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Conceptual models or theories

Select one of the conceptual models or theories described in chapter 6. Formulate a research question and one to two hypotheses that could be used empiraclly to test the utility of the conceptual framework or model in nursing practice.

Chapter 6
Theoretical Frameworks

Question
Tell whether the following statement is true or false:
A theory is an abstraction that purports to account for or explain phenomena.

Answer
True
A theory is an abstraction that purports to account for or explain phenomena.

Question
What is a descriptive theory?
An abstract generalization that systematically explains relationships among phenomena
A theory that thoroughly describes a phenomenon, based on rich observations of it
A theory attempt to describe large segments of the human experience
A theory that focuses on a specific aspect of human experience

Answer
B
Classical theory: an abstract generalization that systematically explains relationships among phenomena
Descriptive theory: a theory that thoroughly describes a phenomenon, based on rich observations of it
Grand theory: a theory that attempts to explain large aspects of human experience
Middle-range theory: a theory that focuses on a specific aspect of human experience

Theory
An abstraction that purports to account for or explain phenomena
Classical theory: an abstract generalization that systematically explains relationships among phenomena
Descriptive theory: a theory that thoroughly describes a phenomenon, based on rich observations of it

Theory (cont.)
Grand theory: a theory that attempts to explain large aspects of human experience
Middle-range theory: a theory that focuses on a specific aspect of human experience

Question
Tell whether the following statement is true or false:
Schematic models are graphic, theory-driven representations of phenomena and their interrelationships using symbols or diagrams and a minimal use of words.

Answer
True
Schematic models are graphic, theory-driven representations of phenomena and their interrelationships using symbols or diagrams and a minimal use of words.

Conceptual Models
Deal with abstractions, assembled in a coherent scheme
Represent a less formal attempt than theories to explain phenomena
Do not have formal propositions about relationships among phenomena

Framework
Theoretical framework (based on theory)
Conceptual framework (based on a conceptual model)

Commonalities between Theories and Conceptual Models
Use concepts as building blocks
Require conceptual definitions of key concepts
Can be depicted in a schematic model
Are created by humans
Are developed inductively

Commonalities between Theories and Conceptual Models (cont.)
Cannot be proven—they are supported to greater or lesser degrees
Can be used to generate hypotheses
Can serve as a stimulus to research

5-Step Process for Developing Conceptual Definitions
Develop a preliminary definition.
Do an in-depth literature review.
Identify exemplary cases.
Map the concept’s meaning.
State the revised conceptual
definition.

Conceptual Models of Nursing
Formal explanations of what nursing practice is
Four concepts central to models of nursing:
Person
Environment
Health
Nursing

Conceptual Models Used Frequently by Nurse Researchers
Conceptual models of nursing:
Roy’s Adaptation Model
Rogers’ Science of Unitary Human Beings
Other models developed by nurses:
Pender’s Health Promotion Model (HPM)
Mishel’s Uncertainty in Illness Theory

Examples of Non-Nursing Models by Nurse Researchers
Becker’s Health Belief Model (HBM)
Lazarus and Folkman’s Theory of Stress and Coping
Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory
Ajzen’s Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB)

The Use of Theories or Models in Quantitative Research
Testing a theory
Testing two competing theories
Using a theory/model as an organizing structure
Fitting a problem into theory
Developing an original theory/model

Question
What type of theory do some qualitative researchers seek to develop that provide data-driven explanations to account for phenomena under study?
Grounded
Ethnography
Phenomenology
Shared

Answer
A
Some qualitative researchers specifically seek to develop grounded theories, data-driven explanations to account for phenomena under study through inductive processes. Ethnography is cultural theories—ideational and materialistic. Phenomenology is the phenomenologic theory of human experience.

Theories in Qualitative Research
Substantive theory—conceptualizations of the target phenomena
Theory embedded in a research tradition
Grounded theory (symbolic interactionism)
Ethnography (cultural theories: ideational and materialistic)
Phenomenology (phenomenologic theory of human experience)

Examples of Questions to Assess a
Model or Theory
Clarity: Are key concepts defined? Are definitions clear?
Complexity: Is the theory sufficiently rich? Overly complex?
Grounding: Is there an empirical basis for the theory?

Examples of Questions to Assess a Model or Theory (cont.)
Appropriateness: Are key concepts within the domain of nursing?
Importance: Will testing the theory contribute to nursing’s evidence base?
Competition: Are there theories that better explain the key phenomenon?

Chapter 7
Ethics in Nursing Research

Question
Tell whether the following statement is true or false:
An ethical dilemma occurs when a situation in which the rights of study participants are in direct conflict with requirements for a rigorous study.

Answer
True
An ethical dilemma is situation in which the rights of study participants are in direct conflict with requirements for a rigorous study.

Ethical Dilemma in Conducting Research
A situation in which the rights of study participants are in direct conflict with requirements for a rigorous study

Question
Tell whether the following statement is true or false:
The Nuremberg Code serves as the basis for regulations affecting research sponsored by the U.S. government.

Answer
False
The Belmont Report serves as the basis for regulations affecting research sponsored by the U.S. government. The Nuremberg Code was an international effort to establish ethical standards.

Code of Ethics
Nuremberg Code
Declaration of Helsinki
Belmont Report
Codes for professional disciplines (e.g., by the American Nurses Association, American Psychological Association)

Question
What is nonmaleficence?
Performance of some good
Protection from physical and psychological harm and exploitation
Participants right to self-determination
Freedom to control their own actions

Answer
B
Beneficence involves the performance of some good, and the protection of participants from physical and psychological harm and exploitation is nonmaleficence. Respect for human dignity involves participants’ right to self-determination, which means they have the freedom to control their own actions.

Question
Tell whether the following statement is true or false:
Justice includes the right to fair treatment and the right to privacy.

Answer
True
Justice includes the right to fair treatment and the right to privacy.

Ethical Principles from the Belmont Report
Principle of Beneficence: Above all,
do no harm.
Freedom from harm
Freedom from exploitation
Maximizing benefits to participants and society
Maintaining an appropriate risk/benefit ratio

Ethical Principles from the Belmont Report (cont.)
Principle of Respect for Human
Dignity
Right to self-determination (absence of coercion)
Right to full disclosure (absence of deception or concealment)

Ethical Principles from the Belmont Report (cont.)
Principle of Justice
Right to fair treatment
Right to privacy (confidentiality, anonymity)

Informed Consent
Informed consent means that participants:
Have adequate information about the research
Can comprehend that information
Have free choice in deciding whether to participate in or withdraw from the study

Content of Informed Consent—What Must Be Communicated?
Status as a study participant
Study goals
Type of data to be collected and procedures to be used
Nature of participant’s commitment

Content of Informed Consent (cont.)
Sponsorship of the study
Participant selection
Potential risks and benefits
Treatment alternatives

Content of Informed Consent (cont.)
Confidentiality pledge
Voluntary nature of participation
Participant’s right to withdraw or withhold information
Information on contacting researcher

Vulnerable Subjects
Children
Mentally or emotionally disabled people
Severely ill or physically disabled people
Terminally ill people
Institutionalized people
Pregnant women

Chapter 8
Planning a Nursing Study

Question
Tell whether the following statement is true or false:
The major methodologic challenge in designing a qualitative study is that it is reliable and valid.

Answer
False
Researchers face numerous conceptual, practical, ethical, and methodologic challenges in planning a study. The major methodologic challenge is designing a study that is reliable and valid (quantitative studies) or trustworthy (qualitative studies).

Question
Tell whether the following statement is true or false:
Validity refers to the accuracy and consistency of information obtained in a study.

Answer
False
Reliability refers to the accuracy and consistency of information obtained in a study. Validity is a more complex concept that broadly concerns the soundness of the study’s evidence.

Key Challenges of Doing Research
Conceptual
Financial
Administrative
Practical
Ethical
Clinical
Methodologic

Major Methodologic Challenge
Designing studies that are:
Reliable and valid (quantitative studies)
Trustworthy (qualitative studies)

Criteria for Evaluating Quantitative Research
Reliability
The accuracy and consistency of obtained information
Validity
The soundness of the evidence—whether findings are convincing, well-grounded

Question
Tell whether the following statement is true or false:
Confirmability refers to evidence of the researcher’s objectivity.

Answer
True
Confirmability refers to evidence of the researcher’s objectivity.

Dimensions of Trustworthiness in Qualitative Studies
Credibility
Confirmability
Dependability
Transferability
Authenticity

Triangulation
Multiple sources
Draw conclusions
One approach to establish credibility

Bias
An influence producing a distortion in study results
Examples of factors creating bias:
Lack of participants’ candor
Faulty methods of data collection
Researcher’s preconceptions
Faulty study design

Research Control in Quantitative Studies
Achieved by holding constant factors (extraneous variables) that influence the dependent variable in order to better understand its relationship with the independent variable
Randomness: an important tool for achieving control over extraneous variables

Randomness
Having certain features of the study established by chance rather than by design or personal preference

Reflexivity
Process of reflecting critically on the self and of scrutinizing personal values that could affect data collection and interpretation

Generalizability and Transferability
Generalizability (quantitative research): the extent to which study findings are valid for other groups not in the study
Transferability (qualitative research): the extent to which qualitative findings can be transferred to other settings

Overview of Research Design Features
Comparisons:
Comparison among two or more groups
Comparison of one group’s status at two or more points in time
Comparison of one group’s status under different circumstances
Comparison based on relative rankings
Comparison with other studies

Research Location
Site selections
Site visits

Design
Cross-sectional: involves data collection at one point in time
Longitudinal: involves data collection at two or more points over an extended period
– Trend studies
– Panel studies
– Follow-up studies

Retrospective Design versus
Prospective Design
Retrospective design: involves the collection of data about an outcome in the present and about possible causes or antecedents in the past
Prospective design: involves having information about a cause or antecedent first and then the subsequent collection of information about outcomes

Self-Report
Direct questioning of people about phenomena of interest
Versatile
Powerful
Respondents’ deliberate or inadvertent misrepresentations

Biophysiologic Measures
High-quality data
Objective
Valid
Cost-efficient

Records
Economical source
Bias:
Selective deposit
Selective survival

Pilot Study (Feasibility Study)
Small-scale version or trial run designed to test methods to be used in a larger, more rigorous study (the parent study)

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