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Week 3 – Assignment

· Points 10.5

· Submitting an external tool

Including Evidence-Based Strategies and Supports in IEP Development

Instructions:

· Consider our discussions on the importance of locating and incorporating EBP strategies into classrooms and IEPs for students with disabilities. In your paper,

· Compose a professional introduction preparing your audience for the content of your paper.

· Define EBP in the field of special education.

· Identify the criteria for determining what is considered EBP.

· Summarize the importance of EBP in the field of special education.

· Identify a resource for locating EBP strategies (e.g. WWC, Ashford Library, or some other database/source).

· Explain the types of strategies available through this resource (i.e. grade level, domain or subjects, number of strategies available, etc.).

· Describe how you will incorporate EBP into your current or future professional practice in two to three sentences.

· Compose a concise conclusion for your paper.

The Including Evidence-Based Strategies and Supports in IEP Development assignment

· Must be three to four double-spaced pages in length (not including title and references pages) and formatted according to APA style as outlined in the

Ashford Writing Center (Links to an external site.)

· Must include a separate title page with the following:

· APA heading/page numbers

· Title of paper

· Student’s name

· Course name and number

· Instructor’s name

· Date submitted

· Must use at least two scholarly sources in addition to the course text.

· The

Scholarly, Peer Reviewed, and Other Credible Sources (Links to an external site.)

table offers additional guidance on appropriate source types. If you have questions about whether a specific source is appropriate for this assignment, please contact your instructor. Your instructor has the final say about the appropriateness of a specific source for a particular assignment.

· Must document all sources in APA style as outlined in the Ashford Writing Center.

· Must include a separate references page that is formatted according to APA style as outlined in the Ashford Writing Center.

Carefully review the

Grading Rubric (Links to an external site.)

for the criteria that will be used to evaluate your assignment.

ESE668: EVIDENCE-BASED INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS FOR STUDENTS WITH MILD TO MODERATE DISABILITIES

Instructor Guidance

Week 3

Welcome to Week Three of ESE 668: Evidence-Based Instructional Methods for Students with Mild to Moderate Disabilities. Please be sure to review the Week Three homepage for this course to see:

· The specific learning outcomes for the week.

· The schedule overview.

· The required and recommended resources.

· The introduction to the week.

· A listing of the assessments.

Next, be sure to read this entire Instructor Guidance page.

Overview

Our previous Weeks One and Two examined the way in which evidence-based assessment in academic skills, strengths and needs, and cultural influences provide a clear picture of where a student is functioning and what goals and skills need to be targeted for instruction. This week you will begin evaluating how to identify EBP strategies, as well as sources for locating EBP strategies for instruction.

Intellectual Elaboration

Selecting Instructional Strategies: Determining What Works

The next step in our cycle of assessment-driven instruction is the selection of EBP strategies for instruction. In your reading and resources this week, you will find the parameters under which we use to consider a strategy “evidence-based”. Please be sure to review all these resources to explore the best practice guidelines of the Council for Exceptional Children (CEC), as well as other in the field, for determining what makes an instructional practice strategy EBP.
Killian has summarized a body of research to share some of the characteristics a strategy should contain to be considered EBP in this

online article and chart (n.d.) (Links to an external site.)

Locating Evidence-Based Practice Strategies

So now that we have clearer picture of what we are looking for in EBP instructional strategies, you might be asking yourself:

Where do I find EBP strategies for instructional methods?

The first place to look is the

What Works Clearninghouse (Links to an external site.)

developed by the Institute of Education Sciences and provided through the U.S. Department of Education. You will have a chance to explore the WWC in detail this week for your discussions and assignment this week. The WWC could be a source to either find a strategy for a skill you want to teach or determine if a strategy you are using is EBP.
If you have a strategy that you have learned about or are already using, but you are not sure whether it is EBP, use the resources you have learned and the guidelines set forth by either the CEC or the WWC to determine whether the strategy meets the criteria.
You might also select to research strategies that have been found effective and EBP for students that have specific disabilities. Here are some recommended examples:

ADHD (Links to an external site.)

ASD (Links to an external site.)

EBD (Links to an external site.)

Intellectual Disability (Links to an external site.)

Specific Learning Disabilities (Links to an external site.)

And more… (Links to an external site.)

Closing Remarks

It is especially important to plan for using EBP interventions, not only for legal requirements, but also because this is our best practice implementation for student success. Knowing how to identify what qualifies as EBP and knowing where to locate these strategies is an essential skill. Educators should be using what works for students, and identifying EBP strategies is a way to efficiently and effectively provide students with education to meet their needs and optimize successful outcomes.

Assessment Guidance

This section includes additional specific assistance for excelling in the discussions and assignment for Week Three beyond what is given with the instructions for the assessments. If you have questions about what is expected on any assessment for Week Three, contact your instructor using the Ask Your Instructor discussion before the due date.

Discussion 1: Evaluating & Locating Evidence-Based Strategies

In your discussion this week, you will explore a resource for locating evidence-based instructional strategies. You will explore the What Works Clearinghouse (WWC) and then identify and summarize an instructional strategy that could be used in the classroom.

Assignment: Including Evidence-Based Strategies and Supports in IEP Development

The assignment this week assesses your ability to summarize and interpret EBP strategies in special education. Specifically, you will describe the importance of EBP and identify specific strategies, reflecting on their use in special education.

References

Cook, B.G., Tankersley, M., & Landrum, T.J. (2009).

Determining evidence-based practices in special education (Links to an external site.)

. Exceptional Children, 75(3), 365-383. Retrieved from http://ecx.sagepub.com/content/75/3/365.full +html
Council for Exceptional Children. (2016).

Evidence-based practice resources (Links to an external site.)

. Retrieved from http://www.cec.sped.org/Standards/Evidence-Based-Practice-Resources-Original
Council for Exceptional Children. (2014).

Standards for evidence-based practice in special education (Links to an external site.)

. Retrieved from http://www.cec.sped.org/~/media/Files/Standards/Evidence%20based%20Practices%20and%20Practice/CECs%20Evidence%20Based%20Practice%20Standards
Henley, M., Ramsey, R. S., & Algozzine, R. (2009). Characteristics of and strategies for teaching students with mild disabilities. 6th Edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Publication.
Institute of Education Sciences. (n.d.).

What works clearinghouse (Links to an external site.)

. Retrieved from http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/
Killian, S. (n.d.).

Top 10 evidence-based teaching strategies for those that care about student results (Links to an external site.)

. The Australian Society for Evidence Based Teaching. Retrieved from http://www.evidencebasedteaching.org.au/evidence-based-teaching-strategies/

Required Resources

Text

Henley, M., Ramsey, R. S., & Algozzine, R. F. (2009).

Characteristics of and strategies for teaching students with mild disabilities

(6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

· Chapter 8: Instructing Students With Mild Disabilities

Articles

Cook, B. G., Tankersley, M., & Landrum, T. J. (2009).

Determining evidence-based practices in special education (Links to an external site.)

.
Exceptional Children, 75(3), 365-383. Retrieved from http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/001440290907500306

· This article examines proposed guidelines for determining evidence-based practices in special education, comparing them to guidelines in similar fields. This article will support your Evaluating and Locating Evidence-Based Strategies discussion and your Including Evidence-Based Strategies and Supports in IEP Development assignment this week.

Web Page

Council for Exceptional Children. (n.d.).

Evidence-based practice resources (Links to an external site.)

. Retrieved from http://www.cec.sped.org/Standards/Evidence-Based-Practice-Resources-Original

· This web page resource provides guidelines for classifying practice sources in special education by their standards or categories of evidence-based support. This web page will support your Evaluating and Locating Evidence-Based Strategies discussion and your Including Evidence-Based Strategies and Supports in IEP Development assignment this week.

· Accessibility Statement does not exist.

Institute of Education Sciences. (n.d.).

What works clearinghouse (Links to an external site.)

. Retrieved from http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc

· This web page provides reviews of “programs, products, practices, and policies” in education, with a specific link for reviews in special education. The focus is placed on what is supported by evidence or “What works?” This web page will support your Evaluating and Locating Evidence-Based Strategies discussion and your Including Evidence-Based Strategies and Supports in IEP Development assignment this week.

Accessibility Statement (Links to an external site.)

Recommended Resources

Articles

Killian, S. (n.d.).

Top 10 evidence based teaching strategies (Links to an external site.)

.
The Australian Society for Evidence Based Teaching. Retrieved from http://www.evidencebasedteaching.org.au/evidence-based-teaching-strategies

· This web-based article summarizes strategies that support EBP in special education. This article may support your Evaluating and Locating Evidence-Based Strategies discussion and your Including Evidence-Based Strategies and Supports in IEP Development assignment this week.

· Accessibility Statement does not exist.

· Privacy Policy does not exist.

National Autism Center. (2009).

National standards report, phase 1 (Links to an external site.)

. Retrieved from http://www.nationalautismcenter.org/resources

· This report contains information on the historical review and analysis of evidence and research for interventions and strategies for individuals with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) from the 1950s until 2007. To access this report, you will be required to register online. This report may support your Evaluating and Locating Evidence-Based Strategies discussion and your Including Evidence-Based Strategies and Supports in IEP Development assignment this week.

· Accessibility Statement does not exist.
·

National Autism Center (2015).

National standards project, phase 2 (Links to an external site.)

. Retrieved from http://www.nationalautismcenter.org/resources

· This report contains information on the review and analysis of evidence and research for interventions and strategies for individuals with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) from 2007 until 2015. To access this report, you will be required to register online. This report may support your Evaluating and Locating Evidence-Based Strategies discussion and your Including Evidence-Based Strategies and Supports in IEP Development assignment this week.

· Accessibility Statement does not exist.
·

Web Page

Council for Exceptional Children. (2014).

Standards for evidence-based practice in special education (Links to an external site.)

[Report].Retrieved from http://www.cec.sped.org/~/media/Files/Standards/Evidence%20based%20Practices%20and%20Practice/CECs%20Evidence%20Based%20Practice%20Standards

· This document contains the standards for EBP in special education developed by the CEC, the professional organization of special education. Standards are set forth for the categorization of the level of evidence to support practices in special education. This document may support your Evaluating and Locating Evidence-Based Strategies discussion and your Including Evidence-Based Strategies and Supports in IEP Development assignment this week.

· Accessibility Statement does not exist.
·

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Library

of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Henley, Martin, 1943-

Characteristics of and strategies for teaching students with mild disabilities / Martin Henley, Roberta S. Ramsey, Robert F. Algozzine. — 6th ed.

p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN-13: 978-1-323-45488-6

ISBN-10: 1-323-45488-8

1. Learning disabled—United States. 2. Mainstreaming in education—United States. 3. Behavior modification—United States. I. Ramsey, Roberta S. II. Algozzine, Robert. III. Title.

LC4705.H46 2009

371.9—dc22

2008022251

Executive Editor and Publisher: Virginia Lanigan

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This book was set in Times by Modern Graphics, Inc. It was printed and bound by Hamilton Printing. The cover was printed by Phoenix Color Corporation/Hagerstown.

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CHAPTER EIGHT

INSTRUCTING STUDENTS WITH MILD DISABILITIES

ADVANCE QUESTIONS

Answer the following questions as you read this chapter:

1. How do best instructional practices for students with mild disabilities compare with those used with general classroom students?

2. What is the difference between allocated time, engaged time, and academic learning time?

3. How can teachers help students to improve organizational skills?

4. What are some instructional accommodations that might be utilized in the general education classroom to teach academic subjects like math, reading, and spelling?

5. What are some testing and grading accommodations? Why is cooperative grading productive?

6. What are appropriate guidelines for assigning homework?

7. What is curriculum-based instruction? What are curriculum-based goals and objectives? How are they used effectively?

8. What are some guidelines for writing individual education programs (IEPs)?

9. What is an educator’s tool kit? Name items that might be helpful to have when teaching students with special needs. Would these items also be used beneficially with regular classroom students?

VIGNETTE: SHIRLEY ALLEN

It was 3:00 a.m. and Shirley Allen was tossing and turning. Instead of sleeping, she was worrying about the conversation she had with Mr. Kane that afternoon. After 2 years of successful 4th-grade teaching, her principal had asked her to participate in an inclusion program beginning with the new fall term. Shirley considered all the additional responsibilities she would be taking on. Her head buzzed with questions. How could she adapt the curriculum to meet the needs of her special education students? Which best teaching practices could she utilize with both general and special education students in an inclusive classroom? What changes would she make in how she used instructional time? How about grading and homework; should she be consistent with all students or make adjustments for the special needs students?

She was going to be responsible for helping develop individual education programs (IEPs); how was she going to do that? Fortunately she had listened to old professor Moriarty’s warning at the end of her undergraduate course in mild disabilities. “Don’t sell your text back to the bookstore at the end of the semester,” he said. “Someday you are going to need it.” Well, the time had come. Shirley got up and rummaged through the cartons she had stashed in the back of her closet. After 15 frantic minutes, she found the text. She breathed a sigh of relief and slowly turned the pages—ah, so many fond memories, the yellow highlighting provided iridescent testimony to her hard-earned A in the course. She found the chapter on instructing students with mild disabilities and began reading. The guidelines for dealing with classroom organization, grading, homework, and IEPs were clear and practical. Half an hour later, she closed the book with a smile. Apprehension was replaced with excitement over the challenge of setting up her inclusion program. “I can do this,” she thought as she wearily padded back to bed and dozed off.

Many teachers have tossed and turned at night trying to figure out the solution to difficult educational problems. There is a saying, “you don’t have to reinvent the wheel.” Whatever problems faced by a teacher, he or she can be sure that others have faced similar challenges—and that others have found solutions. Within the pages of this chapter, there are many useful ideas for adjusting instruction to meet students’ individual needs. Although your immediate concern might be remembering this information for a test, don’t be shortsighted and discard this information after the course is over. Someday, like Shirley Ann, you will have a class of your own. This book and other resources such as professional organizations, the Internet, and fellow teachers are all there to lend support. So, when you think about the challenges of teaching students with mild disabilities for this course, also keep in mind that you are preparing for your future. Here are some questions to get you started.

1. Do you think Shirley Ann was overreacting to her new challenge?

2. What are some instructional practices that benefit both general education and special education students?

3. Should grading and homework assignments be the same or different for students with and without disabilities?

4. What is a teacher’s responsibility in terms of continuing professional development?

5. What is the best source of helpful ideas when trying to figure out educational problems?

BEST TEACHING PRACTICES

There is a common perception that students with mild disabilities require instructional strategies that are distinctive from effective general classroom teaching methods. This assumption is based on past practices that characterized the formative years of special education. Just as medicine is geared toward treating diagnosed disorders, past practices in special education were focused on matching an educational treatment to specific types of mild disabilities. There were special instructional approaches to learning disabilities and different approaches for students with mild intellectual disabilities. Students were placed in special education programs based on the assumption that there was something intrinsically wrong with them and that special education instruction would help remediate learning problems symptomatic of specific disabling conditions.

Although some mild disabilities, such as dyslexia, are individually derived, many mild disabilities are the result of a variety of overlapping issues. Poverty, lack of school readiness skills, dysfunctional families, disorganized classrooms, and a mismatch between instruction and learner needs all contribute to a cycle of school failure that can result in a special education placement.

Jenkins, Pious, and Peterson (

1988

) wanted to determine how students with mild disabilities were different from other students. The researchers analyzed differences between students identified as learning disabled and students identified as underachievers. They compared the instructional levels, learning rates, and learning styles of each group. They found more similarities than differences between the two groups of students. Students with and without disabilities had identical achievement levels. Individual students in each group demonstrated considerable overlap in learning rate and instructional level.

SPEEDBUMP—Do you remember from earlier chapters that identifying mild disabilities is a tricky business. When students are struggling in school it is difficult to be absolutely certain of the cause of the problem.

There are now two discrete sets of instructional methods: one set for use with “special” students and another set for use with “nondisabled” students. As used here, instructional methods refer to basic instructional processes, such as the development of behavioral objectives, curricular-based assessment procedures, task analysis, the arrangement of antecedents and consequences, and open education/discovery learning methods. While some methods need to be tailored to individual characteristics and needs, few, if any, can be clearly dichotomized into those applicable only for special students or only for regular students, (

Stainback & Stainback, 1984

, 103)

Best teaching practices for general education students are often best teaching practices for students with mild disabilities. The reverse has been found to be true as well. Both classroom and special education teachers have at their disposal instructional strategies to facilitate the learning of students with and without mild disabilities.

When we talk about students with mild disabilities, underachievers, and other hard-to-teach students, qualitative distinctions among groups are difficult to detect. The challenge for educators is to implement instructional strategies that can change school failure to success for all students.

Time Management

Data about time management are based primarily on research in general education classrooms. Researchers are interested in discovering how learning is influenced by teachers’ use of time. Rich and Ross (

1989

) found that teachers are allocated approximately 55 percent of the classroom day for instruction, but only half of that time, or 25 percent of the entire day, is utilized by students engaged in learning tasks. The researchers learned that out of an entire school day only one-fourth of the time is spent learning.

SPEEDBUMP—Does the last sentence come as a surprise?

Jacob Kounin’s (

1977

) research on classroom organization in elementary and secondary schools bears testimony to how time is wasted in classrooms. Kounin noted that many teaching behaviors disrupt lessons. He used such terms as thrusts, dangles, truncations, and flip-flops to describe common time wasters. Thrusts refer to intrusions in lessons. Principal announcements over the loudspeaker are an example of thrusts that interrupt lessons and make it difficult for teachers to get back on track. One inner-city school teacher was so distracted by PA announcements that his first action of the new school year was to disconnect the speaker from his classroom wall! This minor act of rebellion nearly cost him his job.

Teachers often leave a lesson in midair, for example, when a visitor comes to the classroom door. Students may be left with a perfunctory remark like “I’ll be out in the hall for a minute. Turn to

page 36

in your workbooks and complete the problems.” Kounin called this abrupt change a dangle. It is the rare group of students who would not take a teacher’s momentary absence as an invitation to relax and catch up on some classroom gossip. The ensuing reprimand upon the teacher’s return usually wastes more time and creates an unpleasant mood. After such an incident, teacher and students are hard-pressed to rejoin the lesson with their original enthusiasm.

Teachers flip-flop when they reverse direction in a lesson. Flip-flops may be fostered by strategically minded students who would rather hear how Mrs. Jones spent her summer vacation on Cape Cod than hear a lecture on the mollusk family. Teacher anecdotes turn into tangents and digressions, which entertain both teacher and students while instructional time is sliced into smaller pieces. When teachers flip-flop, students with mild disabilities can become confused. This confusion might be misinterpreted as a lack of attention to the lesson. The teacher who begins a lesson on multiplication of fractions and then realizes that some review in fractions is needed, may move back and forth too abruptly for students to keep track of the central ideas. Students with weak listening or attending skills will be unable to follow the teacher’s train of thought.

Truncations occur when a teacher abruptly ends a lesson and moves to something else without alerting students to the change. The conclusion of a lesson and transition to the next topic is one of the most critical parts of instructional time. Many behavior problems occur because of disorganized transitions. Dealing with classroom disruptions is a major time waster. By moving smoothly from one lesson to the next, the teacher diminishes management problems and focuses students’ attention on the next lesson.

SPEEDBUMP—Write the previous terms in your notebook and observe how many examples you encounter during a week of classes.

Kounin found that teachers who were able to maintain a group focus were most successful in using instructional time. These teachers were able to monitor the entire class without being distracted by minor incidents that could cause the entire class to become diverted, like stopping a class discussion because there is a piece of paper on the floor or because someone isn’t paying attention. Such teachers demonstrate “with-itness” and “overlapping.” They are able to work with an individual student without losing track of the rest of the group. Students describe a teacher who demonstrates “with-itness” as having “eyes in the back of her head.”

Academic Learning Time

Berliner (1988) defines academic learning time as “time engaged with materials or activities related to the outcome measure being used (e.g., an end-of-unit or achievement test), during which a student experiences a high success rate” (p. 15). When teachers evaluate students specifically on subjects in which students were engaged, academic learning time will improve. If this sounds confusing, let’s look at it from a different point of view.

Suppose a 6th-grade teacher allocates 60 minutes a day to whole-language instruction of reading. She has selected this teaching method because she gets higher student involvement. At the end of the year, the school system administers a standardized reading achievement test. There is a vocabulary section in which students are required to give the meaning of solitary words. Also included are timed reading comprehension sections, which include paragraphs of increasing complexity. The test favors students with strong phonetic skills. Her students are going to do poorly on this test because it is measuring a different set of skills than they were taught. If academic learning time is to improve, then curriculum, instruction, learning, and evaluative measures must mesh. The amount of time a student spends demonstrating a specific skill is important to school success. Teachers who are able to monitor student progress through observation, pre- and posttesting, informal testing, and student portfolios are most effective in enhancing academic learning time. This procedure is called curriculum-based assessment. (Refer to the section later in this chapter.)

Materials that are too difficult impede academic learning time. This is a particularly nettlesome problem for teachers of students with mild disabilities. What do you give a 15-year-old, street-wise, inner-city youth, who is on a 1st-grade reading level to read? How do you reteach fundamental math concepts to 18-year-olds who need manipulative materials? One solution is high-interest library books (perhaps with brown paper on the covers) for reading and functional activity lessons (measuring, check writing, grocery budgets) for mathematics. Students who have failed with the traditional basal texts are not going to improve through drill and repetition with similar materials.

To improve academic learning time, students require opportunities to practice skills in novel situations. They need to see how skills can be demonstrated and generalized to other settings. It doesn’t help to teach students to read if they never pick up a book to read for enjoyment or if they don’t know how to read the classified section of the newspaper. Berliner (1988) illustrates the interrelationship between allocated time, engaged time, and academic learning time:

If 50 minutes of reading instruction per day is allocated to a student who pays attention about one-third of the time (engaged learning) and only one-fourth of the student’s reading time is a high level of success, the student will experience only about four minutes of ALT [academic learning time]—engaged reading time at a high success level. Similarly, if 100 minutes per day is allocated [to] reading for a student who pays attention 85 percent of the time and is at a high level of success for almost two-thirds of the time, that student will experience about 52 minutes of ALT. (p. 17)

There are many reasons why students experience lesser amounts of academic learning time. Distractibility, inadequate study skills, emotional problems, disorderly classrooms, and disorganized instruction are samples of the reasons academic learning time is minimal for students (

Copple et al., 1992

;

Kane, 1994

;

WestEd., 2000

). Students with mild disabilities are placed in double jeopardy when they are pulled out of their classroom for special education services. Unless the resource room teacher is duplicating materials and instructional strategies utilized in the general classroom at the time of the student’s absence, academic learning time will be lost day after day, week after week, month after month. This is a strong argument for inclusion.

SPEEDBUMP—The authors sincerely hope that by this time they have debunked the myth that the best place for students with mild disabilities to catch up academically is in an alternative special education classroom.

Selecting Instructional Materials

Teachers are faced with difficult decisions about which instructional materials to select for students, especially those with mild disabilities. When given the choice, Ramsey (1988;

1995a

) discovered that teachers most often select instructional materials with which they were trained to use and thus are more familiar to them. Materials that are more comfortable to their teaching style are more readily selected; availability also is important in their selection.

Smith (

1983

) maintains that the most appropriate materials for a teacher to use with students who have learning problems are those that

■ have a logical, hierarchical sequence of instructional objectives

■ are adaptable to a variety of learning styles (e.g., adventurer, ponderer, drifter)

■ cover the same objectives in multiple ways

■ pretest to determine where teaching should begin

■ have a built-in evaluation mechanism for determining mastery of instructional objectives

■ allow students to proceed at their own rate and skip objectives they have already mastered

■ have reinforcement activities

To this list, Ramsey (1995a) adds a few additional criteria for the selection of instructional materials. Readers tend to be more interested in reading stories when they see pictures and other illustrations that are representative of themselves, their friends, and their families. Identification with one’s culture, gender, and age is important. Likewise, content and vocabulary need to be at each student’s reading level.

Teacher and Student Communication

Effective teaching depends on good communication between teacher and students (

Jones & Jones,

1986

). The communication process may break down if the message cannot be heard, understood, or is misinterpreted. When any of these happen, communication exchanges are disrupted.

By using effective communication skills, a teacher has more assurance that the intended message is getting across to the students. By being a model of a good listener, a teacher can help students learn to listen and respond appropriately to others. Attention is the prerequisite to listening, followed by clarity and the ability to ask probing questions.

SPEEDBUMP—The National Association of College and Employers

2007

survey indicated that good communication skills is the number one attribute employers look for in college graduates. (

www.naceweb.org

)

Attention. For some students, special techniques are employed to gain and hold their attention (

Morsink, 1984

;

Jones & Jones, 1981

;

Ramsey, Dixon, & Smith, 1986

;

Stephens, 1977

). For instance, the teacher might first call the student by name when asking a question to ensure attending by that individual; conversely the teacher can ask the question before calling the name of a student to create greater interest or anticipation from members of the group. Selecting students at random to answer questions helps to keep everybody alert and listening. Enthusiasm and keeping lessons short and interactive assists in maintaining the attention of those students with attending problems. Some students may be better able to focus their attention when environmental distractions are eliminated or at least reduced and nonverbal signals can be used to draw students’ attention to the task. Attending skills can be taught through games that encourage active listening. Arranging the classroom so that all students can see the teacher helps direct attention to the appropriate location. Finally, by paying close attention when students speak, teachers become good models for attending skills.

Clarity. Teachers can improve the clarity of their communication in many ways (

Gloeckler & Simpson, 1988

;

Lewis & Doorlag, 1987

). One is to give clear, precise directions. Teachers can simplify verbal directions by using shorter sentences, familiar words, and relevant explanations. Asking a student to repeat directions or to demonstrate understanding of them by carrying out the instructions is an effective way of monitoring clarity of expression. In addition, clarification can be achieved by the use of concrete objects and multidimensional teaching aids, and by modeling (i.e., demonstrating) what should be done in a practice situation.

Finally, a teacher can clarify communications by using a variety of vocal inflections. The use of intonation (i.e., stresses on certain words or sounds) and juncture (i.e., spacing of words) can add clarity to a message. For example, pausing before stating key words or stressing those that convey particular meanings helps students.

In situations involving behavior and feelings, the more immediate the feedback, the more helpful it is. Disturbing situations should be discussed as they occur. For example:

Buddy’s father is a salesman and travels during the week. One Sunday evening, he told Buddy all the things that had bothered him during the weekend. His dad did not feel that Buddy had been glad to see him on Friday evening, and he thought that Buddy spent too much time with his friends instead of with him on Saturday and Sunday. Buddy felt that he was being “dumped on” and that his good traits were overlooked, so he withdrew and pouted. Communication ended and nothing was really resolved between Buddy and his dad during that encounter.

Had Buddy’s father talked with him throughout the weekend as things occurred, perhaps his feelings of being left out of his son’s life could have been assuaged. Had Buddy known how his father felt earlier, he could have reassured him by doing something special with him.

Johnson (

1972

) gives several suggestions that teachers can use when providing feedback. First, give a student only the amount of feedback that he or she can understand at that time. Overloading a student with feedback reduces chances that the feedback will be used. Second, describe what happened rather than making judgmental evaluations about the situation. For instance, “You need to be sure to pronounce clearly the words at the end of your sentences,” rather than, “You don’t make a good public speaker.” Last, give objective feedback; avoid moralizing. Do not make personal judgments about statements made by the students or their behavior. Instead, give the students descriptive feedback; for example, “Johnny, the rule says you need your pencil and paper ready to begin work,” rather than, “You always forget your notebook!”

Questions. Berliner (

1979

) noted that the cognitive thinking level of the questions that teachers ask typically is low rather than high. For example, a lower-level question asks for a literal answer, such as “Who was the first astronaut?” A higher-level question requires a student to apply knowledge, analyze and synthesize information, or make evaluations and interpretations. For instance, “Why do astronauts weigh less in space than on Earth?” requires students to apply their knowledge of gravity. Both lower- and higher-level cognitive questions are relevant and are needed in classroom learning; however, teachers may need to focus on asking more higher-level questions.

Asking lower-level questions encourages student participation and builds factual knowledge. From these bases of knowledge, higher-order questions stimulate and facilitate the development of more sophisticated thinking, such as analyzing or evaluating an idea. In the long run, students achieve considerably more when their thinking is heightened and expanded.

Regardless of the level of a question, Belch (

1975

) suggests strategies for improving teachers’ questioning skills.

1. Ask questions that require more than a yes-or-no response.

2. Allow sufficient time for students to deliberate the question.

3. Reword or restate questions when students fail to respond or respond incorrectly.

4. Challenge student responses in a professional way. Avoid giving “put-downs” or other belittling responses.

5. Direct questions to all students and not just to volunteers or the brighter ones.

6. Try to sequence your questions. Encourage students to use logical thinking and build one question on another, or build one question on the answer given to a previous question.

Graphic Organizers

Graphic organizers are specific instructional organization tools that have been used successfully with students in both regular and special education classrooms. These students have learning needs that span across a continuum, yet most are expected to learn the same content as their peers.

Many textbooks and curriculum guides provide reproducible graphic organizers; however, Baxendell (

2003

) states that often these contain too much information for some learners. He suggests using computer drawing programs or Inspiration 6 (a computer program for creating graphic organizers), in order to design and customize graphic organizers to meet the specific needs of students. To make a main-idea-and-detail chart, Baxendell says to identify the main idea as the central concept and place the details off center. By doing so, the students have a visual reminder of the hierarchical relationship between the concepts. The same approach is used for cause-and-effect diagrams and sequence charts. The use of arrows, lines, and numbers assists students in seeing the flow of ideas. By labeling the relationships and concepts, students can better understand and internalize particular content.

Sequence charts can be used to display the chain of events in various academic areas. Baxendell (2003) states, “We use them in reading to review the key elements in a story, in writing to organize ‘how to’ paragraphs or short stories, and in social studies to create time lines” (p. 50). Students can be assisted in visualizing steps in math multistep word problems or calculations, as well as procedures in scientific experiments. Baxendell also uses the sequence chart in pre- and post–field-trip activities. Before going on the field trip, the chart helps students to anticipate what they will be doing during the day. After returning from the field trip, students (individually, in small groups, or the class as a whole) can create their own sequence chart of what they did and learned. An essential component in student understanding of the information is to have all flow going in one direction, either from left to right or from top to bottom.

The most common of the compare-and-contrast graphic organizers is the Venn diagram. This diagram offers a visual display of the similarities and differences between two or three main ideas, and can be used across the curriculum in most subject areas. For example, in literature, Venn diagrams can be used to compare characters, stories, genres, problems, and solutions. In science, they can be used to differentiate between animal types or kingdoms, body parts, weather systems, planets, or ecosystems. Social studies, reading, writing, languages, physical education, math—the application to subject matter in all of these areas of the curriculum will be beneficial. Graphic organizers benefit all learners, especially those in inclusive classrooms, because of the wide spectrum of learner skills and needs.

Figure 8.1

provides examples of three types of graphic organizers: a KWHL chart, a double cell diagram, and a Venn diagram.

SPEEDBUMP—If you want to see some graphic organizers to download for your student teaching, go to

www.eduplace.com/graphicorganizer

FIGURE 8.1

Student Organization

Organization is important for success in the general education classroom, and students with mild disabilities often have organization problems. Particular areas in which organization assistance might be needed include: (1) keeping track of materials and assignments, (2) following directions, (3) completing class assignments, and (4) completing homework assignments.

Keeping Track of Materials and Assignments. Roberto, a 5th grader, has a problem keeping track of his materials and homework assignments. One day, his English teacher gave him a slip of paper that excused him from that evening’s homework in her class. He had earned this waiver by receiving good grades on a specified number of prior homework assignments. When handed this paper, Roberto jammed it into one of his pants pockets. The next day, his teacher asked the students to turn in either their homework assignment or their homework waiver. Roberto suddenly realized that he had neither the excuse nor the homework.

What can be done in the classroom to help students like Roberto learn responsibility? He could keep all of his schoolwork in a large loose-leaf notebook and not in single folders that can be lost easily. Students with mild disabilities may not have the materials and supplies necessary to begin their class work. This is especially a problem when students move from one classroom to another for different subjects. These students need to be shown how to organize and plan ahead for classroom needs. One way to help students develop judgment and planning skills is to teach them strategy games like Monopoly, checkers, or chess. Mnemonic devices and lists help students organize priorities (

McCoy & Prehm, 1987

Following Directions. Maria has problems following classroom directions. Invariably, Maria answers the wrong set of questions, uses the wrong type of paper, or, in some way, exhibits difficulties following directions.

Before giving directions to students like Maria, have them clear their desks of distracting objects. A cleared desk helps students to focus attention, as does maintaining eye contact while stating directions. Break directions into parts one, two, and three. Provide visual cues. For example, write key words or steps on the chalkboard or on a large chart. Ask students to restate the directions as they understand them. If directions are written, underline or circle directional words. Gloeckler and Simpson (1988) caution against giving directions to a group several times. Students may “tune out” the initial instructions because they have learned that the directions will be repeated. In addition, the instructions may be reworded the second time, and thus become confusing. Encourage students to ask for clarifications if part of the directions are missed or misunderstood.

Students sometimes experience problems in proper sequencing. To assist with this difficulty, keep the number of directions in a sequence to a minimum. Check to see if the student understands the order in which the directions were given. This can be done by listening to him or her repeat the directions in sequence (Gloeckler & Simpson, 1988).

Completing Class Assignments. “Class, you have 10 more minutes to finish your assignment,” said Mrs. Green. Even that won’t help Janice, she thought, as she walked by the girl’s desk. Look at her paper—she hasn’t even written six math problems on it! I wish I knew what I could do to get her to finish her class assignments!

Some students, like Janice, have difficulty completing class assignments on time. Before looking for strategies that might be helpful with particular students, teachers might analyze how they are going about assigning work. First, is adequate time being given to finish assigned tasks? Not everyone works at the same pace, and some students require more time than others. Therefore, as in Janice’s case, Mrs. Green could assist her in pacing her work. After advising students of exactly how much time is being allowed, Mrs. Green could help Janice set a kitchen timer on her desk that shows her just how much time she has spent on a particular assignment, and how much time is left. Or Janice could be given an assignment sheet with two blank clocks, one for the teacher or student to fill in hands to signify time to begin and one for drawing hands to end that task. With either of these time reminders, a reward system for completed work would help reinforce student efforts.

SPEEDBUMP—Be cautious about using rewards. Used too often, rewards become a distraction for both teachers and students. For an excellent critique on the use of rewards in classrooms, see Alfie Kohn’s book, Punished by Rewards: The Trouble with Gold Stars, Incentive Plans, A’s, Praise and Other Bribes (1999).

Several other strategies help students with mild disabilities complete work. Students need to know exactly when assignments must be turned in. Mini-deadlines set throughout the day periodically alert students to work that is due to be turned in. Scheduling a brief free-time period before work is due allows some catch-up time if needed.

Completing Homework Assignments. Completing homework assignments is a problem for Doug, a 4th grader. It’s not that Doug won’t do the work; he does what he can. His problem is that the homework assignments given by his teacher cover new concepts he has yet to master. Why don’t his parents help him? Well, his father is a sales representative and travels most week days. His mother works part-time as a nurse at one of the nearby hospitals. The family with whom Doug stays during the evenings while his mom works is so busy with their own activities that no help is possible there.

The tasks assigned by Doug’s teacher are in the category of new tasks, not practice tasks. Because his teacher is overlooking this basic principle, she is placing Doug in a dilemma. Students should be assigned homework that they are capable of completing successfully by themselves with parent monitoring. Tasks that are too difficult instill feelings of frustration and hopelessness in students.

Homework helps in the improvement of students’ study skills, attitudes toward school, and an awareness that learning occurs in other places than school. Other non-academic benefits include the fostering of independence and responsibility. Homework involves parents in the school process, makes them more aware of what their child is studying, and signals support of their child’s education (Cooper, 1989b).

There can be a negative side to homework. For example, too much work on the same topic leads to boredom. Homework should not deprive a youngster of recreational activities. If parents try to assist their child with homework, their use of different methods from that of the child’s teacher can cause confusion. Not understanding what or how to do a homework assignment can result in copying or cheating.

Homework too often accentuates inequities in home environments. For instance, some children do not have quiet, well-lighted places to do their homework; some do not have the necessary materials; and some, like Doug, do not have someone to answer their questions or monitor their homework.

What can be done to reap the benefits of homework, yet make sure individual student abilities and home situations are considered? First, remember that only practice tasks should be given as homework. Second, when deciding on the amount of homework, the objective is for the student to practice things learned at school; thus, too much homework, especially if practiced with errors, can be harmful.

England and Flatley (

1985

) encourage teachers to talk with their students when homework problems arise. They suggest that teachers ask their students whether they need help or if they are confused about a homework assignment. Legitimate reasons may preclude completing a particular homework assignment. Some homework “do’s and don’ts” listed by England and Flatley are given in

Figure 8.2

FIGURE 8.2 Do’s and Don’ts of Homework

Source: England & Flatley (1985), pp. 36–37.

Coordinate homework with parents. One way to do this is to have students keep a special notebook or folder in which homework assignments are recorded. Such a log would include type of assignment, specific instructions, when it was taken home, and when it was completed. Parents might be asked to sign the page on which the day’s homework assignments are recorded. Keeping a homework log would ensure that parents know each day what their child is assigned for homework. An alternative is to ask parents to sign the actual homework papers either before they are turned in or after they have been graded and returned to the youngster. Encourage parents to reward successful completion of homework assignments.

SPEEDBUMP—Homework is everyone’s bugaboo. Make assignments more manageable for students and parents by using a website such as

www.schoolnotes.com

Student Performance

Self-Esteem. A person’s overall self-appraisal of their self-worth is called self-esteem. Teachers may have stereotyped perceptions of students with mild disabilities; likewise, expectations of these students may be less than what is expected of other students (

Coleman, 1985

;

Siperstein & Goding, 1985

). Students often pick up on their teachers’ perceptions and develop similar negative stereotypes toward classmates with mild disabilities.

Teachers can serve as positive role models; that is, model positive behaviors toward students with mild disabilities in order to create an environment of acceptance and support. Teachers do this by conveying that they want to work with the students and by supporting efforts made by the students.

Sara and Juanita have low self-esteem due to their learning problems. Both girls are in their early teens, come from middle-class backgrounds, and are popular with their peers. Sara experiences difficulty comprehending what she has read. Even though she rereads a passage several times, she still has problems answering questions about the passage she just read. Juanita, on the other hand, has difficulty with written expression. She reads assigned subject content with ease and can tell you what she has read, but cannot write legible responses to short-answer or essay-type questions. Sara has withdrawn and become quiet in class, whereas Juanita acts belligerent and sassy.

Both of these students would benefit from successes in the areas in which they are experiencing difficulties. By following a few practical suggestions, a classroom teacher can help students such as Sara and Juanita.

First, assign tasks in which the students can succeed, and make certain that the assignments are understood so they can be carried out successfully. Point out something favorable about each student’s daily work, and praise efforts, even if progress is small. Whenever offering constructive criticism, recognize the effort that was made and explain the desired outcome rather than just calling attention to shortcomings.

Much of a youngster’s self-esteem is tied to social acceptance. Students can make contributions to class discussions by explaining a concept or discussing a topic with which they are familiar. Simulations and role-play activities help students to rehearse social responses; cooperative learning provides opportunities to learn with other students. Peer tutoring develops feelings of satisfaction in helping other persons. Grouping students with low self-esteem with classmates who have similar interests enhances social conversation so they can more easily work together on class projects. Providing time for students to share positive accomplishments with classmates and to write daily happenings in a private journal also builds self-confidence.

Encourage students to use computer-based composition so that writing more easily can be edited. Writing on the computer encourages trial, error, and practice. Mark and give credit for students’ correct and acceptable work, not just their mistakes and errors (e.g., circle or put checks by correct responses, indicate number correct with a plus symbol).

Study Skills. Knowing how to study is essential to successful performance in school. Students with mild disabilities demonstrate poor study skills (

Polloway et al., 1989

). Many teachers are either unaware that study skills must be taught to these students or do not know how to teach these kinds of skills (

Scruggs & Mastropieri, 1986

SPEEDBUMP—Who hasn’t had the experience of spending an hour with a book and on closing it not being able to remember what was read. What do you recall from the last three pages you have read? The more interactive you can make your reading—like writing questions and comments in the margins—the better your recall.

R.J., a 6th grader, exemplifies this problem. During early elementary school years, R.J. had no problem reading assigned stories, doing basic math operations, and spelling weekly spelling words. Therefore, R.J.’s parents were perplexed when he began bringing home low grades in science and social studies. There was no doubt that R.J. was reading the assigned chapters in his science and social studies textbooks but he made failing test scores in these subjects. His parents and teacher discovered that R.J.’s lack of effective study skills left him ill-prepared for tests in these classes.

One way to learn if students need to improve their study skills is to ask them questions about their study habits. Stephens, Blackhurst, and Magliocca (1988) recommend using a checklist for this purpose. See

Figure 8.3

for the study habits checklist.

Often, students like R.J. read the pages but don’t comprehend what the written passages mean. The SQ3R method of study is effective in helping students to better comprehend what they are reading (

Cheek & Cheek, 1983

;

Mercer & Mercer, 1985

). The SQ3R study skill teaches students to:

■ survey or scan the material: read the title, first paragraph, subheadings, last paragraph

■ develop questions: change the title and subheadings into questions

■ read the material: find answers to the questions

■ recite both the questions and answers

■ review the material: recite questions and answers daily (

Wallace & Kauffman, 1986

FIGURE 8.3 Study Habits Checklist

Source: Adapted from Stephens, Blackhurst, & Magliocca (1988), pp. 160–161.

The SQ3R method can be modified and used to help students better understand math problems (

Georgia Department of Education, 1989

). The student procedure is as follows:

■ survey or scan the whole problem to determine what needs to be done

■ change the math problem into a series of questions

■ determine the facts that need to be answered

■ determine processes needed to answer the facts

■ perform computation to solve the problems

■ question the answer by checking the computation

Reading comprehension is enhanced when students can relate their personal experiences to what they are reading. Because each reader’s background will vary, involve students in firsthand experiences (e.g., field trips) when possible. Another method is to stimulate students’ thinking about a topic before oral or silent reading begins (

Wilson, 1983

). Polloway and colleagues (1989) suggest having the teacher introduce a reading selection by saying, “As you read, think about what you would do if you were caught in a flood like Van is in this story” (p. 229). This helps a student personalize a story.

Active reading is encouraged when a teacher initiates a discussion related to the selection the students are about to read. For example, encourage students to comment on a passage by giving their opinions or by having students read a passage and justify or change their original opinions (Polloway et al., 1989). When students make predictions about the story and generate their own questions, their comprehension is improved.

Students with mild disabilities frequently feel overwhelmed with the amount of material they are expected to learn. The teacher can reduce the amount of written work that is presented or assigned (

Carbo, Dunn, & Dunn, 1986

;

Schulz, Carpenter, & Turnbull, 1991

). Students can demonstrate mastery of learning material through projects (Lewis & Doorlag, 1987). For example, students can track the position of planets in relation to the sun by constructing a mobile on which Styrofoam balls representing the planets are scaled in size and distance from a sun. Projects such as these enhance interest in learning.

SPEEDBUMP—Tiny Pluto is no longer a planet. That’s probably a good thing because if you tried to do an exact scale of the distance of the Earth from Pluto by reducing the Earth to the size of a pea, Pluto would be a mile and a half away.

INSTRUCTIONAL ACCOMMODATIONS, MODIFICATIONS, AND STRATEGIES

Accommodations, modifications, and strategies are all common terms used in education today. Sometimes these terms have been used interchangeably in the literature to refer to adjustment of the facilities, curriculum, and instruction relating to the education of students with disabilities (

Price, Mayfield, McFadden, & Marsh,

2001

). Effective teachers need to know what each of these terms means so that the accommodations, modifications, and strategies can be successfully utilized with students in whatever educational setting they are being taught.

Accommodations refer to the actual teaching supports and services that the student may require to demonstrate what has been learned successfully. These include adjustments in the instruction of students, and approaches whereby the learning environment of the students is modified to promote learning. The basic curriculum is not changed. Some examples are additional time for tests, projects, and assignments; oral, open book or take home tests; reports written or given orally; taped stories; paired reading; math charts; use of manipulative objects; preferred seating; study carrel; cooperative groups; peer tutors; use of a scribe; personal note taker; study guides; written notes, outlines and instructions; taped books; audio tape or CD; use of a scribe; calculators; computers; use of a word processor; spelling and grammar assistive devices; specialized computer software; alternative ways of completing assignments; and so on (Department of Student Services, 2007;

Special Connections, 2007a

Modifications refer to changes made to curriculum expectations in order to meet the needs of the student. Generally, modifications are made when the expectations are beyond the student’s level of ability. Examples are including a student in the same activity but individualizing the expectations, materials, and/or tasks.

Strategies refer to skills or techniques used to assist in learning. Strategies are individualized to suit the student’s learning style and developmental level. Examples include highlighting, rehearsal, color coding, memory joggers, visual cues, number lines, and so on.

If a student has an IEP and is receiving special education, then he or she is receiving accommodations in the general education classroom if they are needed. In addition, students served under Section 504 of Public Law 93-112 are guaranteed the same right to reasonable accommodations. Section 504 is a federal law that provides accommodations for any student with a disability, whether or not he or she is eligible for special education. Accommodations are intended to level the playing field and prevent discrimination. In either case, it was agreed by a multidisciplinary team about which accommodations are reasonable and needed for the student to succeed in the general education classroom (

Baumel, 2007

;

Special Connections, 2007b

Price and colleagues (2001) state:

Accommodations may involve the use of modified instructional techniques, more flexible administrative practices, modified academic requirements, or any compensatory activity that emphasizes the use of stronger, more intact capabilities or that provides modified or alternative educational processes and/or goals. (p. 1)

Accommodations are determined on a case-by-case basis. The utilization of accommodations, modifications, and instructional strategies often are looked upon differently by general classroom teachers and special education teachers. For instance, most general education teachers are interested in teaching subject matter content while special educators are concerned with remediating underlying learning deficiencies. Elementary and secondary level teachers have competing influences on them. Regardless, best teaching practices encourage the appropriate use of accommodations, modifications, and strategies so that students reach their potential (

Price, et al., 2001

One type of math accommodation that often is needed is a reduced number of problems for seat work. For instance, why require Carlos, who works at a pace much slower than his classmates, to work out 20 long-division problems when he can show he knows how to do the mathematical operations by answering five of these problems correctly? And when Cathy experiences difficulties with division, why not use error analysis? That is, pinpoint what she is doing procedurally that is causing the same error to occur in several problems. When error analysis is applied, the student has only one calculation error to correct.

Questioning accommodations are useful as well. For example, the usual way that teachers give spelling tests is by pronouncing words orally and having students write them. Instead, the teacher could give students word choices that are similar and have them underline or circle the correct spelling of words from a multiple-choice format. It also is possible to use the cloze procedure in which the teacher deletes selected letters which must then be filled in by students. Similarly, the teacher can alter the instruction by having students work at learning centers and use picture directions rather than written sentences—or use a buddy system whereby one student reads the instructions, and the other performs the tasks.

Reading accommodations can be made before, during, and after students read (

Figure 8.4

). One that can be made prior to the actual reading experience is teaching textbook structure (headings, subheadings, different print, introductory and summary paragraphs). Teach students to understand how and for what reasons these items are employed. Preteaching students the vocabulary words in the context in which they will be read is another way of preparing readers before they actually read. Pair question numbers from a study guide with page numbers on which the information can be found. Use advance organizers to help students look for essential ideas as they read. These can later be used for reviewing what was read and for homework activities (CEC Staff,

1997

FIGURE 8.4 Instructional Accommodations

Source:

CEC Staff, 1997c

, p. 15.

Some accommodations can be made to assist readers as they actively read the story or content assigned. One way is to teach active reading. The student reads a paragraph, covers it, and recites the main point and/or important information in his or her own words. Another instructional accommodation is to tape record the text. Recorded text segments should be clear and short. Have an overview of the selection prepared so that the student can review what he or she is going to hear on the tape. Also, while taping, give the reader page numbers and summarize important information periodically.

In order to present content at secondary students’ reading and comprehension levels, a teacher might write information presented in textbooks on the blackboard or on an overhead, develop chapter outlines, code paragraphs to chapter questions, and so forth. This is done using magic markers to highlight the main idea, topic, and specific vocabulary words or letters. Another instructional accommodation is to give students a partial outline of important information, and ask them to complete it while they are reading. A review of their responses following the reading exercise is helpful in accomplishing follow-up and provides an after-reading checkup.

Accommodations Using Technology

Audio Text Recordings.

According to Boyle and colleagues (2002), many middle grade and high school students experience difficulty reading and comprehending assigned textbooks because they have poor reading skills and lack effective learning strategies. In addition, assigned textbooks often have readability levels beyond the abilities of students with mild disabilities. Secondary students must read textbooks independently, demonstrate mastery of content information, and apply previously acquired knowledge to new learning situations. Unlike elementary students, secondary students with learning disabilities and other high-incidence cognitive disabilities must “read to learn rather than just learn to read” (p. 50).

SPEEDBUMP—We advance these ideas with trepidation, knowing full well that our readers are no doubt way ahead of your middle-aged authors when it comes to the topic of electronic technology.

Audio texts have become more efficient due to the introduction of DAISY—compatible digital books, like those offered by Recording for the Blind & Dyslexic. A single CD can hold up to 45 hours of recorded material, which is about the size of a standard textbook. The CD can be placed into the playback machine, the desired page number entered, and with a press of a button, the machine quickly advances to the requested page. Moreover, the speed of the reader’s voice can be adjusted to be heard more slowly or more rapidly.

E-books and Accommodations. E-books are electronic texts containing features that can be classified as accommodations (

Cavanaugh, 2002

). An e-book comprises three different components: an e-book file, software to read the e-book, and a hardware device with which to read it, such as a computer, laptop, or handheld device. E-books can be created from common forms of electronic text with readily available programs. They also are available through online libraries and bookstores.

E-books are available in a variety of formats. Some are specific for certain computer platforms while others are cross-platform. HTML or text-based e-books can be used in standard browsers. With this format, users can adjust text styles, sizes, and colors. They also can search within the e-book, then copy and paste selected text to other programs. Other formats in which e-books are available include Adobe PDF, Rocket, Palm, MS Reader, Mobi, and eBookMan.

In contrast to school textbooks, which cannot be marked in and are somewhat heavy to transport in book bags, e-books are easier to transport, lightweight, have adjustable text sizes, can be highlighted and bookmarked, can be used with note taking, contain interactive dictionaries, and even read-aloud features. These features allow for many types of special accommodations and adaptations in order to meet the needs of students. The voice output, interactive dictionaries, and note taking are features that provide scaffolding support that many students need.

Speech-Feedback and Word-Prediction Software. Assistive technology, especially in the form of computer software, can be a valuable tool for many students with special needs (

Williams, 2002

). Furthermore, according to Williams, word processing, speech recognition, and other types of software packages may help students with mild disabilities to participate in classroom writing programs.

One teacher focused on the results obtained with a single subject case study: a student with learning disabilities. Two components were studied: speech feedback and word prediction. The Write:OutLoud program supplied the speech-feedback component. It enabled the computer to “read” selected sections of text to students. In addition, this software highlighted each word as it was being read aloud. This component provided scaffolding support for this particular student who often could not remember what he previously had written. The Co:Writer program has word-prediction capabilities and was used for this reason. After a student typed the first letter or letters in a word, the software predicts the remainder of the word, depending on supplying a word that would be grammatically correct at this point in the sentence. This program originally was developed to limit the amount of keystrokes required for writers with physical disabilities, but offered the spelling assistance needed by this student with learning disabilities.

Test-Taking Skills

Ideas for accommodating test-taking skills include allowing extra time for testing in order for the student to be able to process what is being asked and to formulate an adequate response. Teaching students test-taking skills and strategies helps to avoid test anxiety and to build independent thinking, which allows the student to have clear thoughts about the question. When considering oral testing, essay writing, short-answer responses, multiple-choice selections, and fill-in-the-blanks, consider that students vary in their abilities to do better on different question types. Regardless of whatever type of test is selected, it is essential that clear, readable, and uncluttered test forms be developed or chosen.

If the test requires writing, perhaps a scribe might be useful if the student has difficulty making written responses. In using a scribe, the teacher is able to determine just what the student knows about the question without the response being confounded by writing difficulties. Another alternative to writing difficulties is to allow the student to take the test using a computer software program or word processor if these help to make accommodations for the student’s area of disability or weakness. It is important that the student be given opportunities to practice whatever accommodation is deemed necessary in order to best learn what the student knows about the area being tested and to avoid his or her being penalized for a disability.

Testing Accommodations

Methods for testing students with mild disabilities vary in type, structure, and level of response. Students can be asked to respond to tests and quizzes with written answers, verbal responses, or by demonstration. Learner characteristics often dictate the amount that can be tested at one sitting, the time needed for completion, and whether the testing results can best be achieved by giving group or individually administered tests. Responses should be monitored and expanded from simple recognition and recall to higher-level thinking skills, such as inference, analysis, synthesis, evaluation, and appreciation.

Students with mild disabilities may have short attention spans; therefore, schedule intermittent breaks. Read test directions orally and give an example of the expected correct response. Remind students to review their tests, complete any unanswered questions, and to make corrections where needed. For students who have difficulty with traditional tests, alternatives include projects, checklists, discussions, student–teacher interviews, and student-developed portfolios designed to demonstrate student knowledge and understanding of content. Finally, giving brief, frequent tests increases students’ opportunities for success. See

Figure 8.5

End-of-year standardized tests often present options for testing accommodations. Some of these include being seated separate from the class; extended time; use of a scribe; the use of a calculator or computer; and so on. If available, these accommodations are written into the directions of the test manual. School personnel can confer with parents about the appropriateness and benefit of an approved accommodation. Parents and older students need to be informed of any restrictions or limitations to the use of test scores if utilizing accommodations.

FIGURE 8.5 Testing Accommodations

Source: Henley, M. Creating successful inclusion programs: Guidelines for teachers and administrators. National Educational Service, 2004. Reprinted with permission.

Rubrics

Jackson and Larkin (2002) explain that the original definition for rubric was “marks in red,” but today a rubric refers to “a grading guideline or scoring tool to follow in assessment” (p. 40). Rubrics include predetermined criteria for evaluating student work, and provide specific descriptions of teacher expectations for an assigned task (see

Figure 8.6

FIGURE 8.6 Book Report Rubric

Source: Adapted from MidLink Magazine (2005).

The following rubric benefits are stated by Jackson and Larkin (2002, 41):

■ Students know before beginning an assignment what the expectations for performance will be. The expectations may be assigned by the teachers or may be determined through class discussions.

■ Students monitor their own progress as the assignment progresses.

■ Students become aware of the quality of work through judging their own and their peers’ assignments against the standards set in the rubric.

■ Students use the rubric as a final checkpoint before turning in the assignment.

■ Students with special needs have the rubric tailored to their learning styles and specific needs.

A number of website resources provide sample rubrics. A tool that can be obtained through the website

http://rubistar.4teachers.org

is called Rubistar. A tutorial guides teachers and other users through the process of creating rubrics. Rubrics can be customized for oral projects, products, multimedia, science, research and writing, work skills, and math. For the 18 months during which they are saved to the website, the rubrics can be viewed or edited.

Grading

Much debate has centered around grading the performance of students with mild disabilities. Carpenter (1985) suggests using the following questions to guide grading decisions: “On what criteria are grades based? What type of medium should be used? Who should participate in the grading process? How frequently should grades be given?”

Teachers generally include class participation, seat work, tests (e.g., daily, weekly, unit), homework, and special projects in student evaluations. More than one grade could be given to reflect other student attributes, such as effort, attitude, or study skills. Marking correct answers rather than mistakes and giving number grades are other options for grading. Written comments or information can be given or can supplement number and letter grades. Points can be assigned as grades.

SPEEDBUMP—William Farish, a tutor at the University of Cambridge, invented grading in 1792. He got the idea from a factory assembly line where shoe leather was graded by quality.

A major dilemma for teachers is how to grade work that is completed on the student’s functioning level in the regular classroom, but not at his or her grade-level placement. It is generally agreed that satisfactorily performed student work should be reinforced if it is at the student’s functioning level, even though not his or her grade level. One practice is to link grades to the goals and objectives in a student’s IEP (

Brantlinger & Guskin, 1988

). A criterion-referenced skill list can be used so that specific objectives can be checked as “mastered” or “needs improvement” (Baumel, 2007; Schulz, Carpenter, & Turnbull, 1991).

Another means of assigning grades is to assign the earned grade and check “working below grade level” on the report card. Yet another way is to reward students with the grades earned but coded with actual functioning levels. For example, a 4th-grade student with mild learning disabilities earns an “A” in reading at the 2nd-grade level (the student’s actual functioning level in that subject)—thus an “A2” appears on the student’s report card as his grade in that subject.

Cograding often occurs when students with disabilities are taught in regular education classrooms. The special educator—whether working in an inclusive, consultative, or resource room setting—may make accommodations and adaptations to daily work, tests, and homework assignments. Vaughn and associates (1997) suggest that grading procedures and guidelines be discussed and agreed upon during the development of the IEP.

They also remind teachers that different grading standards may exist between elementary-and secondary-level classes. For example, whereas at the elementary level, teachers can consider students’ ability and progress, at the secondary level, grading often is done on the basis of established academic standards. Charting student progress can help illustrate student gains that might otherwise be overlooked. It may help to involve students in their own grading when possible.

Special educators are encouraged to meet with regular classroom teachers at scheduled times to discuss student progress and achievement. Meetings provide the opportunity to convey to the classroom teacher a clear description of a student’s strengths, weaknesses, capabilities, and needs. By doing so, additional data by which to determine grades are provided to the regular classroom teacher. Perhaps most important is the inclusion of the regular classroom teacher in IEP meetings and decisions. Whenever possible, engage in cooperative grading arrangements so that both regular classroom and resource room performances are evaluated. By engaging in cooperative grading arrangements, encouragement and reinforcement for effort and accomplishment is conveyed more effectively.

Curriculum-Based Assessment

Standardized assessment practices often are criticized for their lack of relevance to instruction. Assessment procedures linked to what is taught in school have reemerged as promising alternatives to standardized assessment (

Blankenship, 1985

;

Deno, 1985

, 1986, 1989;

Tucker, 1985

;

Wesson, 1991

;

Ysseldyke & Algozzine, 1982

Advocates of curriculum-based assessment point out the need to target evaluation procedures on content that is taught in the classroom (

Algozzine, Ruhl, & Ramsey, 1991

). Standardized achievement tests comprise a limited sample of questions that the test-makers believe reflect the classroom’s curriculum. Curriculum-based assessment is defined as “the practice of obtaining direct and frequent measures of a student’s performance on a series of sequentially arranged objectives derived from the curriculum used in the classroom” (Blankenship, 1985, 234).

SPEEDBUMP—Assessment is misused when it is viewed as an end in itself.

An illustration of curriculum-based assessment follows:

Carol, a kindergarten teacher, decided to teach her students a unit on frogs. Before beginning her lessons she asked her students a series of questions about the amphibians. She tabulated their responses. After the unit, she again quizzed her young charges. She found that they could answer 75% more questions about frogs after the unit than before. By evaluating student progress based on their ability to learn the classroom curriculum, Carol was practicing curriculum-based assessment.

Curriculum-based assessment involves repeated measurement of a student’s performance on a sequenced curriculum (

Research Brief for Teachers, 1988

). Counting and graphing are the best means of tracking student progress. For example, a teacher could ask a student to read a passage from a story that seems to match his present reading level. Each incorrectly read word is marked. A final tally reveals that the student knew two-thirds of the words in the story. This 66 percent figure provides baseline data to measure future progress. Every few days, after instruction, the student’s progress in reading again is measured. Graphing the results of each measurement provides a visual means of efficiently marking progress.

Curriculum-based data is collected “prior to instruction, immediately following instruction, and throughout the year to assess long-term retention” (Blankenship, 1985, 238).

Once a lesson has been implemented, teachers reassess. There are several reasons for reassessing a student following implementation of instruction. Reassessment occurs so that some determination can be made about the amount of progress a student has made in reaching long-range goals and short-term objectives. Reassessment also occurs so that adjustments can be made in the student’s instructional plan, or the teacher’s implementation of such, if necessary. Actually, it is important that assessment occur ongoing and accompany daily implementation of instructional programming.

Both the No Child Left Behind Act (2001) and the Reauthorization of IDEA (2004) state that general education teachers need to be able to work with all of the students in their classrooms, including those with special learning needs. It is no longer acceptable for classroom teachers to allege that they cannot teach youngsters with special needs. Knowing effective accommodations for students with special needs assures the general education teacher of a higher success level with all students. (See

Table 8.1

TABLE 8.1 Basic Elements of Effective Teaching

Lesson Introduction	Gain student attention. Review previously learned content and ensure students have the prerequisite knowledge and skills. Provide students a purpose for learning the new content.
Instruction and Modeling	Provide accurate, clear, complete, and concise instruction. Model the less objective. Ask frequent and appropriate questions. Include correct and incorrect examples.
Guided Practice	Provide all students the opportunity to demonstrate lesson objective with assistance. Monitor student performance closely. Apply appropriate error correction procedures when needed.
Independent Practice	Provide all students the opportunity to demonstrate lesson objective independently.
Closure	Review and summarize.

Source: Prater (2003), pp. 58–64.

THE EDUCATOR’S TOOL KIT

Many professionals carry tool kits. Carpenters and repair persons have a collection of tools that enable them to perform carpentry and various types of repair work. Lawyers and business people carry their tools of trade in an attaché case. Physicians used to carry a medicine bag when making house calls. We used the tools that mechanics carry in an earlier example when discussing integrative teaching.

Some professors encourage students in methods for learners with mild disabilities courses to construct an educational kit. Many special education teachers go into the regular education classroom to teach students with special learning needs. Others travel from school to school or from room to room in order to teach these students; still others remain in a resource or self-contained classroom of their own. The tools each teacher-in-training makes and places into this kit help that person to be ready with accessible “tools of the trade” to teach students with mild disabilities. The curriculum with which these tools are used includes mathematics, reading, spelling, and social skills. With the tools assembled, teachers are equipped and prepared to provide meaningful learning experiences for each of their students.

Each educational tool kit contains:

Reading

1. A scope-and-sequence or skills hierarchy. (Enables teachers to see where students are functioning on the overall reading skills hierarchy. This is helpful in developing IEPs and in performing other educational planning and programming.)

2. A set of basic sight words (e.g., Dolch word list, survival words). (Useful in building student repertoires in basic word lists. These lists of words contain the words most frequently found in basal readers.)

3. A teacher-made game board. (Provides practice and reinforcement for many reading skills [e.g., long- and short-vowel sounds; initial, medial, and final consonant sounds; consonant blends; word meanings; etc.]).

Mathematics

1. A scope-and-sequence or hierarchy of skills. (Enables teachers to see where students are functioning on the overall math skills hierarchy. The overview is useful when developing IEPs and designing individual plans and programs.)

2. Teacher-made number lines, multiplication table charts (wall or student desk size), and an abacus. (All provide hands-on manipulative materials that help students to learn math in a concrete and meaningful manner. Number lines are useful in acquiring knowledge of math operations [addition, subtraction, multiplication, division], multiplication charts provide visual repetition of math facts that leads to mastery. An abacus is essential when learning borrowing and carrying in subtraction and addition, and regrouping in multiplication and division.)

3. A teacher-made game board. (Provides practice and reinforcement for many math skills [e.g., math facts, math operations, fractions, geometric shapes, decimals, solving word problems, and so on]).

Social Skills

1. A set of classroom rules, few in number and positively directed (wall or student desk size). (Involves students in the development of rules and classroom structure.) The fewer the number, the more likely students will remember and follow them. The positive direction in which they are written enables reinforcement and instills a positive classroom atmosphere.

2. A teacher-made social skills activity. (Encourages role play or simulation opportunities for practicing and reinforcing many social skills.)

3. A teacher-made game board. (Provides practice and reinforcement for many social interaction skills.)

The construction of tools encourages teachers to accommodate students’ learning needs. Commercially made materials will not always provide the means for teaching a particular skill to a student; therefore, some teaching aids will need to be tailored and adapted to accommodate special learning or behavioral needs of many students. This activity prepares teachers to have educational tools ready for use with students. It also requires teachers to give thought beforehand about the instruction they will be conducting with their students.

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SUMMARY

Effective teachers are able to use a variety of instructional accommodations, modifications, and strategies. In recent years, teachers of inclusive classroom have found that instruction of both general classroom students and special needs students is enhanced when best teaching practices are utilized. Instructional accommodations, modifications, and strategies also enhance learning when appropriately employed. The law requires that special accommodations, when needed, be provided students with IEPs and Section 504 plans. Many of these same accommodations work well with general classroom students.

Numerous studies also have noted the importance of time management, allocated time, engaged time, and academic learning time. Effective teaching also depends on good communication between teacher and students. It is important that: (1) student attention be directed toward the instruction being given, (2) teachers be clear in their instructions and explanations, (3) teacher feedback be appropriate to the purpose, and (4) questioning skills reflect good instructional techniques.

Teachers are effective when they make appropriate accommodations during instruction. Test-taking accommodations more accurately assess what the student has learned. Cooperative grading arrangements offer more encouragement and reinforcement for student progress.

Research has addressed students who have low self-esteem, poor study skills, and weak organizational skills perhaps more than other learning problems. These difficulties can be found on a day-to-day basis within most classrooms with students who have learning disabilities, mild intellectual disabilities, and behavior disorders. These particular problems also are identifiable with low-achieving and at-risk learners, as well as other nondisabled youngsters. Practical strategies for dealing with these difficulties include affirming efforts, enabling successful experiences, and planning interventions that meet individual student needs. Direct teaching of study skills and student organizational skills aid students in maximizing their learning potential. Success in the classroom and social acceptance help students to build self-esteem. The classroom atmosphere has a significant impact on learning. Students tend to accomplish more when they have positive feelings about themselves. Curriculum-based assessment enables both the teacher and student to track academic progress.

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