‘flying geese model’ of manufacturing (p.202).

Are all EPZs characterized by low-skilled, labour-intensive assembly plants
which manufacture clothing, footwear and basic electronics?

145.218 Study Guide Module 2 Gender 33

Required reading
Reading 23: Mills, M. B. (2003). Gender and Inequality in the Global Labour
Force. Annual Review of Anthropology, 32: 41-62.

Mills (2003: 42) states that “Around the globe, gender hierarchies are
produced and maintained in relation to transnational circuits of labour
mobilization and capital accumulation’. Provide examples to explain what she
means.

What strategies may be used to devalue women’s labour?

What are the particular risks faced by women who engage in transnational
service labour (e.g. working as nannies in foreign countries)?

34 145.218 Study Guide Module 3 Gender

In what ways are women struggling to achieve better labour rights?

Required reading
Reading 24: Chamberlain, S. (1996). ‘The female face of the proletariat’. New
Internationalist. July: 28-30.

In what ways are the rights that maquilla managements violate gender-specific?

How do MNCs in Central America capitalise on cultural traits women in the
these societies are said to hold?

145.218 Study Guide Module 2 Gender 35

Comparison exercise

Compare the list of problems you anticipated women may face under the new
IDOL (done as a warm up exercise) with the list below, highlighting any you
missed out:

The New International Division Of Labour And Associated
Problems For Women:

• marked pay differentials between women and men.

• a sharp division of labour with men occupying most management and supervisory

roles.

• static’ jobs that have no promotion potential.

• poor working conditions.

• inflexible skills; cannot be applied to work outside of the global factory.

• lack of childcare facilities.

• unsuitable hours of work.

• lack of unionisation of industry.

• instability of work because of a ‘revolving door’ policy (with employment policies

allowing for a high turnover of staff,which may be seen as necessary when the work

is monotonous and mentally wasting and physically exhausting).

• sometimes forced sacking of pregnant women (or once women marry to avoid

having to pay maternity benefits).

36 145.218 Study Guide Module 3 Gender

• health problems (e.g. women regularly using chemicals are more prone to menstrual

complaints, pregnancy problems and infertility while those using microscopes and

VDUs are more prone to eye complaints; mental health).

Features of female participation in the labour force which are
advantageous to capital

Refer back to all the readings for this topic and try to provide examples of
the following features of female participation in the labour force which are
advantageous to capital:
(Source: Gomez de Estrada and Reddock 1987; Standing 1992)

• Women’s relatively subordinated and repressed character within certain cultures:

EXAMPLE:

• Women’s supposed adoption of ‘natural’ traits, including acceptance of work

discipline, experience with monotonous work, and docile nature:

EXAMPLE:

145.218 Study Guide Module 2 Gender 37

• Women are dispensable:

EXAMPLE:

• A preference for young, single women who may be more vulnerable than other

groups (because they lack family obligations this also means they are seen as
more adaptable in terms of working hours, overtime and shift work):

EXAMPLE:

• the lack of need to pay a ‘family wage’; also, they are seen as easy to lay off

because of a tradition of economic dependence on men which results in them
seeing themselves as supplementary workers

EXAMPLE:

38 145.218 Study Guide Module 3 Gender

Many ‘…young women…in Asia, have been socially and economically
oppressed for so long that they have low “aspiration wages”…They are
prepared to work for low wages for long work weeks, normally without
agitating to join unions, and when their productivity declines after a few
years of youthful diligence they are replaced by new cohorts’ (Standing,
1992:351).

Optional reading

Ghosh, J. (2011). Financial crises and the impact on women: a historical note.
In Visvanathan, N. (ed.) The Women, Gender and Development Reader. Zed
Books, Halifax

This short reading brings together ideas covered in module 2, topic 1 (crisis) with the gender
topics we have covered in this module. As we complete the course you have hopefully
started to see how ethnic, class and gender inequalities intersect. This reading shows clearly
the way in which the effects of the crisis have been disproportionately distributed among the
population, with some groups – in this case women and girls in precarious work situations –
particularly vulnerable to crises.

Summary

New labour regimes have had dramatic impacts on Third World societies, which have been
seen as providing a cheap labour pool. They have impacted in particular ways on women’s
lives, as women’s labour, for a number of reasons, is seen as easier to exploit. Wages paid
are often lower than what men would be paid and women are said to possess certain
‘cultural traits’, such as obedience and deference to authority, which are said to make them
ideal employees: ‘… gender ideologies permit firms to portray work related skills (which
would require greater renumeration) as ‘patience’ or ‘gentleness’ (which do not)’ (Collins
1993: 70).

Those most vulnerable within a society and those most easily manipulated are those who are
most likely to be exploited under the new international division of labour. Case studies
showed how employers in industry manipulated the employment of women in specific ways
to avoid paying them an equitable wage and to circumvent their gaining collective power.

145.218 Study Guide Module 2 Gender 39

FTZs epitomise the notion of free trade under the new IDOL. But treatment of women
workers also epitomises problems for labour, and for women’s labour in particular, under
systems whereby profits become the main goal of production.

While women’s roles as industrial workers have increased under the new international
division of labour and many women appreciate the opportunity to earn a regular income,
their rights and job security have weakened overall.

References

Arregui, M. and Baez, C. (1991). Free trade zones and women workers. In T. Wallace and
C. March (eds.). Changing Perceptions: Writings on Gender and Development. Oxfam,
Oxford, 31-38.

Collins, J. L. (1993). Gender, contracts and wage work: Agricultural restructuring in
Brazil’s Sao Francisco valley. Development and Change 24: 53-82.

Dicken (2011). Global Shift (6th edition). Sage, London.

Garnsey, E. and Paukert, L. (1987). Industrial Change and Women’s Employment: Trends
in the New International Division of Labour. International Institute for Labour Studies,
Geneva, 1-10.

Gomez de Estrada, O. and Reddock, R. (1987). New trends in the internationalisation of
production: Implications for female workers. In R. Boyd, R. Cohen and P. Gutkind (eds).
International Labour and the Third World. Avebury, Aldershot, 137-59.

Greiner, A.L. (2014) Globalization. In Visualizing Human Geography. Wiley, Hoboken NJ.:
36-40

Harris, M. (1994). Development II: The Privatization of Everything? Progress in Human
Geography 18 (3): 371-84.

Lim, L. (2003). ‘Capitalism, imperialism, and patriarchy. The dilemma of third-world
women workers in multinational factories. In C. R. McCann and S. Kim (eds) Feminist
Theory Reader: Local and global Perspectives. Routledge, London: 222-230.

40 145.218 Study Guide Module 3 Gender

Momsen, J. and Townsend, J. (1987). Geography of Gender in the Third World. State
University of New York Press, 79-81.

Morrison, T. (1999). ‘Why Bendon is moving out’. The Dominion
22 October: 8.

Ong, Aihwa (1987). Spirits of Resistance and Capitalist Discipline: Factory Women in
Malaysia. State University of New York Press.

Scott, I. (1999). ‘’350 jobs lost at Bendon’. Waikato Times 21 October: 1.

Taylor, P. (1992). Understanding global inequalities. Geography 77 (1):10-21.

Thrift, N. (1989). The geography of international economic disorder. In R.J. Johnston and
P.J. Taylor (eds.) A World in Crisis: Geographical Perspectives. Blackwell, London, 16-
78.

Standing, G (1992). Global feminization through flexible labor. In C. Wilber and K.
Jameson (eds). The Political Economy of Development and Underdevelopment. McGraw-
Hill, New York, 346-75.

Talcott, M. (2004) Gendered webs of development and resistance: Women, children, and
flowers in Bogotá. Signs. 29(2): 465-489

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