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Human Resource Management

Fifteenth Edition

Chapter 3

Equal Employment Opportunity, Affirmative Action, and Workforce Diversity

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1

Learning Objectives (1 of 2)
3.1 Explain the concept of equal employment opportunity (E E O) and identify the federal laws affecting E E O.
3.2 Discuss who is responsible for ensuring equal employment opportunity.
3.3 Define the types of illegal employment discrimination and discuss affirmative action.

Learning Objectives (2 of 2)
3.4 Explain the Uniform Guidelines related to various types of illegal employment discrimination, including sexual harassment, national origin, religion, and caregiver (family responsibility) discrimination.
3.5 Describe the concept of diversity and diversity management.
3.6 Explain the various elements of a diverse workforce.

Equal Employment Opportunity: An Overview
Equal employment opportunity (E E O): Laws and policies that require all individuals’ rights to equal opportunity in the workplace, regardless of:
Race, color, sex, religion, national origin, age, and disability
Affirmative action
Diversity

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The workforce of today has become truly diverse. But, this was not the case in the early 1960s; in fact, little of the workforce of those days remotely resembled that of today. Then, few mainstream opportunities were available to women, minorities, and those with disabilities.
Equal employment opportunity (EEO) refers to the set of laws and policies that requires all individuals’ rights to equal opportunity in the workplace, regardless of race, color, sex, religion, national origin, age, disability, or genetic information.
Affirmative action creates the expectation and program requirements that companies make a positive effort to recruit, hire, train, and promote employees form groups who are underrepresented in the labor force.
Diversity refers to any actual or perceived difference among people: age, race, religion, functional specialty, profession, sexual orientation, gender identity, geographic origin, lifestyle, tenure with the organization or position, and any other perceived difference, including values an nontraditional work experiences. Characteristics of diversity go well beyond protected classes. Unlike EEO and Affirmative Action, promoting a diverse workforce is not required by law. Diversity management is aimed at creating a workplace in which every employee fits, feels accepted, has value, and contributes.
4

Federal Laws Affecting Equal Employment Opportunity

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Diversity did not just happen. Legislation (federal, state, and local), Supreme Court decisions, and executive orders have encouraged both public and private organizations to tap the abilities of a workforce that was largely underused before the mid-1960s. The concept of equal employment opportunity has undergone much modification and fine-tuning since the passage of the Equal Pay Act of 1963, the Civil Rights Act of 1964, and the Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967. Numerous amendments to these acts have been passed, as well as other acts in response to oversights in the initial legislation. Major Supreme Court decisions interpreting the provisions of the acts have also been handed down. A Presidential executive order was signed into law that provided for affirmative action. Five decades have passed since the introduction of the first legislation, and equal employment opportunity has become an integral part of the workplace.
Numerous national laws have been passed that reflect society’s attitude that everyone should have an equal opportunity for employment. The most significant of these laws will be described in the following sections.
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Civil Rights Act of 1866
Oldest federal legislation affecting staffing
Based on Thirteenth Amendment
No statute of limitations
Employment is a contractual arrangement
Extended to cover private parties in 1968

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The oldest federal legislation affecting staffing is the Civil Rights Act of 1866, which is based on the Thirteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. The Civil Rights Act of 1866 granted citizenship and the same rights enjoyed by white citizens to all male persons in the United States, “without distinction of race or color, or previous condition of slavery or involuntary servitude.”
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Title VII of Civil Rights Act of 1964, Amended in 1972
Three notable exceptions to Title VII discrimination:
Bona fide occupational qualifications (B F O Q)
Bona fide seniority system
Professionally developed ability tests as long as there was no intention to engage in illegal discrimination
Created Equal Employment Commission (E E O C)

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Title VII covers employers engaged in interstate commerce that have 15 or more employees. Also included in the definition of employers are state and local governments, schools, colleges, unions, and private employment agencies. All private employers that are subject to the Civil Rights Act of 1964 must submit an annual employment report (called the EEO-1), containing the numbers of employees in racial, ethnic, and gender categories for different job types. The EEOC was created to enforce Title VII.
Under Title VII, it is illegal for employers to discriminate based on race, color, sex, religion, or national origin.
Three notable exceptions to Title VII are bona fide occupational qualifications, seniority and merit systems, and testing and educational requirements. According to the Act, it is not unlawful to hire on the basis of religion, sex, or national origin in those instances where these are bona fide occupational qualifications. For example, religious institutions may legally refuse to hire teachers whose religious persuasions are different from that of the hiring institution. However, the burden of proving the necessity for a BFOQ rests entirely on the employer.
The second exception to discrimination under Title VII is a bona fide seniority system. The system can be invalidated only by evidence hat the actual motives of the parties to the agreement were to discriminate.
In the matter of testing and educational requirements, Title VII states that they must be job related. And when adverse impact is shown, the burden of proof is on the employer to establish that a demonstrable relationship exists between actual job performance and the test or educational requirement.
The Civil Rights Act of 1964 also created the Equal Employment Opportunity Committee (EEOC) and assigned enforcement of Title VII to this agency.
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Equal Pay Act of 1963, Amended in 1972
Cannot pay women less money than men if both employees do work that is substantially the same
Work must:
Require equal skill
Require equal effort
Involve equal responsibility
Be performed under similar working conditions

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Passed as an amendment to the Fair Labor Standards Act, the Equal Pay Act of 1963 prohibits an employer from paying an employee of one gender less than an employee of the opposite gender if both employees do the same work. The Act was passed largely to overcome the outdated belief that a man should be paid more than a woman because he was the primary breadwinner.
More recently, new approaches to minimize the pay gap between women and men performing comparable work are being undertaken. For instance, Massachusetts’ Pay Equity Act prohibits companies from inquiring about an applicant’s pay history on job applications, interviews, and during pay negotiations.
The EEOC enforces the EPA.
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Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act of 2009
Each paycheck that unfairly pays a worker less than it should is a discriminatory act
The act gives the worker a fresh 180-day period during which time discrimination charges must be filed
Recognition of an unfair paycheck at any time starts the period

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Lilly Ledbetter worked as a supervisor for Goodyear Tire from 1979 until 1998. Just before retirement, she received information that compared her salary with salaries of male co-workers. She sued, claiming pay discrimination under Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Equal Pay Act of 1963. In the 2007 Supreme Court case of Ledbetter v. Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co., Inc., the Court said that discrimination charges must be filed within 180 days after the allegedly discriminatory pay decision. Lilly Ledbetter had worked for Goodyear for many years but she did not realize until she was close to retirement that she was being discriminated against because of pay.
In order to reverse the Ledbetter decision, the Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act was passed by Congress and signed into law in 2009. The law creates a rolling or open time frame for filing wage discrimination claims. Each paycheck that unfairly pays a worker less than it should is a discriminatory act.
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Pregnancy Discrimination Act of 1978
Amendment to Title VII of Civil Rights Act
Pregnancy, childbirth, or related medical condition
Prohibits questions about family plans, birth control techniques, etc.
Employee benefits are also covered

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The Pregnancy Discrimination Act prohibits discrimination in employment based on pregnancy, childbirth, or related medical conditions. The basic principle of the act is that women affected by pregnancy and related conditions must be treated the same as other applicants and employees based on their ability or inability to work. Questions regarding a woman’s family and childbearing plans should not be asked. The same principle applies in the employee benefits area.
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Civil Rights Act of 1991
Provided appropriate remedies for intentional discrimination and unlawful harassment
Codified “business necessity” and “job-relatedness”
Confirmed authority and guidelines for finding disparate impact under Title VII

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The Civil Rights Act of 1991 provides remedies for intentional discrimination and unlawful harassment in the workplace. It also formally defines the concepts of business necessity and job-related as they apply to enforcement of the Act. The Act establishes who has statutory authority, and provides guidelines for the resolution of disparate impact under Title VII. It expands the scope of relevant civil rights statutes to provide adequate protection to victims of discrimination.
The Act applies to U.S. companies operating in other countries, but only if compliance would not cause the employer to violate the laws of the country in which the workplace is located. The Act also extends the nondiscrimination principles to Congress and other government agencies.
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Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967, Amended in 1978, 1986, and 1990
Illegal to discriminate against anyone 40 years or older
Enforced by the E E O C
Pertains to employers who have 20 or more employees
Provides for trial by jury
Class action suits are possible
Age can be a B F O Q

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As originally enacted, the Age Discrimination in Employment Act (ADEA) prohibited employers from discriminating against individuals who were 40 to 65 years old. The 1978 amendment provided protection for individuals who were at least 40, but less than 70 years old. In a 1986 amendment, employer discrimination against anyone age 40 or older was made illegal. Questions asked about an applicant’s age are usually off-limits, but a firm may ask for age information to comply with child labor laws. The Older Workers Benefit Protection Act (the 1990 amendment to the ADEA) focused on employer benefits practices.
The Act pertains to employers who have 20 or more employees; unions with 25 or more members; employment agencies; and federal, state, and local government subunits.
The EEOC is responsible for administering the ADEA.
Age can be a bona fide occupational qualification when it is reasonably necessary to do the job, and when the employer has a rational basis for believing that all, or substantially all, people within an age class would not be able to perform satisfactorily. Courts have continued to rule that the Federal Aviation Administration has adequately explained its long-standing rule that it can force commercial pilots to retire at age 65. This ruling supported the 1974 Seventh Circuit Court decision that Greyhound did not violate the ADEA when it refused to hire persons 35 years of age or older as intercity bus drivers. Again, the likelihood of risk or harm to its passengers was involved. Greyhound presented evidence concerning degenerative physical and sensory changes that humans undergo at about age 35 that have a detrimental effect on driving skills, and that the changes are not detectable by physical tests. These skills would gradually deteriorate with increased age.
12

Rehabilitation Act of 1973
Prohibits discrimination against disabled workers working for government contractors and organizations
Contracts exceeding $2,500: Employer required to post affirmative action notices
Contracts exceeding $50,000, or if contractor has 50 or more employees: Employer must prepare written affirmative action plan
Administered by Office of Federal Contract Compliance Programs (O F C C P)

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The Rehabilitation Act prohibits discrimination against disabled workers who are employed by government contractors and organizations that receive federal grants in excess of $2,500. Individuals are considered disabled if they have a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more major life activities. Protected under the Act are conditions such as epilepsy, cancer, cardiovascular disorders, AIDS, blindness, deafness, mental retardation, emotional disorders, and dyslexia. There are two primary levels of the Act. All federal contractors exceeding the $2,500 base are required to post notices that they agree to take affirmative action to recruit, employ, and promote qualified disabled individuals. If the contract exceeds $50,000, or if the contractor has 50 or more employees, the employer must prepare a written affirmative action plan for review by the Office of Federal Contract Compliance Programs.
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Vietnam Era Veteran’s Readjustment Assistance Act of 1974 (V E V R A A)
Requires covered federal government contractors and subcontractors to take affirmative action to employ and advance veterans
Priority in referral
Expanded definition to include campaign or expedition
Utilization goal

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Under VEVRAA, federal contractors and subcontractors are required to take affirmative action in hiring covered veterans. VEVRAA also requires contractors to compile and submit annually a report on the number of current employees who are covered veterans.
Now the definition of “protected” or “covered” veteran has been expanded to include those who have served in a campaign or expedition for which a campaign badge was issued.
The final regulations require contractors to establish a nationwide 7 percent utilization goal for disabled individuals and veterans in each job group of their workforce.
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Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (A D A) and Americans with Disabilities Act Amendments Act of 2008 (A D A A A)
A D A prohibits discrimination against qualified individuals with disabilities
Disabled individual: Person who has, or is regarded as having, a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more major life activities, and has a record of such an impairment
A D A A A:
Expanded the definition of “disability”
More eligible for reasonable accommodations

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The Americans with Disabilities Act prohibits discrimination against qualified individuals with disabilities. The ADA prohibits discrimination in all employment practices, including hiring, firing, advancement, compensation, training, and other conditions of employment in organizations with 15 or more employees. These provisions apply to private employers, state and local governments, employment agencies, and labor unions.
The Americans with Disabilities Act Amendments Act brought millions more people under the ADA’s protection. The Amendments Act expands the definition of “disability,” and many more applicants and employees are now eligible for reasonable accommodations. The Amendment broadened the definition of disability by expanding the term “major life activities,” and doing away with the “substantially limited” requirement. The only exception to this rule is that if a person’s vision can be corrected with eyeglasses or contact lenses, he or she will not be considered disabled.
15

Immigration Reform and Control Act (I R C A) of 1986
Illegal for certain employers to fire or refuse to hire based on national origin or citizenship
Illegal to target certain origins for employment verification

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The Immigration Reform and Control Act (IRCA) makes it illegal for certain employers to fire or refuse to hire a person based on that person’s national origin or citizenship. This law also makes it illegal for an employer to request employment verification only from people of a certain national origin or only from people who appear to be from a foreign country. An employer who has citizenship requirements or gives preference to U.S. citizens also may violate IRCA.
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Uniformed Services Employment and Reemployment Rights Act (U S E R R A) of 1994
Protections for Reservists and National Guard called to active duty
Workers entitled to return to civilian employment after military service
Intended to eliminate or minimize employment disadvantages to civilian careers
Escalator principle: Can return to job he/she would have attained

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The Uniformed Services Employment and Reemployment Rights Act provides protection to Reservists and National Guard members. Under this Act, those workers are entitled to return to their civilian employment after completing their military service. The Act is intended to eliminate or minimize employment disadvantages to civilian careers that can result from service in the uniformed services. As a general rule, a returning employee is entitled to reemployment in the same job position that he or she would have attained with reasonable certainty if not for the absence to serve in the military. Known as the escalator principle, this requirement is designed to ensure that a returning employee is not penalized for the time, not exceeding five years, spent on active duty.
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Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act of 2008 (G I N A)
Protection from discrimination based on genetic information
Title I of G I N A applies to employer-sponsored group health plans
Title II of G I N A prohibits the use of genetic information in making employment decisions

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The Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act (GINA) of 2008 protects job applicants, current and former employees, labor union members, and apprentices and trainees from discrimination based on their genetic information by making unlawful the misuse of genetic information to discriminate in health insurance and employment. GINA contains two titles – I and II.
Title I generally prohibits discrimination in group premiums based on genetic information and the use of genetic information as a basis for determining eligibility or setting health insurance premiums
Title I also places limitations on genetic testing and the collection of genetic information.
Title II of GINA prohibits the use of genetic information in the employment setting for making employment decisions such as hiring decisions, compensation, training, and termination
GINA further restricts the deliberate acquisition of genetic information by employers and others covered by Title II, and strictly limits them from disclosing genetic information
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State and Local Laws
State and local laws affect E E O
Fair employment practice laws
When E E O C regulations conflict with state or local civil rights regulations, legislation more favorable to women and minorities applies

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Numerous state and local laws also affect equal employment opportunity. A number of states and some cities have passed fair employment practice laws prohibiting discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. Even prior to federal legislation, several states had antidiscrimination legislation relating to age and gender. For instance, New York protected individuals between the ages of 18 and 65 prior to the passing of the ADEA, and California had no upper limit on protected age. San Francisco has voted to ban weight discrimination. The Board of Supervisors added body size to city laws that already bar discrimination based on race, color, religion, age, ancestry, sex, sexual orientation, disability, place of birth, or gender identity. The State of California has a law that requires sexual harassment prevention training.
When EEOC regulations conflict with state or local civil rights regulations, the legislation more favorable to women and minorities applies.
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Responsibility for Ensuring E E O
Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (E E O C)
Office of Federal Contract Compliance Programs (O F C C P)
Employers

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The main groups that take responsibility for establishing and supporting EEO include the government (EEOC and OFCCP) and employers.
Title VII of the Civil Rights Act, as amended, created the EEOC, which is charged with administering most of the EEO laws. Under Title VII, filing a discrimination charge initiates EEOC action. The EEOC continually receives complaints.
The purpose of the OFCCP is to enforce the requirements of affirmative action and EEO required of those who do business with the federal government. The OFCCP is an agency within the U.S. DOL.
Despite a company’s best efforts to treat employees fairly, suits are still brought and won because of mistakes in adherence to these standards. To limit the prospect of an EEO lawsuit, an organization can do a few things. First, it must have an enforce a strong EEO policy against discrimination. Even with a policy, breakdowns may occur. When they do, it becomes an opportunity to provide training in how to handle an employee-relations problem better the next time.
20

Steps in Handling a Discrimination Case

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When a charge is filed, the EEOC first attempts a no-fault settlement. Essentially, the organization charged with the violation is invited to settle the case with no admission of guilt. Most charges are settled at this stage. Failing settlement, the EEOC investigates the charges. Once the employer is notified that an investigation will take place, no records relating to the charge may be destroyed. During the investigative process, the employer is permitted to present a position statement. After the investigation, the district director of the EEOC will issue a probable cause or a no probable cause statement. In the event of a probable cause statement, the next step involves attempted conciliation. In the even this effort fails, the case will be reviewed for litigation potential. Some of the factors that determine whether the EEOC will pursue litigation are the number of people affected by the alleged practice; the amount of money involved in the charge; other charges against the employer; and the type of charge. Recommendations for litigation are then passed on to the general counsel of the EEOC. If the recommendation is against litigation, a right-to-sue notice will be issued to the charging party.
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Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selection Procedures
Single set of principles
Designed to assist employers, labor organizations, employment agencies, and licensing and certification boards
Comply with federal prohibitions against employment practices that discriminate based on race, color, religion, sex, and national origin

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In 1978, the EEOC, the Civil Service Commission, the Department of Justice, and the DOL adopted the Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selection Procedures. These guidelines cover several federal EEO statutes and executive orders, including Title VII of the Civil Rights Act, EO 11246, and the Equal Pay Act.
The Uniform Guidelines provide a single set of principles to assist employers in complying with federal prohibitions against discriminatory employment practices. The Guidelines provide a framework for making legal employment decisions about hiring, promotion, retention, licensing and certification, the proper use of tests, and other selection procedures.
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Types of Unlawful Employment Discrimination
Disparate treatment, often thought of as intentional discrimination
Adverse or disparate impact, often thought of as unintentional discrimination
Four-fifths or 80 percent rule

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Disparate treatment means that an employer treats some employees less favorably than others because of race, religion, color, sex, national origin, or age. It is the most easily understood form of discrimination. Oftentimes, disparate impact is thought of as intentional discrimination against one or more protected class individuals.
Adverse impact takes place when an employment decision, practice or policy has a disproportionately negative effect on a protected class. Oftentimes, this type of discrimination is thought to be unintentional and is caused by some unintended effect of a company’s selection procedures.
Adverse impact can occur if women and minorities are not hired at the rate of at least 80 percent of the best-achieving group. The Guidelines describe “adverse impact” in terms of selection rates, the selection rate being the number of qualified applicants hired or promoted divided by the total number of qualified applicants. This has also been called the four-fifths rule, which is actually a guideline subject to interpretation by the EEOC.
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Adverse Impact Example
During 2017, 300 African Americans and 300 Caucasians were hired
1,500 qualified African American applicants
1,000 qualified Caucasian applicants
Using the adverse impact formula, you have:

Thus, adverse impact likely exists

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As you can see by this example, adverse impact is determined not only by the number of people hired, but also by how many qualified applicants there are in each category.
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Affirmative Action
Requires covered employers to take positive steps to ensure that employment of applicants and treatments of employees are without regard to race, creed, color, or national origin
Executive Order: Directive issued by the president that has the force and effect of law enacted by Congress as it applies to federal agencies and federal contractors
President Lyndon Johnson signed Executive Order 11246
Affirmative Action Program: Approach to demonstrate that workers are employed in proportion to their representation in firm’s relevant labor market

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Affirmative action officially it began in 1965 when President Lyndon B. Johnson signed EO 11246, which establishes the policy of the U.S. government as providing equal opportunity in federal employment for all qualified people. It prohibits discrimination in employment because of race, creed, color, or national origin. The order also requires promoting the full realization of equal employment opportunity through a positive, continuing program in each executive department and agency. The policy of equal opportunity applies to every aspect of federal employment policy and practice.
An affirmative action program is an approach developed by organizations with government contracts to demonstrate that workers are employed in proportion to their representation in the firm’s relevant labor market. An AAP may be voluntarily implemented by an organization. In such an event, goals are established and actions taken to hire and move minorities and women up in the organization. In other situations, an AAP may be mandated by the OFCCP. The degree of control the OFCCP will impose depends on the size of the contract, with contracts of $10,000 or less not covered.
The primary focus of any affirmative action program is on goals and timetables, with the issue being how many people employed and by when. These goals and timetables should be attainable; that is, they should be based on results that the firm, making good-faith efforts, could reasonably expect to achieve. Two types of goals must be established regarding underutilization: annual and ultimate. The annual goal is to move toward elimination of underutilization, whereas the ultimate goal is to correct all underutilization.
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Underutilization Analysis
If utilization analysis shows availability of African Americans for certain job group is 30%, the organization should have at least 30% African American employment in that group
If actual employment is less than 30%, underutilization exists, and the firm should set a goal of 30% African American employment for that job group

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An Affirmative Action Policy statement reflects the CEO’s attitude regarding equal employment opportunity, assigns overall responsibility for preparing and implementing the program, and provides for reporting and monitoring procedures. The policy should state that the firm intends to recruit, hire, train, and promote persons in all job titles without regard to race, color, religion, gender, or national origin, except where gender is a bona fide occupational qualification. The policy should guarantee that all human resource actions, such as compensation, benefits, transfers, layoffs, return from layoffs, company-sponsored training, education, and tuition assistance, will be administered without regard to race, color, religion, gender, or national origin.
An acceptable AAP must include an analysis of deficiencies in the utilization of minority groups and women.
The first step in conducting a utilization analysis is to conduct a workforce analysis. The second step involves an analysis of all major job groups. An explanation of the situation is required if minorities or women are currently being underutilized.
Underutilization is defined as having fewer minorities or women in a particular job group than would reasonably be expected by their availability. The utilization analysis is important because the calculations determine whether underutilization exists.
26

Uniform Guidelines on Sexual Harassment
Title VII generally prohibits gender discrimination in employment
E E O C issued interpretative guidelines
Two types of sexual harassment:
Hostile work environment
A quid pro quo situation

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Title VII of the Civil Rights Act generally prohibits discrimination in employment on the basis of gender. The EEOC has also issued guidelines that state that employers have a duty to maintain a workplace that is free from sexual harassment. There are two distinct types of sexual harassment: when a hostile work environment is created, and when there is a quid pro quo, for example, an offer of promotion or pay raise in exchange for sex.
Employers are liable for the acts of their supervisors, regardless of whether the employer is aware of the sexual harassment.
Courts expect employers to carefully train supervisors so they do not engage in any type of behavior that could be construed as sexual harassment. As with the Civil Rights Act, retaliation is forbidden against an employee who has participated in an investigation.
Where co-workers are concerned, the employer is responsible for such acts if the employer knew, or should have known, about them. However, the employer is not responsible when it can show that it took immediate and appropriate corrective action on learning of the problem. Another important aspect of these guidelines is that employers may be liable for acts committed by nonemployees in the workplace if the employer knew, or should have known, of the conduct and failed to take appropriate action.
27

Uniform Guidelines on Discrimination Because of National Origin
Discrimination on basis of national origin is denial of equal employment opportunity due to:
Individual’s ancestors or place of birth
Individual’s physical, cultural, or linguistic characteristics
English-only rule

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National origin protection covers employment discrimination based on a person’s national origin; marriage or association with a person of a specific national origin; membership in organizations promoting the interests of national groups; participation in schools, churches, temples, or mosques generally used by persons of a national origin group; and use of an individual’s or spouse’s name that is associated with a national origin group.
Of interest with regard to national origin is the English-only rule. Courts have generally ruled in the employer’s favor if the rule would promote safety and product quality or stop harassment. In Montes v. Vail Clinic, Inc., the tenth circuit court agreed with the English-only rule prohibiting housekeepers from speaking Spanish while working in the operating room. However, English-only policies that are not job-related have been challenged and eliminated.
28

Uniform Guidelines on Discrimination Because of Religion
Obligation to accommodate religious practices unless employer can demonstrate a resulting hardship
Methods for accommodating religious practices

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The most common claims filed under the religious accommodation provisions involve employees objecting to either Sabbath employment or membership in or financial support of labor unions. Consideration is given to identifiable costs in relation to the size and operating costs of the employer and the number of individuals who actually need the accommodation. These guidelines recognize that regular payment of premium wages constitutes undue hardship, whereas these payments on an infrequent or temporary basis do not.
Basically, employers that refuse to accommodate an employee’s religious practice may need to provide evidence that doing so would constitute an undue burden.
The guidelines identify several means of accommodating religious practices that prohibit working on certain days, such as: voluntary substitutes, flexible scheduling, lateral transfer, and change of job assignments.
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Uniform Guidelines on Caregiver (Family Responsibility) Discrimination
Discrimination based on employee obligations to care for family members
E E O C’s guideline: “Unlawful Disparate Treatment of Workers with Caregiving Responsibilities”
Not binding
Offers “best practices” measures

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Caregiver (Family Responsibility) discrimination is discrimination against employees based on their obligations to care for family members. The EEOC has issued a technical assistance document titled “Employer Best Practices for Workers with Caregiving Responsibilities” on how employers of workers with caregiving responsibilities can avoid violations of Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act and other fair employment laws and reduce the likelihood of discrimination complaints. This form of discrimination makes an assumption based on what a person assumes to be true about a group, including people with family responsibilities. According to the EEOC, the guidance “is not binding on employers but rather offers “best practices” that are “proactive measures that go beyond federal nondiscrimination requirements.” Federal law does not prohibit discrimination on the basis of “caregiver status” but rather it is concerned when workers with caregiving responsibilities are treated differently based on a characteristic that is protected by laws, such as gender, race, or association with an individual with a disability.
This has become the new battleground in employment claims.
30

Diversity and Diversity Management
Diversity: Any actual or perceived difference among people
More than equal employment and affirmative action
Creates workforces that mirror populations and customers
Diversity management: Ensuring factors are in place to provide for and encourage the continued development of a diverse workforce and to meld actual and perceived differences among workers

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Diversity refers to any actual or perceived difference among people in terms of age, race, religion, profession, sexual orientation, gender identity, geographic origin, lifestyle, tenure with the organization, or any other perceived characteristic. Diversity is more than equal employment opportunity.
The challenge for managers is to recognize that people with characteristics that are common, but are different from those in the mainstream,may often think, act, learn, and communicate quite differently. Because every person, culture, and business situation is unique, there are no simple rules for managing diversity, but employers need to develop patience, open-mindedness, acceptance, and cultural awareness.
Diversity management is ensuring that factors are in place to provide for and encourage the continued development of a diverse workforce. This means pursuing an inclusive culture in which newcomers feel welcome, and creating a supportive culture in which all employees can be effective. Achieving diversity is more than being politically correct; it is about fostering a culture that values individuals and their wide array of needs and contributions.
31

Elements of the Diverse Workforce (1 of 4)
Single parents and working mothers
Women in business
Mothers returning to the workforce
Dual-career families

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There are a number of components that make up the diverse workforce.
Managers need to be sensitive to the needs of employees who are also parents. Many women who formerly remained at home to care for children now need to work outside the home. If this valuable segment of the workforce is to be effectively utilized, organizations must address work–family issues. Businesses have found that providing childcare services and workplace flexibility may help attract and retain valuable employees.
In 2010, for the first time ever, women made up the majority of the American workforce. However, many are opting out of corporate life. This does not mean that they are opting out of business careers. Instead, they are making their own career paths that allow them to combine work and family life. As a result, organizations are losing talented employees in whom they have made substantial investments. Women-owned businesses now account for nearly one-third of all enterprises in the market today. The American Express Open State of Women-Owned Businesses Report shows the number of women-owned firms from 2007 to 2016 increased by 45 percent.
Today, more new mothers are leaving the labor force only to return later. To get them to return, companies are going beyond federal law and giving mothers a year or more for maternity leave. Other businesses are specifically trying to recruit them to return to the labor force. Returnships are being used to let organizations try out professionals who are resuming their careers.
The increasing number of dual-career families presents both challenges and opportunities for organizations. Both husband and wife have jobs and family responsibilities.
Today, employees are turning down relocations because of spouses’ jobs and concerns about children. Family or a spouse’s career is cited almost twice as often as concern with the employee’s career or compensation as the reason for declining a relocation. As a result, firms are developing polices to assist the spouse of an employee who is transferred.

Elements of the Diverse Workforce (2 of 4)
Ethnicity and race
Older workers

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There are a number of components that make up the diverse workforce.
According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, the percentage of the U.S. labor force made up of whites will decline while growth is expected for other racial groups. Workers of various ethnicities and races (including Hispanics, African Americans, and Asians) are at times stereotyped. They may encounter misunderstandings and expectations based on ethnic or cultural differences. Members of ethnic or racial groups are socialized within their particular culture. People’s attitudes are influenced by the ancestral and cultural experiences of their childhood.
In 2011, the first Baby Boomers turned 65, and approximately 10,000 more will continue to do so every day for the next 20 years. In recent years, many Boomers deferred retirement because of a faltering economy and concerns about the Social Security retirement program. The U.S. BLS estimates that nearly 13.5 million workers 65 and older will be working in 2024, up from about 8 million today.
Despite massive layoffs resulting from the recent recession, many companies try to keep the over 55 worker. This may be due, in part, to legal concerns based on the Age Discrimination in Employment Act, which protects workers 40 and older against discrimination. However, a large part of this movement is the desire to keep the experienced workers on board.

Elements of the Diverse Workforce (3 of 4)
People with disabilities
Immigrants
Foreign workers

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There are a number of components that make up the diverse workforce.
According to the U.S. BLS, approximately 20 percent of the labor force possesses one or more disabilities. Common disabilities include limited hearing or sight, limited mobility, and mental deficiencies. In jobs for which they are qualified, disabled workers do as well as unimpaired workers in terms of productivity, attendance, and average tenure. A recent Department of Labor survey found that a majority of businesses hiring people with disabilities are discovering that costs for accommodations differ very little from those for the general employee population.
Large numbers of immigrants from Asia and Latin America have come to the United States in recent years. Some are highly skilled and well educated, and others are only minimally qualified. They all bring the attitudes and values of their home country cultures, and therefore require time to adapt. Wherever they settle, members of these ethnic groups soon begin to become part of the regular workforce in certain occupations and break out of their isolation. They begin to adopt the English language and American customs. They learn new skills and adapt old skills to their new country. Managers can place these individuals in jobs appropriate to their skills, with excellent results for the organization. As corporations employ more foreign nationals in this country, managers must work to understand the different cultures of their employees.
In 2017, the H-1B employment visa brings in approximately 80,000 skilled foreign workers annually, including some 20,000 researchers and academicians not subject to the annual visa cap set by Congress. Of those 80,000, the majority are distributed to employers through a lottery system each April held by U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, an arm of the U.S. Department of Homeland Security. However, the exact number of H-1B visa holders is difficult to determine. A three-year initial visa can be renewed for another three years, and if a worker is on track for a green card, H-1B status can be renewed annually. Until the recent recession, demand far outpaced supply, and companies constantly encouraged Congress to raise the cap. Many employers say the H-1B visa program provided the only practical avenue for finding high-tech workers with cutting-edge skills.

Elements of the Diverse Workforce (4 of 4)
Young persons, some with limited education or skills
Baby Boomers, Gen X, Gen Y, and Gen Z

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A lower labor force participation rate for young people is being experienced for all people less than 24 years of age and not merely persons with limited education and skills as was so often the case in the past. The recent recession delayed many young workers the opportunity of entering the workforce so a large number decided to gain additional education to be more competitive. The downturn was especially harsh for 16-to-24-year-olds when the unemployment rate was the highest recorded since the government began tracking it in the 1940s.
Although the negative attributes of these workers at times seem to outweigh the positive ones, they are a permanent part of the workforce. A well-known example of de-skilling is McDonald’s use of pictures on its cash register keys.
Baby boomers were born just after World War II through the mid-1960s. Corporate downsizing in the 1980s and 1990s cast aside millions of baby boomers. Companies now want to keep the boomers. Employers seek out boomers because they bring a wealth of skills and experience to the workplace, as well as having low turnover rates and high engagement levels. Companies today place considerable value on their skill, experience, and a strong work ethic, characteristics that many boomers possess.
Generation X is the label affixed to the approximately 41 million American workers born between the mid-1960s and late 1970s. Many organizations have a growing cadre of Generation X employees who possess lots of energy and promise. They are one of the most widely misunderstood phenomena facing management today. Generation Xers differ from previous generations in some significant ways, including their natural affinity for technology and their entrepreneurial spirit. Job instability and the breakdown of traditional employer–employee relationships brought a realization to Generation Xers that it is necessary to approach the world of work differently from past generations. Generation Xers recognize that their careers cannot be founded securely on a relationship with any one employer. They are very skeptical, particularly when it comes to the business world and job security. They worry about their jobs being outsourced and how they are going to pay for their children’s education. They think of themselves more as free agents in a mobile workforce and expect to build career security, not job security, by acquiring marketable skills and expertise.
Generation Y comprises people born between the late 1970s and late 1990s. They have never wound a watch, dialed a rotary phone, or plunked the keys of a manual typewriter. But, without a thought, they download music from the Internet and upload pictures of events on Facebook. They cannot imagine how the world ever got along without computers. These individuals are the leading edge of a generation that promises to be the richest, smartest, and savviest ever. Generation Yers, often referred to as the “echo boomers,” “Millennials,” and “nexters,” are the coddled, confident offspring of post–World War II baby boomers. Generation Y individuals are a most privileged generation, who came of age during the hottest domestic economy in memory. Gen Yers tend to have a strong sense of morality and civic-mindedness. They are more ethnically diverse than previous generations, and nearly one-third of them have been raised in single-parent households. They want a workplace that is both fun and rewarding.
Generation Z or Digital Natives, the Internet-assimilated children born between 1995 and 2009. Gen Zers are more worldly, high-tech, and confident in their ability to multitask; they tend to have short attention spans and desire speed over accuracy; and they enjoy media that provides live social interaction. They tend to use social networks to avoid the complications of dealing with face-to-face situations. Digital Natives do not trust politicians, social institutions, the media, or corporations. Rather, they rely largely on themselves and their peers to decide what to think, what to do, and what to buy.

Multigenerational Diversity
Four generations are now in the workforce
Each has different defining characteristics and nicknames
Managers need to be aware of and skilled in dealing with the different generations

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Four generations are now participating in the workforce and each has different defining characteristics and nicknames. The concept of generational differences as a legitimate workplace diversity issue has gained increasing recognition. Baby Boomers are remaining on the job longer because of the economy and often find themselves working with Generation Y employees. Traditionally, discussions of workplace diversity tended to focus on topics of race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, and disability. Shirley A. Davis, SHRM’s director of diversity and inclusion initiatives, said, “In all parts of the world, there is another category of diversity that cannot be overlooked: multigenerational diversity.” Today, there are greater numbers of workers from each segment that bring both new opportunities and challenges. If organizations want to thrive in this competitive environment of global talent management, they need employees and managers who are aware of and skilled in dealing with the different generations that make up the workforce.
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Human Resource Management

Fifteenth Edition

Chapter 4

Strategic Planning, Human Resource Planning, and Job Analysis

Learning Objectives
4.1 Describe the H R strategic planning process.
4.2 Explain the human resource planning process.
4.3 Describe the job analysis process and methods.
4.4 Summarize the components of a job description.
4.5 Explain what competencies and competency modeling are.
4.6 Summarize job design concepts.

Strategic Planning
Four steps:
Determination of the organizational mission
Assessment of the organization and its environment
Setting of specific objectives or direction
Determination of strategies to accomplish those objectives

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Strategic planning is the process by which top management determines overall organizational purposes and objectives and how they are achieved. HR executives are increasingly highly involved in the strategic planning process.
Strategic planning at all levels of the organization can be divided into four steps: (1) determination of the organizational mission, (2) assessment of the organization and its environment, (3) setting of specific objectives or direction, and (4) determination of strategies to accomplish those objectives.
3

Strategic Planning/Implementation Process

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Strategic planning on all levels of the organization can be divided into four steps:
Determining the organizational mission,
Assessing the organization and its environment,
Setting specific objectives or direction, and
Determining strategies to accomplish these objectives.
The strategic planning process described here derives from the SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats) framework that affects organizational performance.
The mission is a unit’s continuing purpose or reason for being. The corporate mission is the sum total of the organization’s ongoing purpose.
Making strategic plans involves information flows from both the internal and the external environments. From inside comes information about organizational competencies, strengths, and weaknesses. Scanning the external environment allows organizational strategists to identify threats and opportunities, as well as constraints. In brief, the strategy would be to take advantage of the company’s strengths and minimize its weaknesses to grasp opportunities and avoid threats.
Objectives are the desired end results of any activity. They should have four basic characteristics: expressed in writing, measurable, specific as to time, and challenging but attainable.
Strategies can now be developed for accomplishing those objectives. Strategies should be developed to take advantage of the company’s strengths and minimize its weaknesses to grasp opportunities and avoid threats. Lowest cost strategies focus on gaining competitive advantage by being the lowest-cost producer of a product or service within the marketplace, while selling the product or service at a price advantage relative to the industry average. Companies adopt differentiation strategies to develop products or services that are unique from those of their competitors.

Strategy Implementation
Leadership
Organizational Structure
Information and Control Systems
Technology
Human Resources

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Strategy implementation follows the strategic planning process. It requires changes in the organization’s behavior, which can be brought about by changing one or more organizational dimensions which include: management’s leadership ability, organizational structure, information and control systems, production technology, and human resources.
5

Human Resource Planning (Workforce Planning)
Matching the internal and external supply of candidates with job openings anticipated in the organization over a specific period of time

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Human resource planning (workforce planning) is the systematic process of matching the internal and external supply of people with job openings anticipated in the organization over a specific period of time. Workforce planning has evolved from a knee-jerk planning undertaking to a fundamental strategic function. It includes business plan, human resource data, and statistical interactions. It is also incorporated into the business and financial planning process, so it provides a foundation for a plan that is aligned with the business strategy
6

Human Resource Planning Process

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Strategic planning precedes HR planning. Human resource planning has two components: requirements and availability, which determine if the firm needs to hire or reduce the number of its employees and how.
7

Techniques for Forecasting Human Resource Requirements
Zero-base forecast
Bottom-up forecast
Relationship between volume of sales and number of workers required

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A requirements forecast determines the number, skill, and location of employees the organization will need at future dates to meet its goals. Before human resource requirements can be projected, demand for the firm’s goods or services must be forecasted. This prediction is then converted into people requirements for the activities necessary to meet this demand. If a firm manufactures personal computers, activities can be stated in terms of the number of units to be produced, number of sales calls to be made, number of vouchers to be processed, etc.
Several techniques are available to conduct a requirements forecast.
Zero-base forecasting uses the current level of staffing as the starting point for determining the future staffing needs. Essentially, the same procedure is used for human resource planning as for zero-base budgeting, whereby each budget must be justified again each year. If an employee retires, is fired, or leaves the firm for any reason, the position is not automatically filled. Instead, an analysis is made to determine whether the firm can justify filling it. Equal concern is shown for creating new positions when they appear to be needed. The key to zero-base forecasting is a thorough analysis of human resource needs. Frequently, the position is not filled and the work is spread out among remaining employees as often is the case with firms that downsize. Plans may also involve outsourcing or other approaches as an alternative to hiring.
In the bottom forecasting technique, each successive level of the organization, starting with the lowest, forecasts its requirements to provide an aggregate of employment needs. It is based on the reasoning that the manager in each unit is most knowledgeable about employment requirements. Beginning with the lowest-level work units in the organization, each unit manager makes an estimate of personnel needs for the period of time encompassed by the planning cycle. As the process moves upward in the company, each successively higher level of management in turn makes its own estimates of needs, incorporating the input from each of the immediately preceding levels. The result, ultimately, is an aggregate forecast of needs for the entire organization. This process is often highly interactive in that estimated requirements from the previous level are discussed, negotiated, and re-estimated with the next level of management as the forecast moves upward through the organization. The interactive aspect of managerial estimating is one of the advantages of this procedure because it forces managers to justify their anticipated staffing needs.
Historically, one of the most useful predictors of employment levels is sales volume. The relationship between demand and the number of employees needed is a positive one. A firm’s sales volume is depicted on the horizontal axis, and the number of employees actually required is shown on the vertical axis. In this illustration, as sales decrease, so does the number of employees. Using such a method, managers can approximate the number of employees required at different demand levels. Quantitative methods such as regression analysis can be helpful in determining the number of workers needed.

Availability Forecast
Determination of:
Whether firm will be able to secure employees with necessary skills
Sources from which to obtain employees

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The availability forecast determines whether the firm can secure employees with the necessary skills, and from which sources. The human resource manager must look to internal sources—that is, current employees—and external sources—meaning the labor market, or a combination.
9

Shortage of Workers Forecasted
Innovative recruiting
Compensation incentives

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A shortage of workers forecasted often demands innovative recruiting. Workers in a high-demand situations may be lured by premium pay or “signing bonuses,” flexible work hours, telecommuting, etc. Special training programs may offer remedial education and skills training to attract candidates. Another approach is to lower employment standards, such as hiring an inexperienced worker and training him to do the job.
10

Surplus of Employees
When a comparison of requirements and availability indicates a worker surplus will result, most companies look to alternatives to layoffs, but downsizing may ultimately be required

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When an employee surplus looks likely, most companies consider alternatives to layoffs.
At times, layoffs can be a necessary cost-cutting measure but they can generate increased turnover, create anxiety among remaining staff, lower morale, and decrease productivity. More popular alternatives include: a restricted hiring policy that reduces the workforce by not replacing employees as people leave, early retirement, swapping employees within the construction market, and reducing a full-time employee to 30 hours a week without losing health benefits.
Another alternative to layoffs is permitting an employee to go from full-time to 30 hours a week without losing health benefits. Some companies may offer job-sharing arrangements. This arrangement can enable organizations to retain top talent in lieu of layoffs while having minimal impact on the overall labor budget. For example, employee benefits can be fairly managed on a per-employee basis, as two 20-hour-a-week part timers may have comparably pro-rated, scaled back benefits. Other companies may reduce the workweek from five days to four thereby having a 20 percent reduction in wages. Some companies may offer an unpaid holiday option where instead of taking two weeks off, employees are being asked to take five, with three being unpaid.

Succession Planning
Process of ensuring that qualified persons are available to assume key managerial positions once the positions are vacant
Goal is to help ensure a smooth transition and operational efficiency

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Succession planning is the process of ensuring that qualified persons are available to assume key managerial positions, once they become vacant. Nothing could be as important to the strategic well-being of a company as ensuring that a qualified person is in place to lead the company both now and in the future. This succession planning definition includes untimely deaths, resignations, terminations, or the orderly retirements of key managerial personnel. The goal is to help ensure a smooth transition and operational efficiency, but the transition is often difficult.
Because of the tremendous changes that will confront management this century, succession planning is taking on more importance than ever before. Deaths are not the only challenges that have created an increased focus on succession planning. For example, the premature firing of CEOs is no longer a rare event. CEOs are being terminated more quickly than in the past.
In recent years, succession planning is going much deeper into the workforce. A firm might have a good succession plan for top-level positions but few plans for the levels where all the work is performed. There is a movement away from traditional succession planning, which was focused only on top executives of the company. Succession management is now involving middle managers, where they are developed to help ensure that key roles below the C-suite have ready replacements.
12

Job Analysis
Job analysis is the systematic process of determining the skills, duties, and knowledge required for performing jobs in an organization.

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Job analysis provides a summary of a job’s duties and responsibilities, its relationship to other jobs, the knowledge and skills required, and working conditions under which it is performed. Job analysis is conducted after the job design, worker training, and performance of the job is underway. With job analysis, the tasks needed to perform the job are identified. Traditionally, it is an essential and pervasive HR technique and the starting point for other HR activities. In today’s rapidly changing work environment, the need for a sound job analysis system is critical. New jobs are being created, and old jobs are being redesigned or eliminated. A job analysis that was conducted only a few years ago may now be obsolete and must be redone. Some have even suggested that changes are occurring too fast to maintain an effective job analysis system.
Job analysis is performed at three specific times:
When the organization is founded and a job analysis program is initiated for the first time,
When new jobs are created, and
When jobs are changed significantly as a result of new technologies, methods, procedures, or systems. This includes changes due to increased emphasis on teamwork, empowerment of employees, or managerial interventions, such as quality management systems.
Job analyses provide data that forms the basis of the job description and job specification, both of which impact virtually every aspect of human resource management.
The job description is a document that provides information regarding the essential tasks, duties, and responsibilities of the job.
The job specification is incorporated into the job description document and spells out the minimum acceptable qualifications a person needs to perform a particular job.
In practice, both the job description and job specification are combined into one document with the job specification presented after the job description.

Job Analysis: A Basic Human Resource Management Tool

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In today’s rapidly changing work environment, job analysis is critical to meet company objectives. As new jobs are created, old jobs may need to be redesigned or eliminated. Also, data derived from job analysis in the form of the job description/specification can have an impact on virtually every aspect of HR management. In practice, both the job description and job specification are combined into one document with the job specification presented after the job description.
Ultimately, job analysis can help inform the array of HR decisions in each of the functional areas. For example, staffing involves selecting and placing individuals who possess the required knowledge, skills, and ability, which differ from job to job. Job analysis helps identify training and development needs such as informing HR professionals about the kind of training that is needed to help employees gain the required knowledge, skills, and abilities required to perform the job. Job analysis helps establish the performance criteria that vary with different jobs. In the area of compensation, it is helpful to know the relative value of a particular job to the company before a dollar value is placed on it. Information derived from job analysis is also valuable in identifying safety and health considerations. Job analysis is helpful in the employee and relations area by identifying the standards for promotion, transfer, or demotion. The need for job analysis is well documented in the Uniform Guidelines. Job analysis can help defend decisions involving termination, promotions, transfers, and demotions
14

Job Analysis Methods
Questionnaires
Observation
Interviews
Employee recording
Combination of methods

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Job analysis is conducted in different ways according to an organization’s needs and resources.
At the minimum, the employee and the employee’s immediate supervisor should participate in job analysis. Large organizations may have one or more job analysts, small organizations may use line supervisors, and other organizations my hire consultants. Regardless of approach, the analyst should—before conducting job analysis—learn as much as possible about the job by reviewing organizational charts and talking with individuals acquainted with the jobs to be studied.
Selecting a specific method should be based on how the information will be used, such as for job evaluation, pay increases, development, etc.
The most common methods of job analysis are discussed in the following slides.
15

Questionnaires
Typically quick and economical
Potential problems:
Employees might lack verbal skills
Employees might exaggerate the significance of their tasks

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Questionnaires are typically quick and economical to use. The job analyst administers a structured questionnaire to employees, who identify the tasks they perform.
But some employees lack the verbal or written skills to provide the desired information and others exaggerate their tasks by suggesting more responsibility than actually exists.
16

Observation
Analyst watches worker perform job tasks and records observations
Used primarily to gather information emphasizing manual skills
Often insufficient when used alone
Difficult when mental skills are dominant in a job

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Job analysts use the observation method to watch the worker perform job tasks and records their observations. This method is used primarily for jobs emphasizing manual skills, although it can help identify interrelationships between physical and mental tasks. Observation alone is not sufficient for conducting job analyses where mental skills are dominant.
17

Interviews
Interview both employee and supervisor
Interview employee first, helping him or her describe duties performed
After interviews, analyst normally contacts supervisor for additional information

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Interviewing both the employee and supervisor provides a good understanding of the job. The analyst first interviews the employee to describe the duties performed.
Then, she contacts the supervisor for additional information, to check the accuracy of the information obtained from the employee, and to clarify certain points.
18

Employee Recording
Employees describe daily work activities in diary or log
Valuable in understanding highly specialized jobs
Problem: Employees might exaggerate job importance

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Sometimes, job analysis information is gathered by having employees describe their daily work activities in a diary or log. With this method, the problem of employees exaggerating job importance may have to be overcome. Even so, valuable understanding of highly specialized jobs, such as recreational therapist, may be obtained in this way.
19

Combination of Methods
Analysts usually use more than one method
Clerical and administrative jobs (example):
Questionnaires supported by interviews and limited observation
Production jobs: Interviews supplemented by extensive work observation

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An analyst usually combines methods to produce accurate job descriptions and specifications. For example, a questionnaire may be supported by interviews and limited observation.

Job Description
Document that states:
Tasks
Duties
Responsibilities
Content includes:
Job identification
Job analysis date
Job summary
Duties performed
Job specification

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Information obtained through job analysis is crucial to developing job descriptions. This document should provide accurate, explicit, and concise statements of what employees are expected to do, how they are to do it, and the conditions under which the duties are performed.
The job description frequently includes major duties, the percentage of time devoted to each duty, performance standards, working conditions and potential hazards, the number of employees performing the job and to whom they report, and the equipment used on the job.
The job description contains several components.
The job identification section includes the job title, department, reporting relationship, and job number or code. Job titles can be misleading, especially between one company and another.
The job analysis date is placed on the job description to identify job changes that would make the description obsolete. Some firms have placed an expiration date on the document to ensure periodic review of job content and minimize the number of obsolete job descriptions.
The job summary is a short paragraph that states job content.
The body of the job description delineates the major duties to be performed. Essential functions may be shown in a separate section to aid in complying with the Americans with Disabilities Act.
The job specification documents the minimum acceptable qualifications that a person should possess to perform a particular job.

Standard Occupational Classification (S O C) and Occupational Information Network (O*N E T)
S O C: classify workers into occupational categories
O*N E T: Comprehensive government-developed database of:
Worker attributes
Job characteristics
Primary source of occupational information

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The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics created and updates the Standard Occupational Classification (SOC) system, which is used by federal statistical agencies to classify workers into occupational categories for the purpose of collecting, calculating, or disseminating data. The federal government updates job descriptions for all U.S. workers every ten years. This update permits professional organizations and labor groups to seek recognition or a higher profile for their members’ occupations by gaining a separate listing or reclassification.
O*NET, the Occupational Information Network, is a comprehensive, government-developed database of worker attributes and job characteristics. It’s the nation’s primary source of occupational information, which provides a common language for defining and describing occupations, as well as capturing rapidly changing job requirements. It’s the foundation for facilitating career counseling, education, employment, and training activities.
22

Competencies and Competency Modeling
Competencies refer to an individual’s capability to orchestrate and apply combinations of knowledge, skills, and abilities consistently over time to perform work successfully in the required work situations
Competency modeling specifies and defines all the competencies necessary for success in a group of jobs that are set within an industry context

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The term competency has become an increasingly important topic in HR practice because of the changing nature of work. Competencies build on the use of knowledge, skills, and abilities, which we describe with job analysis, to describe work. Traditionally, as we have seen, work has been described by many dimensions including knowledge, skills, and abilities. Indeed, although this is largely still the case, HR professionals have embraced the ideas of competencies as the field has increasingly taken on strategic importance.
Competencies refer to an individual’s capability to orchestrate and apply combinations of knowledge, skills, and abilities consistently over time to perform work successfully in the required work situations.
Competency modeling specifies and defines all the competencies necessary for success in a group of jobs that are set within an industry context.
23

Figure 4.8 U.S. Department of Labor Competency Model
Source: U.S. Department of Labor Employment and Training Administration, “Competency Model General Instructions,” CareerOneStop (2014). Accessed January 5, 2014, at http://www.careeronestop.org/CompetencyModel/CareerPathway/CPWGenInstructions.aspx
.

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This figure illustrates an example of a competency model for Solar Photovoltaic Installers who work in the renewable energy industry.
Foundational Competencies
At the base of the model, Tiers 1 through 3 represent competencies that provide the foundation for success in school and in the world of work. Foundational competencies are essential to a large number of occupations and industries. Employers have identified a link between foundational competencies and job performance and have also discovered that foundational competencies are a prerequisite for workers to learn industry-specific skills.
Industry-Related Competencies
The competencies shown on Tiers 4 and 5 are referred to as Industry Competencies and are specific to an industry or industry sector. Industry-wide technical competencies cut across industry subsectors making it possible to create career lattices where a worker can move easily across industry subsectors. Rather than narrowly following a single occupational career ladder, this model supports the development of an agile workforce.
Occupation-Related Competencies
The competencies on Tiers 6, 7, 8, and 9 are referred to as Occupational Competencies. Occupational competency models are frequently developed to define performance in a workplace, to design competency-based curriculum, or to articulate the requirements for an occupational credential such as a license or certification.

24

Job Design Concepts
Process of determining specific tasks to be performed, the methods used in performing these tasks, and how a job relates to other work in an organization
Methods:
Job enrichment
Job enlargement
Job rotation
Re-engineering

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New jobs are rapidly being created, so job design is the necessary process of determining the specific tasks to be performed, the methods used in performing these tasks, and how the job relates to other work in the organization.
Job enrichment consists of basic changes in the content and level of responsibility of a job so as to provide greater challenges to the worker.
Job enrichment provides a vertical expansion of responsibilities. The worker has the opportunity to derive a feeling of achievement, recognition, responsibility, and personal growth in performing the job. Although job enrichment programs do not always achieve positive results, they have often brought about improvements in job performance and in the level of worker satisfaction in many organizations. Today, job enrichment is moving toward the team level, as more teams become autonomous, or self-managed.
There is a clear distinction between job enrichment and job enlargement. Job enlargement is defined as increasing the number of tasks a worker performs, with all of the tasks at the same level of responsibility.
Job enlargement, sometimes called cross-training, involves providing greater variety to the worker. For example, instead of knowing how to operate only one machine, a person is taught to operate two or even three, but no higher level of responsibility is required. Workers with broad skills may become increasingly important as fewer workers are needed because of tight budgets. Some employers have found that providing job enlargement opportunities improves employee engagement and prevents stagnation.
Job rotation (cross-training) moves employees from one job to another to broaden their experience. Higher-level tasks often require this breadth of knowledge. Rotational training programs help employees understand a variety of jobs and their interrelationships, thereby improving productivity. Job rotation is often used by organizations to relieve boredom, stimulate better performance, reduce absenteeism, and provide additional flexibility in job assignments. Also, if the task to be accomplished is boring or distasteful, job rotation means that one person will not be stuck with it for all time.
Reengineering is “the fundamental rethinking and radical redesign of business processes to achieve dramatic improvements in critical contemporary measures of performance, such as cost, quality, service, and speed.”
It emphasizes the radical redesign of work in which companies organizes around process instead of by functional departments.

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