Introduction and Summary
Rubic_Print_Format
| Course Code | Class Code | Assignment Title | Total Points | ||||||
| EDL-861 | EDL-861-O500 | Literature Review: Introduction and Summary | 175.0 | ||||||
| Criteria | Percentage | Unsatisfactory (0.00%) | Less than Satisfactory (74.00%) | Satisfactory (79.00%) | Good (87.00%) | Excellent (100.00%) | Comments | Points Earned | |
| 100.0% | |||||||||
| Introduction to the Literature Review | 20.0% | The introduction to the literature review is either missing or does not address all of the required components. | The introduction to the literature review incompletely or inaccurately describes the topic under investigation and the importance of the study to the field. It does not describe how the study addresses or extends something that is not known and/or will fill a gap in the literature or research. | The introduction to the literature review provides a cursory description of the topic under investigation and the importance of the study to the field. It vaguely describes how the study addresses or extends something that is not known and/or will fill a gap in the literature or research. | The introduction to the literature review describes the topic under investigation, presents the importance of the study to the field, and describes how the study addresses or extends something that is not known and/or will fill a gap in the literature or research. | The introduction to the literature review clearly and thoroughly describes the topic under investigation, presents the importance of the study to the field, and describes how the study addresses or extends something that is not known and/or will fill a gap in the literature or research. | |||
| Revised Body of the Literature Review | The revised body of the literature review is either missing or does not address all of the required components. | The revised body of the literature review incompletely or inaccurately discusses what has been published on the topic and evaluates the strengths and weaknesses of the existing literature and current research. There is no connection to the proposed study, and no synthesis of the information in each theme. | The revised body of the literature review provides a cursory discussion of what has been published on the topic and vaguely evaluates the strengths and weaknesses of the existing literature and current research. It lacks a strong connection to the proposed study and only partially synthesizes the information in each theme. | The revised body of the literature review provides a discussion of what has been published on the topic, evaluates the strengths and weaknesses of the existing literature and current research, makes a strong connection to the proposed study, and synthesizes the information in each theme. | The revised body of the literature review provides a comprehensive and thorough discussion of what has been published on the topic, evaluates the strengths and weaknesses of the existing literature and current research, makes a strong connection to the proposed study, and fully synthesizes the information in each theme. | ||||
| Inclusion of Instructor Feedback in the Revised Body of the Literature Review | 10.0% | The revised body of the literature review does not include instructor feedback. | The revised body of the literature review incompletely or inaccurately includes instructor feedback. | The revised body of the literature review includes instructor feedback though it does not integrate well with the existing writing. | The revised body of the literature review integrates instructor feedback moderately well with the existing writing. | The revised body of the literature review seamlessly integrates instructor feedback with the existing writing. | |||
| Summary to the Literature Review | The summary to the literature review is either missing or does not address all of the required components. | The summary to the literature review incompletely or inaccurately summarizes the gaps and opportunities in the literature that is the focus of the current study, describes how the study will extend the literature and research based on the topic, and explains how the study will add value to the existing body of knowledge. | The summary to the literature review provides a cursory summary of the gaps and opportunities in the literature that is the focus of the current study, a vague description of how the study will extend the literature and research based on the topic, and an uninformed explanation of how the study will add value to the existing body of knowledge. | The summary to the literature review summarizes gaps and opportunities in the literature that is the focus of the current study, describes how the study will extend the literature and research based on the topic, and identifies how the study will add value to the existing body of knowledge. | The summary to the literature review clearly and thoroughly summarizes gaps and opportunities in the literature that is the focus of the current study, describes how the study will extend the literature and research based on the topic, and identifies how the study will add value to the existing body of knowledge. | ||||
| Thesis Development and Purpose | 7.0% | Paper lacks any discernible overall purpose or organizing claim. | Thesis and/or main claim are insufficiently developed and/or vague; purpose is not clear. | Thesis and/or main claim are apparent and appropriate to purpose. | Thesis and/or main claim are clear and forecast the development of the paper. It is descriptive and reflective of the arguments and appropriate to the purpose. | Thesis and/or main claim are comprehensive. The essence of the paper is contained within the thesis. Thesis statement makes the purpose of the paper clear. | |||
| Argument Logic and Construction | 8.0% | Statement of purpose is not justified by the conclusion. The conclusion does not support the claim made. Argument is incoherent and uses noncredible sources. | Sufficient justification of claims is lacking. Argument lacks consistent unity. There are obvious flaws in the logic. Some sources have questionable credibility. | Argument is orderly, but may have a few inconsistencies. The argument presents minimal justification of claims. Argument logically, but not thoroughly, supports the purpose. Sources used are credible. Introduction and conclusion bracket the thesis. | Argument shows logical progressions. Techniques of argumentation are evident. | Clear and convincing argument that presents a persuasive claim in a distinctive and compelling manner. All sources are authoritative. | |||
| Mechanics of Writing (includes spelling, punctuation, grammar, language use) | 5.0% | Surface errors are pervasive enough that they impede communication of meaning. Inappropriate word choice and/or sentence construction are used. | Frequent and repetitive mechanical errors distract the reader. Inconsistencies in language choice (register), sentence structure, and/or word choice are present. | Some mechanical errors or typos are present, but are not overly distracting to the reader. Correct sentence structure and audience-appropriate language are used. | Prose is largely free of mechanical errors, although a few may be present. A variety of sentence structures and effective figures of speech are used. | Writer is clearly in command of standard, written, academic English. | |||
| Paper Format (Use of appropriate style for the major and assignment) | Template is not used appropriately or documentation format is rarely followed correctly. | Appropriate template is used, but some elements are missing or mistaken. A lack of control with formatting is apparent. | Appropriate template is used. Formatting is correct, although some minor errors may be present. | Appropriate template is fully used. There are virtually no errors in formatting style. | All format elements are correct. | ||||
| Research Citations (In-text citations for paraphrasing and direct quotes, and reference page listing and formatting, as appropriate to assignment and style) | No reference page is included. No citations are used. | Reference page is present. Citations are inconsistently used. | Reference page is included and lists sources used in the paper. Sources are appropriately documented, although some errors may be present. | Reference page is present and fully inclusive of all cited sources. Documentation is appropriate and citation style is usually correct. | In-text citations and a reference page are complete and correct. The documentation of cited sources is free of error. | ||||
| Total Weightage | 100% |
In the previous assignment, you created a draft of the body of the literature review for your potential research. Once the body of a chapter is completed, the introduction and summary follow naturally in the writing process. In this assignment, you will draft the introduction and summary of the review of the literature for your potential study.
General Requirements:
Use the following information to ensure successful completion of the assignment:
· Refer to the most current dissertation prospectus template in the DC (dc.gcu.edu) for details and criteria for literature review (Chapter 2).
· Instructors will be using a grading rubric to grade the assignments. It is recommended that learners review the rubric prior to beginning the assignment in order to become familiar with the assignment criteria and expectations for successful completion of the assignment.
· Doctoral learners are required to use APA style for their writing assignments. The APA Style Guide is located in the Student Success Center.
Directions:
Draft the Introduction to your literature review (Chapter 2). The Introduction should include, among other items, an opening sentence that describes the topic to be investigated, a description of the importance of the topic to the field, and a summary of the themes to be addressed in chapter (the literature review).
Revise the draft literature review that you created in the previous assignment incorporating the feedback from your instructor.
Draft the Summary to your literature review. Among other ideas, the Summary should note the conflicting information (tensions) and omitted information (gaps) in the existing literature, describe how the study you are considering is new and different, and identify how your study will add scholarly value to the field of study.
Running head: AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDER
AUTISM
3
Autism Spectrum Disorder: Language Barriers and Behavioral Health
Kathleen O’Briant
Grand Canyon University: EDL-861
December 11, 2019
Autism Spectrum Disorder: Language Barriers and Behavioral Health
Introduction
Autism disorder is a chronic disorder that primarily impacts the behavior as well as communication. It is referred to as a spectrum condition because there is a variation in the severity together with the kind of symptoms individuals’ experience. The disorder occurs in all racial, economic[,] as well as ethnic groups
(Carr & Lord, 2016). Autism[S] Disorder is generally classified with the following symptoms:
1. Language together with communication difficulties characterized by disordered or delayed speech.
2. Restrictive fixed as well as repetitive behavior; this can include echolalia (repetition of words), odd behaviors or arranging items such as toys in a hasty manner.
3. Abnormal symptoms and reciprocal social engagements that can be found in the inability to participate in team play, poor maintenance of eye contact, or abnormal responses.
ASD is referred to as a developmental condition because its symptoms usually appear in first 2 years of an individual’s life. Individuals with this particular disorder may have different degrees of challenges requiring written and spoken language together, but the symptoms associated with social impairments are generally present, differentiating autism spectrum condition from the other developmental disorders (Carr & Lord, 2016). Early diagnosis, intervention and involvement of the parents will enhance the prognosis of Autism disorder.
This literature review paper will conduct
an evaluation as well as a review on 6 articles that have extensively explained the following two major themes in the research study: 1) language barriers with Autism spectrum condition, together with 2) behavioral health. This thesis will consider the following information concerning every one of the 6 articles[:] the research questions, the sample population, research methodology, existing gaps as well as the main findings and results. Further the paper will explore three articles on various sub-themes that are found under the two main themes.
Language Barriers
Patricia and Nickola (2012) in their article they wrote known as “Language and communication in Autism:
An integrated view” explains that individuals with the autism disorder encounter several difficulties in development. The authors have addressed the challenges of language together with communication; the two are closely related but are not identical difficulties. The article explains
that the two phenomena are well understood as being complementary features of integrated social system. A key objective of the article was to offer data and information regarding language barriers as well as the communication difficulties related with ASD for clinicians together with physicians who especially work with children with autism. It has been organized to offer answers based on available evidence to questions regarding the role of language as well as communication across the key deficits of the disorder, how to integrate evaluations and interventions, as well as strategies for supporting families to enhance the language development of the children.
According to the article, the role of language is evident as verbal individuals with autism disorder apply language in several ways that are stereotyped, preservative, restricted and ritualized. Language barriers interferes with the reciprocal way of social interactions as well as communication, this will eventually complicate the ability of a person with autism condition to get fully involved in bilateral conversations and discourse required during social interactions and is key in supporting the creation of meaningful relationships (Patricia & Nickola, 2012). Further, the authors have summarized several results and findings from the National Standards project of the ASD center, which found eleven
types of treatment for this disorder, eight of which attempts to solve the challenge of language as well as communication barriers. The article has included
both naturalistic developmental together with contemporary behavioral methodologies.
Mody and Belliveau (2013) explain[ed] in the article “Speech and Language Impairments in Autism” that the failing to create language is amongst the first sign of autism disorder. They also argue
that the ability to speak before 5years
of age is an important predictor for better results in the disorder. The article has composed and reviewed the existing literature on preverbal as well as verbal indicators of development in language as the basis for assessing anomalies in the brain as well as behaviors associated with language together with speech in ASD. The main findings from the study will be able to relate the interference between language and communication to the autism disorder, and hence promising interventions to address the challenge. This article recommends directing more emphasis on the development of neurophenotypes in order to help in the understanding of autism as well as helping individuals with the condition through the provisions of targets for pharmacological as well as behavioral interventions. According to Vanderbilt and Amant (2017) in their articles published in the “Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders”, there are ethnic as well a racial disparity concerning the access to healthcare in individuals with autism condition. In a sample population of 152 kids with autism, kids
of individuals whose first means of communication is English were likely to have communication together with social objectives in their programs when compared to those whose individuals were not primarily English. The findings highlight that racial as well as ethnic backgrounds play a role in diagnosing and interventions regarding autism disorder.
Expressive communication in children with ASD
Children with expressive communication disorder experience challenges in expressing and relaying information in writing, gesture, and speech or sign communication (Dammeyer & Nielson, 2015). Most children with ASD are late in achieving typical language steps in the first 3 years, but with time they catch up with the others. According to Sreedevi (2015), expressive communication in children with autism condition results in these children having challenges in combining words to develop right sentences together with phrases. They produce shorter sentences when compared to their peers of the same age and their vocabulary is only basic. Luyster and Kadlec (2008) [suggested]
expressive communication may begin as early as birth and the deficits start to appear as infants grow and develop. It is more noticeable when they are compared to same age peers. Another contribution to expressive communication disorder may be due to a medical diagnosis or a traumatic injury.
Receptive communication in children with ASD
Receptive communication disorder in children with autism involves having children with expressive communication disorder experience challenges in expressing and relaying information in writing, gesture, and speech or sign communication. The children may have the can read or hear the words, but fail to connect the specific words to a meaning (Mitchel & Brian, 2006). Children with this disorder can tune out when in the middle of conversing because what they are getting from the conversation has no meaning to them. They have challenges following instructions when spoken to them (Wetherby, 2012). Receptive communication can affect the ability of the child to communicate, play, and learn with their peers (Prizant & Wetherby, 2000). It is very important for the child to get treatment as soon as possible.
Mixed expressive- receptive communication in children with ASD
According to Rutter (2012), mixed expressive-receptive communication disorder in children involves challenges in both applying spoken language and understanding. These children experience challenges in expressing and relaying information as well as challenges in expressing and relaying information in speech and writing (Rogers & Bryson, 2005). Children with autism encounter these challenges in communication, which eventually impact both their academic and social growth and development (Chawarska & Klin, 2007).
Behavioral Health
Curtin, Anderson and Bandini (2010) states in the article that based on the represented data in the US, most individuals with autism conditions have a greater prevalence of having obesity when compared to the overall number and this can be attributed to the behavioral health. Despite many of the existing studies conducted on obesity, only a few researches assess the state of weight among children with autism disorder. Research conducted explains the different prevalence of obesity in individuals with autism disorders were higher when compared to the entire population. The purpose of the research was to apply statistics from the NSCH in order to analyze how the issue of individuals being obese is related with the disorder. The data for the study was gathered between January in 2003 to July in 2004 through the application of a CATI application. Digit-calling was used to collect samples, and the sample population of residential homes from fifty regions had been identified. The participants were parents or guardians of the children who were well aware of the children and their health. The sample consisted of 103,243 children ages between zero and seventeen years. The gap in the research included its failure to comprehensively analyze the relation between the behavioral health and autism disorder.
Yorke and Weston (2018) systematically identified and summarized the available research regarding the association between additional behavior health in children with ASD, and mental health issues and stress in their parents. A sample of 61 research studies was used in the analysis. Some variables for moderation by measurements were found such as in mean, variation and deviation. The findings demonstrated shared relations between severity of autism as well as the parenting perception of the parents. This study failed to focus on all the factors involved in the relation in a more hypothesis-driven manner, basing on evidence from the current literature. Fodstad (2019), establishes that people with the disorder are at greater risk of getting comorbid conditions related with the secondary psychiatric or health. The purpose of the article was to help in collecting what was then referred to as the field of mental condition together with wellness in individuals of autism condition. The sample for the study included 6 reliable reviews that were comprehensive on mental health, nuances and psychopathology. This study demonstrates an existing gap regarding the limited number of reviews that were used for the sample.
Applied behavior analysis
Raches, Tomlin[,] and Pratt
(2016) focused on the impacts of early interventions in autism through the integration of applied behavior evaluation as well as infant childhood mental wellness. The article used a sample of data from the National Autism Center to indicate the effectiveness of the summation strategies that is anchored on the law of conditioning in treatment of children with autism disorder (National Autism Center, 2009). According to Ramsey, Hearly[,] & Pullen
(2016) they strongly support the use of ABA strategies for people with the disorder in regions of evaluations as well as treatment of behavior problems based on the evidence collected by the article. However, there is a gap in the amount of evidence for ABA in specific areas such as psychiatric conditions as well as symptoms about the status of autism. Adams, Young and Keen (2016) argues that while applied behavior assessment will continue to be applied in main deficit parts, adaptations should be made to ascertain that reoccurring as well as interfering situations are solved.
Disruptive behavior clinic for ASD
Smith and Bearss (2017) carried out a six-month randomized study on parenting training and behavior clinic in over 180 children between ages 3 to 7 years with ASD. Parent training was better than behavior clinics in reducing disruptive as well as non-compliant behaviors. The study used an inter-treat methodology as well as random effects to evaluate different variables in the study. According to Kaat and Lecavalier (2014) most children with autism shows behavioral issues like tantrums and impulsiveness. These behavioral issues pose a great challenge to the parents and requires the intervention of disruptive behavior clinics (Gadow & Azizian, 2005). The results showed that about seventy percent of people with autism condition experiences at least a single co-occuring problem.
Integration of applied behavior analysis and behavior clinic
Hallett and Lecavalier (2013) have explored in the article the anxiety in children with autism that results in disruptive re-occurrence of behavioral issues and how the early interventions of disruptive clinics together with the summation of applied behavior assessment will impact on reducing the rate of such behavioral reoccurring. The article considered several functions to determine the effectiveness of the integration interventions. Further, the findings of the article demonstrate most people with children with disruptive autism behaviors applies only a single behavioral intervention, but with the integration of both the two offers promising outcomes for the people. The existing gap in this study was the failure to relate this integrated intervention with parental stress as well as mental wellness.
I do not believe you synthesized the 3 articles from the sub-themes..
For the synthesis statement, you need to make sure to discuss the similar and contrasting themes. Then indicate how these themes apply to your own study. You need to include in-text citations here from the 3 sources. This comment applies to the entire paper.
Conclusion
This thesis has evaluated six research sources on two different main themes. The first three sources studied language barriers and the last three were on behavioral health. Each research article was highlighted according to the sample population, research questions, gaps, methodology as well as the findings. It is critical to know that the research articles reviewed in this paper barely exhausted the topic of discussion. The articles reviewed in this paper were chosen because of their depth and knowledge on the topic of autism disorder and their relation to behavioral health and language barrier.
References
Adams, D., Young, K. & Keen, D. (2016). Anxiety in children with autism at school: a systematic review. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders.
Belliveau, J. & Mody, M. (2013). Speech and Language Impairements in Autism . PMC US National Library of Medicine , 157-161.
Carr, T. & Lord, C. (2016). A Pilot study promoting participation of families with limited resources in early autism intervention. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders. , 87-96.
Chawarska, K. & Klin, A. (2007). Austin spectrum disorder in the second year: stability and change in syndrome expression. Journal of Child Pyschology and psychiatry , 128-138.
Curtin, C., Anderson, S. & Bandini, L. (2010). The prevalence of obesity in children with autism: a secondary data analysis using nationally representative data from the National Survey of Children’s Health. BMC Pediatrics .
Dammeyer, J. & Nielsen, Anja.(2015). A Case study of Tactile Language and its Possible Structure among Deafblindness
. Journal of Communication Disorders, Deaf studies and Hearing aids , 133-142.
Fodstad, J. (2019). Editorial: Special issue on Mental Health issues in Autism Spectrum Disorder. Journal of Austism and Developmental Disorders , 243-245.
Gadow, K. & Azizian, A. (2005). Psychiatric symptoms in preschool children with PDD and clinic comaprison samples. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders , 379-393.
Hallett, V. & Lecavalier, L. (2013). Exploring anxiety in children with pervasive developement disorders across a braod range of functioning. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders , 2341-2352.
Kaat, A. & Lecavalier, L. (2014). Validity of the Aberrant Behavior Checklistin children with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Develeopmental Disorders , 527-543.
Luyster, J. & Kadlec, B. (2008). Language Assesment and Development in toddlers with autism spectrum disoders. Autism Dev Disord. , 1426-1438.
Mitchel, S. & Brian, J. (2006). Early Language and communication of infants later diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Developmement Behavior Pediatrics , 69-78.
National Autism Center. (2009). Findings and Conclusions of the National Standards Project: addressing the need for evidence-based practice guidelines for autism spectrum disorders. https://www.umass.edu/deogrants/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/NAC-Standards-Report_2009 .
Patricia, J. & Nickola, N. (2012). Language and Communication in Autism: An Intergrated View. Pediatrics Clinics. volume 59, Issue 1 , 129-145.
Prizant, B. & Wetherby,AM. (2000). Communication Interventions issues for young children with autism spectrum disorders. A transcational developmental perspective , 193-224.
Raches, C., Tamlin, AM. & Pratt, C. (2016). Intergrating applied behavior analysis and infant/ early childhood mental health: Implications for early intensive intervention in autism. Review Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders .
Ramsey, D., Harley, O & Pullen, N. (2016). Mood as a dependent variable in behavioral interventions for individuals with ASD: A systematic review. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders .
Rogers, S. & Bryson, L. (2005). Behavioral manifestations of autism in the first year of life. International Journal of developement in Neuroscience , 143-152.
Rutter, M. (2012). Austic Children: infancy to adulthood. Journal on Semin Psychiatry , 435-450.
Smith, T. & Bearss, Karen. (2017). Modertaors of Parent Training for Disruptive Behaviors in Young children with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Journal of Abnormal Children Psychology , 1235-1245.
Sreedevi, N. (2015). Tongue Dynamics in Childhood Apraxia of Speech: A Case Study. Journal of Communication Disorders, Deaf studies and Hearing Aids , 129.
Vanderbilt, D. & Amant, Helanie. (2017). Language Barriers Impact Access to Services for Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders , 333-340.
Wetherby, A. (2012). Ontogeny of Communicative functions in autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders , 295-316.
Yorke, I. & Weston, A. (2018). The Association Between Emotional and Behavioral problems in children with autism spectum disorder and psychological Distress in their parents. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders , 3393-3415.
�Kathleen,
Thank you for completing the Week 5 assignment. I appreciate your hard work. Please review my feedback and take note of areas for improvement. Note that you need to revise the Week 5 paper with your Week 7 assignment submission.
You have 7 days from today to submit the Week 7 revision.
Dr. Lao
�This was submitted on Dec. 16
�What ethnic groups? Please specify.
�Where did you get this information? Make sure to separate your own ideas from words and words and ideas from other sources. If these ideas came from another source, then make sure to cite your source.
�[How do you know this? Make sure that you cite your source and give credit to where credit is due. It is also important that you support your information with in-text citations].
�The paper cannot conduct an evaluation. Only people can perform human actions.
�You do not need to write the title of every article you read. You already have this information in the references section. This comment applies to the entire paper.
�The article cannot explain something; only humans can perform the action. Make sure to revise the sentences throughout your paper.
�11- Numbers 10 and above should be in numerical form unless used at the beginning of a sentence. Make the change
�Personification – You cannot assign human traits to non-human entity. Make the change throughout your document.
�How do you know they argued? You cannot make this assumption.
�Fix the spacing.
�Do not write “kids” as this word refers to “goats.” Use the word “children” instead.
�Use the past tense when citing articles that were published previously. This comment applies to the entire paper.
�[This is a very outdated source. Make sure to use current sources to ensure that your information is still relevant today.]
�The main words for the headings and subthemes should be capitalized.
�When you have 3 items or more in a series, you need to make sure you have a comma before the conjunction. Make the change throughout your document.
�Use the ampersand symbol when the in-text citation is inside the parentheses. When the in-text citation is part of a sentence, then make sure to write “and” between two sources. This comment applies to the entire paper.
�I do not believe you synthesized the 3 articles from the sub-themes..
For the synthesis statement, you need to make sure to discuss the similar and contrasting themes. Then indicate how these themes apply to your own study. You need to include in-text citations here from the 3 sources. This comment applies to the entire paper.
�More information is needed in your conclusion. Include in-text citations in your conclusion as well. This is where you need to summarize the main points of your essay.
�When writing the title of an article, only capitalize the first word, proper nouns, and word after a colon.
Running head: AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDER
AUTISM
8
Autism Spectrum Disorder: Language Barriers and Behavioral Health
Student Name
Grand Canyon University: EDL-861
December 11, 2019
Autism Spectrum Disorder: Language Barriers and Behavioral Health
Introduction
Autism disorder is a chronic disorder that primarily impacts the behavior as well as communication. It is referred to as a spectrum condition because there is a variation in the severity together with the kind of symptoms individuals’ experience. The disorder occurs in all racial, economic as well as ethnic groups (Carr & Lord, 2016). Autism spectrum Disorder is generally classified with the following symptoms:
1. Language together with communication difficulties characterized by disordered or delayed speech.
2. Restrictive fixed as well as repetitive behavior; this can include echolalia (repetition of words), odd behaviors or arranging items such as toys in a hasty manner.
3. Abnormal symptoms and reciprocal social engagements that can be found in the inability to participate in team play, poor maintenance of eye contact, or abnormal responses.
ASD is referred to as a developmental condition because its symptoms usually appear in first 2 years of an individual’s life. Individuals with this particular disorder may have different degrees of challenges requiring written and spoken language together, but the symptoms associated with social impairments are generally present, differentiating autism spectrum condition from the other developmental disorders (Carr & Lord, 2016). Early diagnosis, intervention and involvement of the parents will enhance the prognosis of Autism disorder.
This literature review paper will conduct an evaluation as well as a review on 6 articles that have extensively explained the following two major themes in the research study: 1) language barriers with Autism spectrum condition, together with 2) behavioral health. This thesis will consider the following information concerning every one of the 6 articles; the research questions, the sample population, research methodology, existing gaps as well as the main findings and results. Further the paper will explore three articles on various sub-themes that are found under the two main themes.
Language Barriers
Patricia and Nickola (2012) in their article they wrote known as “Language and communication in Autism: An integrated view” explains that individuals with the autism disorder encounter several difficulties in development. The authors have addressed the challenges of language together with communication; the two are closely related but are not identical difficulties. The article explains that the two phenomena are well understood as being complementary features of integrated social system. A key objective of the article was to offer data and information regarding language barriers as well as the communication difficulties related with ASD for clinicians together with physicians who especially work with children with autism. It has been organized to offer answers based on available evidence to questions regarding the role of language as well as communication across the key deficits of the disorder, how to integrate evaluations and interventions, as well as strategies for supporting families to enhance the language development of the children.
According to the article, the role of language is evident as verbal individuals with autism disorder apply language in several ways that are stereotyped, preservative, restricted and ritualized. Language barriers interferes with the reciprocal way of social interactions as well as communication, this will eventually complicate the ability of a person with autism condition to get fully involved in bilateral conversations and discourse required during social interactions and is key in supporting the creation of meaningful relationships (Patricia & Nickola, 2012). Further, the authors have summarized several results and findings from the National Standards project of the ASD center, which found eleven types of treatment for this disorder, eight of which attempts to solve the challenge of language as well as communication barriers. The article has included both naturalistic developmental together with contemporary behavioral methodologies.
Mody and Belliveau (2013) explains in the article “Speech and Language Impairments in Autism” that the failing to create language is amongst the first sign of autism disorder. They also argue that the ability to speak before 5years of age is an important predictor for better results in the disorder. The article has composed and reviewed the existing literature on preverbal as well as verbal indicators of development in language as the basis for assessing anomalies in the brain as well as behaviors associated with language together with speech in ASD. The main findings from the study will be able to relate the interference between language and communication to the autism disorder, and hence promising interventions to address the challenge. This article recommends directing more emphasis on the development of neurophenotypes in order to help in the understanding of autism as well as helping individuals with the condition through the provisions of targets for pharmacological as well as behavioral interventions. According to Vanderbilt and Amant (2017) in their articles published in the “Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders”, there are ethnic as well a racial disparity concerning the access to healthcare in individuals with autism condition. In a sample population of 152 kids with autism, kids of individuals whose first means of communication is English were likely to have communication together with social objectives in their programs when compared to those whose individuals were not primarily English. The findings highlight that racial as well as ethnic backgrounds play a role in diagnosing and interventions regarding autism disorder.
Expressive communication in children with ASD
Children with expressive communication disorder experience challenges in expressing and relaying information in writing, gesture, and speech or sign communication (Dammeyer & Nielson, 2015). Most children with ASD are late in achieving typical language steps in the first 3 years, but with time they catch up with the others. According to Sreedevi (2015), expressive communication in children with autism condition results in these children having challenges in combining words to develop right sentences together with phrases. They produce shorter sentences when compared to their peers of the same age and their vocabulary is only basic. Luyster and Kadlec (2008) suggests expressive communication may begin as early as birth and the deficits start to appear as infants grow and develop. It is more noticeable when they are compared to same age peers. Another contribution to expressive communication disorder may be due to a medical diagnosis or a traumatic injury.
Receptive communication in children with ASD
Receptive communication disorder in children with autism involves having children with expressive communication disorder experience challenges in expressing and relaying information in writing, gesture, and speech or sign communication. The children may have the can read or hear the words, but fail to connect the specific words to a meaning (Mitchel & Brian, 2006). Children with this disorder can tune out when in the middle of conversing because what they are getting from the conversation has no meaning to them. They have challenges following instructions when spoken to them (Wetherby, 2012). Receptive communication can affect the ability of the child to communicate, play, and learn with their peers (Prizant & Wetherby, 2000). It is very important for the child to get treatment as soon as possible.
Mixed expressive- receptive communication in children with ASD
According to Rutter (2012), mixed expressive-receptive communication disorder in children involves challenges in both applying spoken language and understanding. These children experience challenges in expressing and relaying information as well as challenges in expressing and relaying information in speech and writing (Rogers & Bryson, 2005). Children with autism encounter these challenges in communication, which eventually impact both their academic and social growth and development (Chawarska & Klin, 2007).
Behavioral Health
Curtin, Anderson and Bandini (2010) states in the article that based on the represented data in the US, most individuals with autism conditions have a greater prevalence of having obesity when compared to the overall number and this can be attributed to the behavioral health. Despite many of the existing studies conducted on obesity, only a few researches assess the state of weight among children with autism disorder. Research conducted explains the different prevalence of obesity in individuals with autism disorders were higher when compared to the entire population. The purpose of the research was to apply statistics from the NSCH in order to analyze how the issue of individuals being obese is related with the disorder. The data for the study was gathered between January in 2003 to July in 2004 through the application of a CATI application. Digit-calling was used to collect samples, and the sample population of residential homes from fifty regions had been identified. The participants were parents or guardians of the children who were well aware of the children and their health. The sample consisted of 103,243 children ages between zero and seventeen years. The gap in the research included its failure to comprehensively analyze the relation between the behavioral health and autism disorder.
Yorke and Weston (2018) systematically identified and summarized the available research regarding the association between additional behavior health in children with ASD, and mental health issues and stress in their parents. A sample of 61 research studies was used in the analysis. Some variables for moderation by measurements were found such as in mean, variation and deviation. The findings demonstrated shared relations between severity of autism as well as the parenting perception of the parents. This study failed to focus on all the factors involved in the relation in a more hypothesis-driven manner, basing on evidence from the current literature. Fodstad (2019), establishes that people with the disorder are at greater risk of getting comorbid conditions related with the secondary psychiatric or health. The purpose of the article was to help in collecting what was then referred to as the field of mental condition together with wellness in individuals of autism condition. The sample for the study included 6 reliable reviews that were comprehensive on mental health, nuances and psychopathology. This study demonstrates an existing gap regarding the limited number of reviews that were used for the sample.
Applied behavior analysis
Raches, Tomlin and Pratt (2016) focused on the impacts of early interventions in autism through the integration of applied behavior evaluation as well as infant childhood mental wellness. The article used a sample of data from the National Autism Center to indicate the effectiveness of the summation strategies that is anchored on the law of conditioning in treatment of children with autism disorder (National Autism Center, 2009). According to Ramsey, Hearly & Pullen (2016) they strongly support the use of ABA strategies for people with the disorder in regions of evaluations as well as treatment of behavior problems based on the evidence collected by the article. However, there is a gap in the amount of evidence for ABA in specific areas such as psychiatric conditions as well as symptoms about the status of autism. Adams, Young and Keen (2016) argues that while applied behavior assessment will continue to be applied in main deficit parts, adaptations should be made to ascertain that reoccurring as well as interfering situations are solved.
Disruptive behavior clinic for ASD
Smith and Bearss (2017) carried out a six-month randomized study on parenting training and behavior clinic in over 180 children between ages 3 to 7 years with ASD. Parent training was better than behavior clinics in reducing disruptive as well as non-compliant behaviors. The study used an inter-treat methodology as well as random effects to evaluate different variables in the study. According to Kaat and Lecavalier (2014) most children with autism shows behavioral issues like tantrums and impulsiveness. These behavioral issues pose a great challenge to the parents and requires the intervention of disruptive behavior clinics (Gadow & Azizian, 2005). The results showed that about seventy percent of people with autism condition experiences at least a single co-occuring problem.
Integration of applied behavior analysis and behavior clinic
Hallett and Lecavalier (2013) have explored in the article the anxiety in children with autism that results in disruptive re-occurrence of behavioral issues and how the early interventions of disruptive clinics together with the summation of applied behavior assessment will impact on reducing the rate of such behavioral reoccurring. The article considered several functions to determine the effectiveness of the integration interventions. Further, the findings of the article demonstrate most people with children with disruptive autism behaviors applies only a single behavioral intervention, but with the integration of both the two offers promising outcomes for the people. The existing gap in this study was the failure to relate this integrated intervention with parental stress as well as mental wellness.
Conclusion
This thesis has evaluated six research sources on two different main themes. The first three sources studied language barriers and the last three were on behavioral health. Each research article was highlighted according to the sample population, research questions, gaps, methodology as well as the findings. It is critical to know that the research articles reviewed in this paper barely exhausted the topic of discussion. The articles reviewed in this paper were chosen because of their depth and knowledge on the topic of autism disorder and their relation to behavioral health and language barrier.
References
Adams, D., Young, K. & Keen, D. (2016). Anxiety in children with autism at school: a systematic review. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders.
Belliveau, J. & Mody, M. (2013). Speech and Language Impairements in Autism . PMC US National Library of Medicine , 157-161.
Carr, T. & Lord, C. (2016). A Pilot study promoting participation of families with limited resources in early autism intervention. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders. , 87-96.
Chawarska, K. & Klin, A. (2007). Austin spectrum disorder in the second year: stability and change in syndrome expression. Journal of Child Pyschology and psychiatry , 128-138.
Curtin, C., Anderson, S. & Bandini, L. (2010). The prevalence of obesity in children with autism: a secondary data analysis using nationally representative data from the National Survey of Children’s Health. BMC Pediatrics .
Dammeyer, J. & Nielsen, Anja.(2015). A Case study of Tactile Language and its Possible Structure among Deafblindness. Journal of Communication Disorders, Deaf studies and Hearing aids , 133-142.
Fodstad, J. (2019). Editorial: Special issue on Mental Health issues in Autism Spectrum Disorder. Journal of Austism and Developmental Disorders , 243-245.
Gadow, K. & Azizian, A. (2005). Psychiatric symptoms in preschool children with PDD and clinic comaprison samples. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders , 379-393.
Hallett, V. & Lecavalier, L. (2013). Exploring anxiety in children with pervasive developement disorders across a braod range of functioning. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders , 2341-2352.
Kaat, A. & Lecavalier, L. (2014). Validity of the Aberrant Behavior Checklistin children with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Develeopmental Disorders , 527-543.
Luyster, J. & Kadlec, B. (2008). Language Assesment and Development in toddlers with autism spectrum disoders. Autism Dev Disord. , 1426-1438.
Mitchel, S. & Brian, J. (2006). Early Language and communication of infants later diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Developmement Behavior Pediatrics , 69-78.
National Autism Center. (2009). Findings and Conclusions of the National Standards Project: addressing the need for evidence-based practice guidelines for autism spectrum disorders. https://www.umass.edu/deogrants/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/NAC-Standards-Report_2009 .
Patricia, J. & Nickola, N. (2012). Language and Communication in Autism: An Intergrated View. Pediatrics Clinics. volume 59, Issue 1 , 129-145.
Prizant, B. & Wetherby,AM. (2000). Communication Interventions issues for young children with autism spectrum disorders. A transcational developmental perspective , 193-224.
Raches, C., Tamlin, AM. & Pratt, C. (2016). Intergrating applied behavior analysis and infant/ early childhood mental health: Implications for early intensive intervention in autism. Review Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders .
Ramsey, D., Harley, O & Pullen, N. (2016). Mood as a dependent variable in behavioral interventions for individuals with ASD: A systematic review. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders .
Rogers, S. & Bryson, L. (2005). Behavioral manifestations of autism in the first year of life. International Journal of developement in Neuroscience , 143-152.
Rutter, M. (2012). Austic Children: infancy to adulthood. Journal on Semin Psychiatry , 435-450.
Smith, T. & Bearss, Karen. (2017). Modertaors of Parent Training for Disruptive Behaviors in Young children with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Journal of Abnormal Children Psychology , 1235-1245.
Sreedevi, N. (2015). Tongue Dynamics in Childhood Apraxia of Speech: A Case Study. Journal of Communication Disorders, Deaf studies and Hearing Aids , 129.
Vanderbilt, D. & Amant, Helanie. (2017). Language Barriers Impact Access to Services for Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders , 333-340.
Wetherby, A. (2012). Ontogeny of Communicative functions in autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders , 295-316.
Yorke, I. & Weston, A. (2018). The Association Between Emotional and Behavioral problems in children with autism spectum disorder and psychological Distress in their parents. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders , 3393-3415.
Running head: REVIEW OF LITERATURE
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Review of Literature
Review of Literature
Grand Canyon University: RES 861
Review of Literature
Since 1945, government officials have imposed numerous laws to improve education (States’ Impact on Federal Education Policy Project, 2009). Arguably, the most ambitious law concerning education was the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) of 2001 because it raised the accountability schools and teachers held in regard to student learning (Bush, 2010; States’ Impact on Federal Education Policy Project, 2009). Since the passing of NCLB, school systems have sought to integrate intervention courses and differentiate instruction to ensure student learning. One popular notion in education is the use of collaborative learning communities and allowing student collaboration in the classroom (DuFour, DuFour, & Eaker, 2008; Graham, 2007; Meirink, Imants, Meijer, & Verloop, 2010). Teacher collaboration with students can also be a favorable strategy to use in the classroom to enhance student learning (Villa, Thousand, & Nevin, 2010).
Introduction and Background to Proposed Study
The purpose of this study is to acquire data to help improve classroom instruction. This study will research how teacher-student collaboration affects student learning, how students perceive their role in the classroom, and how students perceive their teachers’ roles in the classroom. The study will be conducted in a middle school classroom in Southeastern New Mexico. The population sample will consist of sixth grade students, male and female students, and a mix of Hispanic, Caucasian, and African American students. A majority of the students will be Hispanic because of the dynamics of the city in which the study will take place. Students will be labeled as general education, special needs, English language learners (ELL), and gifted. It will be a qualitative study which will use surveys, journal, classroom assessments, and the state test scores for data collection.
Importance to the Field
In a traditional classroom, teachers lecture on objectives and provide time for students to practice what they learned. After a given time, teachers assess students to see how much of the objective they learned. When they see the data from those assessments, they strategize methods to help those who did not learn it to proficiency and start the cycle again with the next learning objective. If findings show teacher-student collaboration improves student learning, it can take much of the predicting out of lesson planning. Teachers will be able to plan lessons for students knowing they are teaching it to their learning styles.
The interest in this topic came about through teaching experience. It can become cumbersome to plan lessons and find a majority of the class is not learning to proficiency. The planning of lessons is time consuming and it is disappointing when teachers find all their work was mildly effective. When attempting to differentiate instruction, it may be more beneficial to have discussions with students and find out how they best learn. Teachers can then take what they learn from their students and implement it into their lessons. It may require mini-lessons or possibly learning stations in order to teach students to their learning styles, but if more students learn to proficiency, then it would be worth the effort.
Related Literature
Erickson (1963) developed a widely accepted theory on personality development. Adolescent learners fall in stages four and five which are Industry versus Inferiority and Identity verses Role Confusion respectively. During this time, students begin to test the boundaries given by authority and they begin to seek more control over their surroundings. Students may react positively to being given the opportunity to have some control over their learning environment. Teachers will need to consciously ask students how they learn best and may need to discuss with students the many learning styles in existence so they can identify how they learn.
In order to begin this study, the needs of middle level learners need to be understood. Erickson’s (1963) theory supports the idea that they are seeking more control over their environments. Because of their desire to gain more control, the idea of teacher-student collaboration may be appealing to them. Along with the learning needs of middle level students, various viewpoints on collaboration and cooperative learning will be explored. Authors of particular interest include Casey Reason, Robert DuFour, Richard Villa, and Jacqueline Thousand. Reason has done extensive research on topics including inquiry. Using his strategy, which is to practice inquiry among teachers during collaborative meeting times (Reason & Reason, 2007), teachers can include students in decision making in the classroom. DuFour is an advocate of professional learning communities. His ideas of collaboration can be modified for teachers to utilize in classroom practices. Villa and Thousand have published a book advocating utilizing students in planning.
Much of the available research and studies include teacher-teacher collaboration and student-student collaboration, but little exists on the effects of teacher-student collaboration. The current literature supports the idea that collaboration is effective in the classroom and among teachers, so it is conceivable that teacher-student collaboration would have similar results.
Problem Statement
While it is not known to what extent teacher-student collaboration will improve student learning or student perception of the roles of the teacher and student in the classroom in a 6th grade language arts classroom in Southeastern New Mexico this is an area that needs to be addressed. Student collaboration has long been a key to learning and now we need to look at how student and teachers collaborate together. Is it more effective and if so, does it imply more learning amongst students?
Purpose Statement
The purpose of this quantitative correlational study is to examine if teachers’ collaboration with students when planning lessons will positively affect student learning and to examine how such collaboration will affect student perception of the roles of teachers and students in the classroom.
Research Questions and Hypotheses
This study will look at several research questions to derive at an hypothesis. The overall statement will address collaboration of student and teacher, but it must be understood that there are many variables that might come into play.
R1: What is the relationship between teacher-student collaboration and student learning?
R2: How do students perceive their role in the classroom when they are asked for input in lesson planning?
R3: How do students perceive their teachers’ role in the classroom when students are asked for input in lesson planning?
H1: When teachers collaborate with and include student input in their lessons, students will better learn the objectives.
H10 : When teachers collaborate with and include student input in their lessons, students will not better learn the objectives.
H2: When teachers collaborate with and include student input in their lessons, students will score higher on standardized tests.
H20: When teachers collaborate with and include student input in their lessons, students will not score higher on standardized tests.
H3: When teachers collaborate with and include student input in their lessons, students will perceive that they are an important member of the classroom community.
H30: When teachers collaborate with and include student input in their lessons, students will not perceive that they are an important member of the classroom community.
Theoretical Foundation
The theory of teacher-student collaboration is derived from two separate theories. Erickson’s Stages of Psychological Development intertwined with the transformation leadership theory help to support the possible effectiveness of teacher-student collaboration. This section will briefly describe those theories and they ways in which they support the research topic.
Erikson’s Stages of Psychological Development
Erickson’s development stages consist of eight life stages (Erickson, 1963). Each stage represents a specific age group starting at birth and ending at death. Middle level learners fall into the fourth and fifth stages of Erickson’s theory. During those stages, students begin to pull away from authority figures telling them who they are or should be and begin to seek their own separate identities. Indeed, they are looking for a place to fit in and for a place where they have an active voice in the happenings of their lives. Therefore, it is conceivable teacher-student collaboration would be effective. If the teachers are willing to allow students an active voice, then the students may get a sense of control of their surroundings at school which could lead to more learning.
Transformational Leadership
Transformational leadership is one of the more popular leadership styles at this time (Riggio, 2009). In this leadership style, leaders motivate their subordinates to perform their duties and model the behaviors they wish to see exhibited. Teacher-student collaboration could be an example of transformational leadership. Teachers can motivate students by incorporating their ideas into their lessons. Teachers generally wish for students to follow their directives, therefore by utilizing their ideas in lessons, they are modeling the desired action for them. Teacher-student collaboration may change the way students perceive their roles and the roles of their teachers. They may begin to have a more positive outlook on school.
Literature Review Body
The literature review is an important part of the dissertation process (Hart, 2011). As people conduct research in their area of interest, they are able to determine gaps in the available literature and hone in on a research topic. The literature review may also assist researchers in finding support for their personal views and theories regarding a given area of interest. This paper will briefly review three articles each in the areas of needs of middle school students and the benefits of collaboration in preparation for a dissertation on the effects of teacher-student collaboration on student learning.
Needs of Middle School Students
Students go through many physical changes and emotional challenges during their middle school years. These years generally consist of ages 11-15 and the sixth through ninth grades. These years include the fourth and fifth stages of Erickson’s theory of personality development which are Industry versus Inferiority and Identity verses Role Confusion respectively (Erickson, 1963). During these stages of development, adolescent students may begin seeking new adventures and a sense of worth. Finding a portion of this sense of worth within the classroom is possible. As with any student, middle school students have special needs. At this point of their schooling, they may have ideas as to which teaching strategies help them to best learn the content of their classes. It is up to the classroom teacher to include these strategies when preparing lessons.
Middle School Literacy
Pitcher, Martinez, Dicembre, Fewster, and McCormick (2010) conducted a study of middle school students in which they determined their learning needs in literacy. In each of the case studies, the authors had a discussion with the students and their parents. They used the following three research questions during their study: (1) What types of reading instruction are adolescent students receiving? (2) Are the adolescents in this study receiving the type of instruction that they need? (3) Do parents understand what kind of reading instruction their children need and what role to play in their adolescents’ reading education? The research questions were answered using seven adolescent students who attended a 12 week university reading clinic. The participating students were interviewed to gain a perspective of how they felt about the instruction they were receiving at school. Parents of participating students were interviewed to answer the last of their research questions. The researchers used case studies to analyze the effectiveness of the reading programs being used in the students’ individual schools. Cases were individually analyzed using the constant comparative method to determine common themes among their sample population. They then met and agreed upon common themes, and then they determined the students’ literacy needs through data triangulation of the interviews, assessments, and a review of the curriculum used in their schools. While the researchers included students and parents in the process, the school teachers or administrators were not included. It may have been beneficial to find out whether changes could have been made to improve classroom instruction and student learning. Using their assessments, the researchers found that all of the included students read below grade level, but were not receiving intervention in their area of need. They also found that many of their students tested proficient or above on state tests, but continued to struggle when reading content expository text. Pitcher, Martinez, Dicembre, Fewster, and McCormick (2010) suggested school teachers begin to listen to their students in regard to instruction and utilize their suggestions when planning lessons.
Adolescent Learning.
Hagenauer and Hascher (2010) carried out a study on the enjoyment adolescents experience in learning. The researchers hypothesized the following: (1) Learning enjoyment as well as self-efficacy drop between grades six and seven. (2) Learning conditions-namely classroom practices- which are considered to be important in fulfilling students’ basic needs…are evaluated in a more negative way in grade seven compared to grade six. The sample population included students in grades six and seven from 17 classes within eight secondary schools in Salzburg, Austria. There was also a subsample of 110 students who participated in the diary entries for the study. Students were surveyed to determine their study habits and they kept diaries so that the researchers could assess their learning enjoyment in authentic learning environments. Two of the surveys were used throughout the school-year while one was given at the end of the sixth grade year and another was given three months into the seventh grade year. While students were given prompts to which they responded for their diaries, the measurement was an indirect rather than a direct approach. Students were asked how they felt concerning a particular lesson, but they were not asked directly what types of lessons provided enjoyment as well as enhanced their learning. If students had been asked prior to their lessons, then perhaps they would have found more enjoyment in their learning experiences. The hypotheses were supported by the results of the study. Students’ learning enjoyment and self-efficacy declined over a year. The practices in the classroom which was directed at the basic needs of students also declined.
Beliefs.
A group of researchers worked collaboratively to design a questionnaire that would measure teacher beliefs about students’ reading motivation and their enactment in the classroom (Quirk, et al., 2010). In developing this questionnaire, they posed the following research questions: (1) Can teachers’ beliefs about student motivation for reading be reliably measured? (2) What are teachers’ beliefs about student motivation for reading? (3) What is the relationship between teachers’ beliefs about student motivation for reading and their teaching self-efficacy? There were 86 teachers surveyed for this research project consisting mostly of upper elementary and middle school teachers. The teachers ranged in experience from less than one year to more than 37 years, and their ethnicities varied. Teachers responded to three surveys that measured their beliefs about student motivation, their self-efficacy, and their background and demographics. No actual observation of participating classroom teachers was conducted. Had observations been conducted, the researchers would have had a better understanding of how the teachers’ perceptions coordinated with the ways in which they interacted with their students. The researchers found teachers’ beliefs about motivating students to read could be measured reliably, and there was a significant relationship between teachers’ beliefs about motivating students to read and their teaching self-efficacy.
Critical Years.
Based on these three studies, one can conclude that the middle school years of students is a critical point in their education. This is a time period when students’ motivation wavers and teachers may support or inhibit that motivation. Pitcher, Martinez, Dicembre, Fewster, and McCormick (2010) found that when preparing lessons based on students’ needs, student learning improved while Hagenauer and Hascher (2010) found that doing so improved student enjoyment of learning. While researchers may comprehend that teachers’ beliefs about motivation and their self-efficacy were connected (Quirk, et al., 2010), it can be hypothesized that these same factors may be linked to teachers’ willingness to inquire students about their needs and utilize what they hear from their students. If teachers’ self-efficacy is high, then they may be more willing to ask for students’ input whereas those with low self-efficacy may find that intimidating or to mean that they are inadequate. Villa, Thousand, and Nevin (2010) refer to students as the “…untapped resource” (front cover), which alludes to the idea that teachers need to begin to utilize the one resource that is always readily available to them: their students.
Collaboration
Collaborative learning can be a very useful strategy to use in the school environment. Students can collaborate with each other and learn their content more in depth. Teachers can collaborate with each other and learn more about differentiating their practices to better reach their students. School leaders often collaborate with the teachers to build a stronger, safer, and more aligned system within the school. The benefits of collaboration outweigh the possible burden of time it takes to collaborate (Raywid, 1993). The following three article reviews examine three different ways collaboration is used in the learning environments.
Implementation of Learning Communities.
Lippy and Zamora (2012) conducted a study of the consistency of implementation of professional learning communities (PLC) in middle schools. Professional learning communities are collaborative groups within an organization that meet on a regular basis to make decisions about the organization (DuFour, 2004). The questions they sought to answer with their research were: (1) Are the PLC practices of shared and supportive leadership, shared vision and values, collective learning and application, share personal practice, supportive conditions—relationships, supportive conditions—structures, and school factors consistently implemented in all of the middle schools of the local district? (2) What two dimensions of PLC practices are most deeply integrated into system and individual school practices? (3) What two dimensions of PLC practices are the least integrated into system and individual school practices? (4) What are the correlations between years of teaching experience and the integration of PLC practices within each domain of PLC practices? (5) What are the correlations of school diversity—ethically and socioeconomically—and the integration of PLC practices within each domain? The sample population included 196 core content teachers from 12 middle schools near Washington, DC. ). Lippy and Zamora (2012) used the Professional Learning Community Assessment and a descriptive research approach to understand the participants’ perception of the depth of their PLC implementation. In regards to the research questions, they found not all PLC practices are implemented consistently, shared values and visions and supportive conditions in relationships were the practices with the greatest amount of implementation, shared personal practices and supportive conditions in structures were the least integrated into the system, there was not a correlation between teachers’ years of experience and the implementation of PLC practices, nor was there a correlation between school demographics and the implementations of PLC practices. While the findings are useful, they never did state whether they believed collaboration would work better if it was implemented consistently. It is plausible consistency would better the effects of collaboration and perhaps that is one direction further studies could go.
Comprehension of Middle School Age.
Davis and Neitzel (2010) studied the beliefs middle school students held on reading and their use of comprehension strategies during a collaborative learning activity. Specifically, they sought to answer whether a relationship existed between students’ conceptions of reading and their use of comprehension strategies. Students used in the study were 71 fifth and sixth graders from two middle schools in Central Tennessee. Of those students, 47 were girls while only 24 were boys. One school had 48% of its population on free and reduced lunches while the other had 85% on free and reduced lunches. Results of this study could have been skewed because nearly twice as many girls were used than boys in the study and because of the vast difference in the socio-economic status of the two schools. In this qualitative study, students were asked to read four passages about fictitious readers, discuss each reader, and individually rank the readers. During their activity, they were recorded and the film was reviewed for analysis. They found a strong relationship between students’ conceptions of reading and the way they interacted during their collaborative activity.
Collaboration Types.
Chen and Chuang (2011) studied varied types of collaboration among children. They used the following hypotheses to guide their studies: (1) There will be no significant differences in students’ learning achievement between different levels of students’ prior knowledge when using varied types of collaborative learning strategies. (2) There will be no significant differences in learning achievement between students who use open-ended discussion strategy and who use problem-based discussion strategy in a collaborative learning environment. (3) There will be no significant interaction between student prior knowledge and varied types of collaborative learning strategies in student learning achievement. For this study, the sample population included 204 fourth grade students in Taiwan averaging 10 years old. These students had experience with using computers and had access to computers often. Students were given a pre-test prior to engaging in their activity. After reviewing the pre-test scores, students were divided into groups and worked on a computer program which provided online instruction. Students were then given a post-test to provide their thoughts on their instruction. They were not able to support their first two hypotheses, but their data did support the third hypothesis. While students were able to collaborate in this study, the level of collaboration was low. Teachers were also instructed not to assist students during this activity. These two factors could have greatly impacted the study because of how little collaboration was actually utilized.
Collaboration Among All Needed.
It is evident that collaboration has many definitions through these three research areas. Lippy and Zamora (2012) describe collaboration among teachers as meeting and discussing school matters. Davis and Neitzel (2010) simply use students reading and discussing passages as collaboration. Finally, Chen and Chuang (2011) use the term collaboration to describe students working on a computer program together. One issue seen with these different uses of the term collaboration is it needs to be defined prior to the proposed study taking place. It is evident a form of collaboration is being used in various learning environments; however, the depth of the levels of collaboration varies and, in some cases, may be cooperative learning rather than collaborative learning.
Benefits of Collaboration
Collaboration among students and among teachers can be beneficial to student learning. As teachers meet with one another and begin to plan lessons for students, they can utilize data collected and discuss the needs of their classes (DuFour, DuFour, & Eaker, 2008). When students are allowed to collaborate with one another, they are able to discuss what they are learning and their individual understanding of what they are learning. Reason and Reason (2007) intertwined the idea of collaboration with inquiry. They argued inquiring each other can lead to better teaching practices. This could also be carried over to inquiry with students to better fit teaching with their individual learning needs.
Teacher and Learner Connection.
Researchers from the Netherlands conducted a study of the relationship between teacher collaboration and teacher learning (Meirink, Imants, Meijer, & Verloop, 2010). The following are the research questions used for this study: (1) How does teacher collaboration emerge in teams, and how is this collaboration related to group characteristics? (2) How is teachers’ collaboration in teams related to learning in these team contexts? The participants included teachers from five schools which made up five interdisciplinary teams. Each team had a university coach experienced in collaboration to help establish their collaboration efforts, but the coach then simply monitored the progress. Data were collected in both qualitative and quantitative approaches. Teams were observed during the school-year and records were kept on their level of collaboration and/or interdependency. Records were kept concerning on what the teams collaborated. The collaborative groups were voluntary which would lead one to believe that those who participated likely were already collaborating. Therefore, these groups may have functioned well because those teachers wanted to work in collaborative community. Data can be skewed by such participants. Future researchers may want to consider using teachers who work in a collaborative school and have no choice but to collaborate. The researchers found that the higher levels of interdependency among the groups correlated to the alignment of goals and the reaching of those goals whereas those teams with low levels of independency had misaligned goals and therefore could not reach them. They also reported that collaboration and learning were closely connected in the teacher teams.
Effectiveness of Collaborative Communities.
Graham (2007) administered a study on the effectiveness of teachers in collaborative communities. His research questions were: (1) Which features of professional learning community activities, if any, demonstrate a significant relationship with changes in teachers’ content and pedagogical knowledge and skills and with changes in teachers’ instructional practices? (2) Do the features of professional learning community activities, along with changes in teachers’ content and pedagogical knowledge and skills and instructional practices, vary based on specific teacher characteristics—including years of teaching experience, grade level taught, and subject taught? (3) In what ways do organizational and personnel factors—specifically, intra-organizational social dynamics, the personality and leadership style of the principal, structured planning time, and use of a block schedule—influence teacher improvement efficacy of professional learning community activities? Twenty teachers were used in this study who taught sixth-eighth grades in core subject areas in a first year middle school. The study was a mixed methods study that gathered data from professional development surveys, teacher interviews, and a review of school data. The survey gave the researcher background knowledge as to which professional development learning community activities teachers had participated. Within the study group, “…a purposefully selected group of ten teachers form the same school…” were interviewed concerning professional learning community activities, professional development, teacher and school characteristics, teacher improvement, and instruction behavioral changes. Within this area, one wonders why this group was “purposefully” rather than randomly selected. This has the potential to convey that these teachers were chosen because they would provide the interview answers desired. It may have been beneficial to randomly choose these teachers in order to receive unbiased data. The researcher found that content focus, active learning, and coherence had a positive relationship to changes in teachers’ knowledge and teaching practices. He also found that factors such as teacher experience, grade level taught, and content taught had an effect on the professional learning community activity. In answering the third research question, the researcher found that leadership style affected the teacher improvement efficacy in schools using professional learning communities.
Student Collaboration.
Swenson and Strough (2008) agreed that student collaboration was beneficial to student learning; however, they questioned whether groups made of up friends or groups based on gender would outperform groups of non-friends or those which were composed of mixed gender. They also questioned whether the depths of the relationships within the group members would affect the learning taking place within the groups. The population sample consisted of 132 high school adolescents of which 58 were boys and 74 were girls. Students received parental consent to participate in the study and then filled out a survey in which they nominated a friend in their classroom with whom they wanted to be paired. Students were then randomly assigned to friends or non-friends for the case study. Students worked with their partners to answer two questions which required scientific reasoning. They were given five minutes to discuss the problems with each other and then completed the work on their own. Students then completed a survey that measured the quality of the working relationship they had with their partners. While this study did compare gender based grouping and friend and non-friend groupings, it did not compare friend groupings of same gender to friend groupings of opposite genders. It also failed to address students who do not have friends at school and are considered loners. The researchers found that students paired with friends did perform better than groups of non-friends. They also found girls did perform higher than boys, but not significantly.
What Improves Effectiveness of Collaboration?
Teacher collaboration improves the effectiveness of teachers as well as their learning of the needs of their students (Graham, 2007; Meirink, Imants, Meijer, & Verloop, 2010). There is support for student collaboration enhancing student learning and possibly some implication of the need to help build stronger relationship withing the classroom to further enhance student learning (Swenson & Strough, 2008). With these findings, it can be inferred teacher-student collaboration would also be beneficial. Similar to teacher collaboration improving the effectiveness of teacher learning, teacher-student collaboration could be effective in teacher and student learning. While ideas can be brought about during teacher collaboration time, it may prove to be more beneficial if teachers choose to have those same types of conversations with their students.
Conclusion [Include in-text citations here to support keytopics in your discussion]
Through research, there is evidence to support the idea collaboration is a beneficial tool to use in a learning environment. The use of PLCs in schools has become a popular method used in schools seeking improvement in student achievement. Collaborative learning and cooperative learning have become two of the most used methods in differentiating instruction for students. While there is evidence supporting collaboration, little research has been done to see if teacher-student collaboration will also be beneficial. It is credible to state since collaboration among students brings about positive learning results and because collaboration among teachers brings about positive results, then collaboration between teachers and students would also bring about positive results. However, a study needs to be conducted in order to find evidence to support or reject that hypothesis.
As research continues, more articles discussing collaboration will be used. One area that needs to be addressed early is a formal definition of collaboration needs to be given. After a definition is generated, more research on the how collaboration is utilized and its benefits will be conducted. The method of the study will then be determined and the study will be conducted. The findings of this study may be deemed important to the field of education as teacher-student collaboration may be a missing link in student achievement. If teachers can better understand the needs of their students, then their teaching can be more effective which could lead to higher rates of student gratification during their years of formal education.
References
Bush, G. W. (2010). Decision points. New York, NY: Crown Publishers.
Chen, W.-F., & Chuang, C.-P. (2011). Effect of varied types of collaborative learning strategies on young children: An experimental study. International Journal of Instructional Media, 38(4), 351-358. Retrieved from http://library.gcu.edu:2048/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=66721442&site=ehost-live&scope=site
Davis, D. S., & Neitzel, C. (2010). The relationship between students’ reading orientations and their strategic activity during a collaborative reading task. Reading Psychology, 31(6), 546-579. doi:10.1080/02702710903256593
DuFour, R. (2004, May). What is a “Professional learning community”? Educational Leadership, 61(8), 6-11. Retrieved from http://library.gcu.edu:2048/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=13088184&site=ehost-live&scope=site
DuFour, R., DuFour, R., & Eaker, R. (2008). Revisiting professional learning communities at work: New insights for improving schools. Bloomington, IN: Solution Tree Press.
Erickson, E. (1963). Childhood and society (2nd ed.). New York , NY: Norton.
Graham, P. (2007). Improving teacher effectiveness through structured collaboration: A case study of a professional learning community. (M. M. Caskey, Ed.) Research in Middle Level Education Online, 31(1), 1-17. Retrieved from http://www.amle.org/portals/0/pdf/publications/RMLE/rmle_vol31_no1
Hagenauer, G., & Hascher, T. (2010, December). Learning enjoyment in early adolescence. Educational Research and Evaluation, 16(6), 495-516. doi:10.1080/13803611.2010.550499
Hart, C. (2011). Doing a literature review: Releasing the social science research imagination. Los Angeles, CA: Sage.
Lippy, D., & Zamora, E. (2012). Implementing effective professional learning communities with consistency at the middle school level. National Forum of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal, 29(3), 51-72. Retrieved from http://library.gcu.edu:2048/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=77346381&site=ehost-live&scope=site
Meirink, J. A., Imants, J., Meijer, P. C., & Verloop, N. (2010, June). Teacher learning and collaboration in innovative teams. Cambridge Journal of Collaoration, 40(2), 161-181. doi:10.1080/0305764X.2010.481256
Pitcher, S. M., Martinez, G., Dicembre, E. A., Fewster, D., & McCormick, M. K. (2010 , May). The literacy needs of adolescents in their own words. Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy, 53(8), 636-645. doi:10.1598/JAAL.53.8.2
Quirk, M., Unrau, N., Ragusa, G., Rueda, T., Lim, H., Velasco, A., . . . Loera, G. (2010). Teacher beliefs about reading motivation and their enactment in classrooms: The development of a survey questionnaire. Reading Psychology, 31(2), 93-120. doi:10.1080/02702710902754051
Raywid, M. A. (1993, September). Finding time for collaboration. Educational Leadership, 51(1), 30-34. Retrieved from http://library.gcu.edu:2048/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=9311240403&site=ehost-live&scope=site
Reason, C., & Reason, L. (2007, September). Asking the right questions. Educational Leadership, 65(1), 36-40. Retrieved from http://library.gcu.edu:2048/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=27213652&site=ehost-live&scope=site
Riggio, R. E. (2009, March 24). Are you a transformational leader? Retrieved from Psychology Today: http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/cutting-edge-leadership/200903/are-you-transformational-leader
States’ Impact on Federal Education Policy Project. (2009). Federal education policy and the states, 1945-2009: A brief synopsis. Albany: New York State Department of Education. Retrieved from http://www.archives.nysed.gov/edpolicy/altformats/ed_background_overview_essay
Swenson, L. M., & Strough, J. (2008). Adolescents’ collaboration in the classroom: Do peer relationships of gender matter? Psychology in the Schools, 45(8), 715-728. doi:10.1002/pits.20337
Villa, R. A., Thousand, J. S., & Nevin, A. I. (2010). Collaborating with studnets in instruction and decision making: The untapped resource. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.
Running head: REVIEW OF LITERATURE
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Review of Literature
Review of Literature
Grand Canyon University: RES 861
Review of Literature
Since 1945, government officials have imposed numerous laws to improve education (States’ Impact on Federal Education Policy Project, 2009). Arguably, the most ambitious law concerning education was the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) of 2001 because it raised the accountability schools and teachers held in regard to student learning (Bush, 2010; States’ Impact on Federal Education Policy Project, 2009). Since the passing of NCLB, school systems have sought to integrate intervention courses and differentiate instruction to ensure student learning. One popular notion in education is the use of collaborative learning communities and allowing student collaboration in the classroom (DuFour, DuFour, & Eaker, 2008; Graham, 2007; Meirink, Imants, Meijer, & Verloop, 2010). Teacher collaboration with students can also be a favorable strategy to use in the classroom to enhance student learning (Villa, Thousand, & Nevin, 2010).
Introduction and Background to Proposed Study
The purpose of this study is to acquire data to help improve classroom instruction. This study will research how teacher-student collaboration affects student learning, how students perceive their role in the classroom, and how students perceive their teachers’ roles in the classroom. The study will be conducted in a middle school classroom in Southeastern New Mexico. The population sample will consist of sixth grade students, male and female students, and a mix of Hispanic, Caucasian, and African American students. A majority of the students will be Hispanic because of the dynamics of the city in which the study will take place. Students will be labeled as general education, special needs, English language learners (ELL), and gifted. It will be a qualitative study which will use surveys, journal, classroom assessments, and the state test scores for data collection.
Importance to the Field
In a traditional classroom, teachers lecture on objectives and provide time for students to practice what they learned. After a given time, teachers assess students to see how much of the objective they learned. When they see the data from those assessments, they strategize methods to help those who did not learn it to proficiency and start the cycle again with the next learning objective. If findings show teacher-student collaboration improves student learning, it can take much of the predicting out of lesson planning. Teachers will be able to plan lessons for students knowing they are teaching it to their learning styles.
The interest in this topic came about through teaching experience. It can become cumbersome to plan lessons and find a majority of the class is not learning to proficiency. The planning of lessons is time consuming and it is disappointing when teachers find all their work was mildly effective. When attempting to differentiate instruction, it may be more beneficial to have discussions with students and find out how they best learn. Teachers can then take what they learn from their students and implement it into their lessons. It may require mini-lessons or possibly learning stations in order to teach students to their learning styles, but if more students learn to proficiency, then it would be worth the effort.
Related Literature
Erickson (1963) developed a widely accepted theory on personality development. Adolescent learners fall in stages four and five which are Industry versus Inferiority and Identity verses Role Confusion respectively. During this time, students begin to test the boundaries given by authority and they begin to seek more control over their surroundings. Students may react positively to being given the opportunity to have some control over their learning environment. Teachers will need to consciously ask students how they learn best and may need to discuss with students the many learning styles in existence so they can identify how they learn.
In order to begin this study, the needs of middle level learners need to be understood. Erickson’s (1963) theory supports the idea that they are seeking more control over their environments. Because of their desire to gain more control, the idea of teacher-student collaboration may be appealing to them. Along with the learning needs of middle level students, various viewpoints on collaboration and cooperative learning will be explored. Authors of particular interest include Casey Reason, Robert DuFour, Richard Villa, and Jacqueline Thousand. Reason has done extensive research on topics including inquiry. Using his strategy, which is to practice inquiry among teachers during collaborative meeting times (Reason & Reason, 2007), teachers can include students in decision making in the classroom. DuFour is an advocate of professional learning communities. His ideas of collaboration can be modified for teachers to utilize in classroom practices. Villa and Thousand have published a book advocating utilizing students in planning.
Much of the available research and studies include teacher-teacher collaboration and student-student collaboration, but little exists on the effects of teacher-student collaboration. The current literature supports the idea that collaboration is effective in the classroom and among teachers, so it is conceivable that teacher-student collaboration would have similar results.
Problem Statement
While it is not known to what extent teacher-student collaboration will improve student learning or student perception of the roles of the teacher and student in the classroom in a 6th grade language arts classroom in Southeastern New Mexico this is an area that needs to be addressed. Student collaboration has long been a key to learning and now we need to look at how student and teachers collaborate together. Is it more effective and if so, does it imply more learning amongst students?
Purpose Statement
The purpose of this quantitative correlational study is to examine if teachers’ collaboration with students when planning lessons will positively affect student learning and to examine how such collaboration will affect student perception of the roles of teachers and students in the classroom.
Research Questions and Hypotheses
This study will look at several research questions to derive at an hypothesis. The overall statement will address collaboration of student and teacher, but it must be understood that there are many variables that might come into play.
R1: What is the relationship between teacher-student collaboration and student learning?
R2: How do students perceive their role in the classroom when they are asked for input in lesson planning?
R3: How do students perceive their teachers’ role in the classroom when students are asked for input in lesson planning?
H1: When teachers collaborate with and include student input in their lessons, students will better learn the objectives.
H10 : When teachers collaborate with and include student input in their lessons, students will not better learn the objectives.
H2: When teachers collaborate with and include student input in their lessons, students will score higher on standardized tests.
H20: When teachers collaborate with and include student input in their lessons, students will not score higher on standardized tests.
H3: When teachers collaborate with and include student input in their lessons, students will perceive that they are an important member of the classroom community.
H30: When teachers collaborate with and include student input in their lessons, students will not perceive that they are an important member of the classroom community.
Theoretical Foundation
The theory of teacher-student collaboration is derived from two separate theories. Erickson’s Stages of Psychological Development intertwined with the transformation leadership theory help to support the possible effectiveness of teacher-student collaboration. This section will briefly describe those theories and they ways in which they support the research topic.
Erikson’s Stages of Psychological Development
Erickson’s development stages consist of eight life stages (Erickson, 1963). Each stage represents a specific age group starting at birth and ending at death. Middle level learners fall into the fourth and fifth stages of Erickson’s theory. During those stages, students begin to pull away from authority figures telling them who they are or should be and begin to seek their own separate identities. Indeed, they are looking for a place to fit in and for a place where they have an active voice in the happenings of their lives. Therefore, it is conceivable teacher-student collaboration would be effective. If the teachers are willing to allow students an active voice, then the students may get a sense of control of their surroundings at school which could lead to more learning.
Transformational Leadership
Transformational leadership is one of the more popular leadership styles at this time (Riggio, 2009). In this leadership style, leaders motivate their subordinates to perform their duties and model the behaviors they wish to see exhibited. Teacher-student collaboration could be an example of transformational leadership. Teachers can motivate students by incorporating their ideas into their lessons. Teachers generally wish for students to follow their directives, therefore by utilizing their ideas in lessons, they are modeling the desired action for them. Teacher-student collaboration may change the way students perceive their roles and the roles of their teachers. They may begin to have a more positive outlook on school.
Literature Review Body
The literature review is an important part of the dissertation process (Hart, 2011). As people conduct research in their area of interest, they are able to determine gaps in the available literature and hone in on a research topic. The literature review may also assist researchers in finding support for their personal views and theories regarding a given area of interest. This paper will briefly review three articles each in the areas of needs of middle school students and the benefits of collaboration in preparation for a dissertation on the effects of teacher-student collaboration on student learning.
Needs of Middle School Students
Students go through many physical changes and emotional challenges during their middle school years. These years generally consist of ages 11-15 and the sixth through ninth grades. These years include the fourth and fifth stages of Erickson’s theory of personality development which are Industry versus Inferiority and Identity verses Role Confusion respectively (Erickson, 1963). During these stages of development, adolescent students may begin seeking new adventures and a sense of worth. Finding a portion of this sense of worth within the classroom is possible. As with any student, middle school students have special needs. At this point of their schooling, they may have ideas as to which teaching strategies help them to best learn the content of their classes. It is up to the classroom teacher to include these strategies when preparing lessons.
Middle School Literacy
Pitcher, Martinez, Dicembre, Fewster, and McCormick (2010) conducted a study of middle school students in which they determined their learning needs in literacy. In each of the case studies, the authors had a discussion with the students and their parents. They used the following three research questions during their study: (1) What types of reading instruction are adolescent students receiving? (2) Are the adolescents in this study receiving the type of instruction that they need? (3) Do parents understand what kind of reading instruction their children need and what role to play in their adolescents’ reading education? The research questions were answered using seven adolescent students who attended a 12 week university reading clinic. The participating students were interviewed to gain a perspective of how they felt about the instruction they were receiving at school. Parents of participating students were interviewed to answer the last of their research questions. The researchers used case studies to analyze the effectiveness of the reading programs being used in the students’ individual schools. Cases were individually analyzed using the constant comparative method to determine common themes among their sample population. They then met and agreed upon common themes, and then they determined the students’ literacy needs through data triangulation of the interviews, assessments, and a review of the curriculum used in their schools. While the researchers included students and parents in the process, the school teachers or administrators were not included. It may have been beneficial to find out whether changes could have been made to improve classroom instruction and student learning. Using their assessments, the researchers found that all of the included students read below grade level, but were not receiving intervention in their area of need. They also found that many of their students tested proficient or above on state tests, but continued to struggle when reading content expository text. Pitcher, Martinez, Dicembre, Fewster, and McCormick (2010) suggested school teachers begin to listen to their students in regard to instruction and utilize their suggestions when planning lessons.
Adolescent Learning.
Hagenauer and Hascher (2010) carried out a study on the enjoyment adolescents experience in learning. The researchers hypothesized the following: (1) Learning enjoyment as well as self-efficacy drop between grades six and seven. (2) Learning conditions-namely classroom practices- which are considered to be important in fulfilling students’ basic needs…are evaluated in a more negative way in grade seven compared to grade six. The sample population included students in grades six and seven from 17 classes within eight secondary schools in Salzburg, Austria. There was also a subsample of 110 students who participated in the diary entries for the study. Students were surveyed to determine their study habits and they kept diaries so that the researchers could assess their learning enjoyment in authentic learning environments. Two of the surveys were used throughout the school-year while one was given at the end of the sixth grade year and another was given three months into the seventh grade year. While students were given prompts to which they responded for their diaries, the measurement was an indirect rather than a direct approach. Students were asked how they felt concerning a particular lesson, but they were not asked directly what types of lessons provided enjoyment as well as enhanced their learning. If students had been asked prior to their lessons, then perhaps they would have found more enjoyment in their learning experiences. The hypotheses were supported by the results of the study. Students’ learning enjoyment and self-efficacy declined over a year. The practices in the classroom which was directed at the basic needs of students also declined.
Beliefs.
A group of researchers worked collaboratively to design a questionnaire that would measure teacher beliefs about students’ reading motivation and their enactment in the classroom (Quirk, et al., 2010). In developing this questionnaire, they posed the following research questions: (1) Can teachers’ beliefs about student motivation for reading be reliably measured? (2) What are teachers’ beliefs about student motivation for reading? (3) What is the relationship between teachers’ beliefs about student motivation for reading and their teaching self-efficacy? There were 86 teachers surveyed for this research project consisting mostly of upper elementary and middle school teachers. The teachers ranged in experience from less than one year to more than 37 years, and their ethnicities varied. Teachers responded to three surveys that measured their beliefs about student motivation, their self-efficacy, and their background and demographics. No actual observation of participating classroom teachers was conducted. Had observations been conducted, the researchers would have had a better understanding of how the teachers’ perceptions coordinated with the ways in which they interacted with their students. The researchers found teachers’ beliefs about motivating students to read could be measured reliably, and there was a significant relationship between teachers’ beliefs about motivating students to read and their teaching self-efficacy.
Critical Years.
Based on these three studies, one can conclude that the middle school years of students is a critical point in their education. This is a time period when students’ motivation wavers and teachers may support or inhibit that motivation. Pitcher, Martinez, Dicembre, Fewster, and McCormick (2010) found that when preparing lessons based on students’ needs, student learning improved while Hagenauer and Hascher (2010) found that doing so improved student enjoyment of learning. While researchers may comprehend that teachers’ beliefs about motivation and their self-efficacy were connected (Quirk, et al., 2010), it can be hypothesized that these same factors may be linked to teachers’ willingness to inquire students about their needs and utilize what they hear from their students. If teachers’ self-efficacy is high, then they may be more willing to ask for students’ input whereas those with low self-efficacy may find that intimidating or to mean that they are inadequate. Villa, Thousand, and Nevin (2010) refer to students as the “…untapped resource” (front cover), which alludes to the idea that teachers need to begin to utilize the one resource that is always readily available to them: their students.
Collaboration
Collaborative learning can be a very useful strategy to use in the school environment. Students can collaborate with each other and learn their content more in depth. Teachers can collaborate with each other and learn more about differentiating their practices to better reach their students. School leaders often collaborate with the teachers to build a stronger, safer, and more aligned system within the school. The benefits of collaboration outweigh the possible burden of time it takes to collaborate (Raywid, 1993). The following three article reviews examine three different ways collaboration is used in the learning environments.
Implementation of Learning Communities.
Lippy and Zamora (2012) conducted a study of the consistency of implementation of professional learning communities (PLC) in middle schools. Professional learning communities are collaborative groups within an organization that meet on a regular basis to make decisions about the organization (DuFour, 2004). The questions they sought to answer with their research were: (1) Are the PLC practices of shared and supportive leadership, shared vision and values, collective learning and application, share personal practice, supportive conditions—relationships, supportive conditions—structures, and school factors consistently implemented in all of the middle schools of the local district? (2) What two dimensions of PLC practices are most deeply integrated into system and individual school practices? (3) What two dimensions of PLC practices are the least integrated into system and individual school practices? (4) What are the correlations between years of teaching experience and the integration of PLC practices within each domain of PLC practices? (5) What are the correlations of school diversity—ethically and socioeconomically—and the integration of PLC practices within each domain? The sample population included 196 core content teachers from 12 middle schools near Washington, DC. ). Lippy and Zamora (2012) used the Professional Learning Community Assessment and a descriptive research approach to understand the participants’ perception of the depth of their PLC implementation. In regards to the research questions, they found not all PLC practices are implemented consistently, shared values and visions and supportive conditions in relationships were the practices with the greatest amount of implementation, shared personal practices and supportive conditions in structures were the least integrated into the system, there was not a correlation between teachers’ years of experience and the implementation of PLC practices, nor was there a correlation between school demographics and the implementations of PLC practices. While the findings are useful, they never did state whether they believed collaboration would work better if it was implemented consistently. It is plausible consistency would better the effects of collaboration and perhaps that is one direction further studies could go.
Comprehension of Middle School Age.
Davis and Neitzel (2010) studied the beliefs middle school students held on reading and their use of comprehension strategies during a collaborative learning activity. Specifically, they sought to answer whether a relationship existed between students’ conceptions of reading and their use of comprehension strategies. Students used in the study were 71 fifth and sixth graders from two middle schools in Central Tennessee. Of those students, 47 were girls while only 24 were boys. One school had 48% of its population on free and reduced lunches while the other had 85% on free and reduced lunches. Results of this study could have been skewed because nearly twice as many girls were used than boys in the study and because of the vast difference in the socio-economic status of the two schools. In this qualitative study, students were asked to read four passages about fictitious readers, discuss each reader, and individually rank the readers. During their activity, they were recorded and the film was reviewed for analysis. They found a strong relationship between students’ conceptions of reading and the way they interacted during their collaborative activity.
Collaboration Types.
Chen and Chuang (2011) studied varied types of collaboration among children. They used the following hypotheses to guide their studies: (1) There will be no significant differences in students’ learning achievement between different levels of students’ prior knowledge when using varied types of collaborative learning strategies. (2) There will be no significant differences in learning achievement between students who use open-ended discussion strategy and who use problem-based discussion strategy in a collaborative learning environment. (3) There will be no significant interaction between student prior knowledge and varied types of collaborative learning strategies in student learning achievement. For this study, the sample population included 204 fourth grade students in Taiwan averaging 10 years old. These students had experience with using computers and had access to computers often. Students were given a pre-test prior to engaging in their activity. After reviewing the pre-test scores, students were divided into groups and worked on a computer program which provided online instruction. Students were then given a post-test to provide their thoughts on their instruction. They were not able to support their first two hypotheses, but their data did support the third hypothesis. While students were able to collaborate in this study, the level of collaboration was low. Teachers were also instructed not to assist students during this activity. These two factors could have greatly impacted the study because of how little collaboration was actually utilized.
Collaboration Among All Needed.
It is evident that collaboration has many definitions through these three research areas. Lippy and Zamora (2012) describe collaboration among teachers as meeting and discussing school matters. Davis and Neitzel (2010) simply use students reading and discussing passages as collaboration. Finally, Chen and Chuang (2011) use the term collaboration to describe students working on a computer program together. One issue seen with these different uses of the term collaboration is it needs to be defined prior to the proposed study taking place. It is evident a form of collaboration is being used in various learning environments; however, the depth of the levels of collaboration varies and, in some cases, may be cooperative learning rather than collaborative learning.
Benefits of Collaboration
Collaboration among students and among teachers can be beneficial to student learning. As teachers meet with one another and begin to plan lessons for students, they can utilize data collected and discuss the needs of their classes (DuFour, DuFour, & Eaker, 2008). When students are allowed to collaborate with one another, they are able to discuss what they are learning and their individual understanding of what they are learning. Reason and Reason (2007) intertwined the idea of collaboration with inquiry. They argued inquiring each other can lead to better teaching practices. This could also be carried over to inquiry with students to better fit teaching with their individual learning needs.
Teacher and Learner Connection.
Researchers from the Netherlands conducted a study of the relationship between teacher collaboration and teacher learning (Meirink, Imants, Meijer, & Verloop, 2010). The following are the research questions used for this study: (1) How does teacher collaboration emerge in teams, and how is this collaboration related to group characteristics? (2) How is teachers’ collaboration in teams related to learning in these team contexts? The participants included teachers from five schools which made up five interdisciplinary teams. Each team had a university coach experienced in collaboration to help establish their collaboration efforts, but the coach then simply monitored the progress. Data were collected in both qualitative and quantitative approaches. Teams were observed during the school-year and records were kept on their level of collaboration and/or interdependency. Records were kept concerning on what the teams collaborated. The collaborative groups were voluntary which would lead one to believe that those who participated likely were already collaborating. Therefore, these groups may have functioned well because those teachers wanted to work in collaborative community. Data can be skewed by such participants. Future researchers may want to consider using teachers who work in a collaborative school and have no choice but to collaborate. The researchers found that the higher levels of interdependency among the groups correlated to the alignment of goals and the reaching of those goals whereas those teams with low levels of independency had misaligned goals and therefore could not reach them. They also reported that collaboration and learning were closely connected in the teacher teams.
Effectiveness of Collaborative Communities.
Graham (2007) administered a study on the effectiveness of teachers in collaborative communities. His research questions were: (1) Which features of professional learning community activities, if any, demonstrate a significant relationship with changes in teachers’ content and pedagogical knowledge and skills and with changes in teachers’ instructional practices? (2) Do the features of professional learning community activities, along with changes in teachers’ content and pedagogical knowledge and skills and instructional practices, vary based on specific teacher characteristics—including years of teaching experience, grade level taught, and subject taught? (3) In what ways do organizational and personnel factors—specifically, intra-organizational social dynamics, the personality and leadership style of the principal, structured planning time, and use of a block schedule—influence teacher improvement efficacy of professional learning community activities? Twenty teachers were used in this study who taught sixth-eighth grades in core subject areas in a first year middle school. The study was a mixed methods study that gathered data from professional development surveys, teacher interviews, and a review of school data. The survey gave the researcher background knowledge as to which professional development learning community activities teachers had participated. Within the study group, “…a purposefully selected group of ten teachers form the same school…” were interviewed concerning professional learning community activities, professional development, teacher and school characteristics, teacher improvement, and instruction behavioral changes. Within this area, one wonders why this group was “purposefully” rather than randomly selected. This has the potential to convey that these teachers were chosen because they would provide the interview answers desired. It may have been beneficial to randomly choose these teachers in order to receive unbiased data. The researcher found that content focus, active learning, and coherence had a positive relationship to changes in teachers’ knowledge and teaching practices. He also found that factors such as teacher experience, grade level taught, and content taught had an effect on the professional learning community activity. In answering the third research question, the researcher found that leadership style affected the teacher improvement efficacy in schools using professional learning communities.
Student Collaboration.
Swenson and Strough (2008) agreed that student collaboration was beneficial to student learning; however, they questioned whether groups made of up friends or groups based on gender would outperform groups of non-friends or those which were composed of mixed gender. They also questioned whether the depths of the relationships within the group members would affect the learning taking place within the groups. The population sample consisted of 132 high school adolescents of which 58 were boys and 74 were girls. Students received parental consent to participate in the study and then filled out a survey in which they nominated a friend in their classroom with whom they wanted to be paired. Students were then randomly assigned to friends or non-friends for the case study. Students worked with their partners to answer two questions which required scientific reasoning. They were given five minutes to discuss the problems with each other and then completed the work on their own. Students then completed a survey that measured the quality of the working relationship they had with their partners. While this study did compare gender based grouping and friend and non-friend groupings, it did not compare friend groupings of same gender to friend groupings of opposite genders. It also failed to address students who do not have friends at school and are considered loners. The researchers found that students paired with friends did perform better than groups of non-friends. They also found girls did perform higher than boys, but not significantly.
What Improves Effectiveness of Collaboration?
Teacher collaboration improves the effectiveness of teachers as well as their learning of the needs of their students (Graham, 2007; Meirink, Imants, Meijer, & Verloop, 2010). There is support for student collaboration enhancing student learning and possibly some implication of the need to help build stronger relationship withing the classroom to further enhance student learning (Swenson & Strough, 2008). With these findings, it can be inferred teacher-student collaboration would also be beneficial. Similar to teacher collaboration improving the effectiveness of teacher learning, teacher-student collaboration could be effective in teacher and student learning. While ideas can be brought about during teacher collaboration time, it may prove to be more beneficial if teachers choose to have those same types of conversations with their students.
Conclusion [Include in-text citations here to support keytopics in your discussion]
Through research, there is evidence to support the idea collaboration is a beneficial tool to use in a learning environment. The use of PLCs in schools has become a popular method used in schools seeking improvement in student achievement. Collaborative learning and cooperative learning have become two of the most used methods in differentiating instruction for students. While there is evidence supporting collaboration, little research has been done to see if teacher-student collaboration will also be beneficial. It is credible to state since collaboration among students brings about positive learning results and because collaboration among teachers brings about positive results, then collaboration between teachers and students would also bring about positive results. However, a study needs to be conducted in order to find evidence to support or reject that hypothesis.
As research continues, more articles discussing collaboration will be used. One area that needs to be addressed early is a formal definition of collaboration needs to be given. After a definition is generated, more research on the how collaboration is utilized and its benefits will be conducted. The method of the study will then be determined and the study will be conducted. The findings of this study may be deemed important to the field of education as teacher-student collaboration may be a missing link in student achievement. If teachers can better understand the needs of their students, then their teaching can be more effective which could lead to higher rates of student gratification during their years of formal education.
References
Bush, G. W. (2010). Decision points. New York, NY: Crown Publishers.
Chen, W.-F., & Chuang, C.-P. (2011). Effect of varied types of collaborative learning strategies on young children: An experimental study. International Journal of Instructional Media, 38(4), 351-358. Retrieved from http://library.gcu.edu:2048/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=66721442&site=ehost-live&scope=site
Davis, D. S., & Neitzel, C. (2010). The relationship between students’ reading orientations and their strategic activity during a collaborative reading task. Reading Psychology, 31(6), 546-579. doi:10.1080/02702710903256593
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